As vegan feminism is a novel and virtually Summaries unknown body of thought and practice in Esto- nia, a further aim of the article was to introduce this stream of feminist thought to Estonian read- ers. Te paper hence discusses the relationship of vegan feminism with other, more established streams of feminist thought in and considers its potential contribution to feminist research and activism in Estonia. Challenging sexism while sup- Te article is based on a paper published in English in the Journal for Critical Animal Stud- porting speciesism: opin- ies (Aavik & Kase 2015). ions of Estonian feminists on animal rights and its links to feminism through a Infuence of place of employ- vegan feminist perspective ment on Estonian men’s plans of having children Kadri Aavik In this article, Kadri Aavik takes as a starting Mare Ainsaar, Ave Roots, point her own everyday experiences as a vegan Marek Sammul, Kati Orru feminist in Estonia and dilemmas stemming Te majority of studies of birthrate focus on from this identity. Relying on critical animal the attitudes and behavior of women. However, studies and vegan-feminist perspectives, she today couples ofen make decisions about having explores connections between feminism and children together and thus it is also necessary to animal liberation and veganism as bodies of study men’s plans about having children. A study thought and everyday critical practices challeng- of Estonian men conducted in 2015 showed that ing powerful systems of domination. Te paper Estonian men up to the age of 54 believe that an examines how 16 key Estonian feminists under- ideal number of children a family should have is stand human-animal relations, whether and over two and they wish to have the same number what connections they see between feminism of children. Only 3% of men did not want to and animal liberation, and how they conceptu- become a father at all. Te majority wanted to alize veganism as an ethical food practice. have either two (48%) or three children (34%). As a signifcant fnding, research partici- In the present article we analyze the link pants challenged sexism while supporting spe- between men’s plans of having children and ciesism, using similar discursive strategies. their satisfaction with their employment and Feminists’ lack of interest in and motivation to the employer’s support to families. Te analysis challenge speciesism could be framed as stra- is based on the data of a study of Estonian men tegic ignorance. Te concept, originating from conducted in late 2014. Te study is a question- critical studies of whiteness, can be understood naire-based representative study of Estonian as actively and consciously produced ignorance men between the ages of 16 and 54. For the that upholds and legitimizes species hierarchy, analysis we used the data about the men who are human exceptionalism and the exploitation of employed and live together with their partners. other animals. Te number of such men in the study was 1167.

122 Ariadne Lõng 1/2, 2016 Summaries

Te results showed that the plans of having “Armukadedus” constructs, from diferent children were associated with demographic perspectives, the relationship between the data. Te men with more frm desire to have representation of women and men and the children were younger and had few children cultural situation of the day and the fxed def- at the time of participating in the study, but nition of femininities/masculinities. desiring to have more, that is, they were men Te analysis focuses on the modern fgure whose desire to have children had not yet been of the “New Woman” and asks whether and fulflled. Behavior related to the birth rate is in what way Semper’s characters – especially also infuenced by social norms. Men who women characters Krista and Herma and the believe that the ideal number of children is protagonist Enn Maiste – support the ideals smaller also desire to have fewer children. of women’s emancipation and “New Woman” Of the characteristics related to work, and how they simultaneously undermine men’s dissatisfaction with their employment emancipatory ideals. Te article also looks at reduced men’s desire to have children, but how the birth of the “New Woman” afected the family-friendliness of the employer or thinking. Among other things, the author workload did not have an efect. Satisfaction considers the “New Woman’s” relationship with employment lost its efect in the family with consumer culture, women characters’ planning model that also included references expectations for themselves and other women to fnancial difculties. Financial difculties and men characters and briefy touches upon reduced the desire to have children and are the modern “new masculinity”. related to satisfaction with work. Te article concludes that the “New Competing activities in life should reduce Woman” was both desired and feared. Tere- the desire to have children, but our results fore, Semper’s women characters are somewhat show that changes in diferent spheres of life spilt, a phenomenon that can be explained increased men’s desire to have children. Men also by more general trends of modernity (e.g. who planned more changes in their lives also the fragmentation of the humanist sense of planned to have more children. the subject, secularization). One of the main aims of the article is also to show how women characters seek “new ways of being”, some- “New Woman” in thing that, in the opinion of many theorists, goes hand in hand with the incorporation of Johannes Semper’s novel characteristics/attitudes conventionally con- “Armukadedus” (1934) sidered masculine. Te article also analyzes the characters’ relationship with arts and the Merlin Kirikal meaning of the woman artist in the context of Te article focuses on the novel “Armukad- the period. edus” (Jealousy) by the Estonian modernist As several of the characters of “Armukade- writer Johannes Semper (1892–1970) that dus” question classical defnitions of feminini- has been excluded from the Estonian liter- ties/masculinities, the novel is a symptomatic ary canon of today. Because of the latter, the text in the context of modernization and shif- article frst introduces the text – its technical ing gender relations. aspects, contradictory reception and the con- text (of gender relations) that surrounded the novel. Te aim of the article is to study how

123 Social grammar of gender and Sock it to the macho man. the role of the student Women and men in Maarja Kangro’s short story collec- Tiiu Kuurme Gender equality is one the grounding principles tion „Hüppa tulle” (Jump of general education. Many international stud- into Fire) ies, however, show that the school context repro- duces both gender stereotypes and gendered Riina Roasto self-positioning. Te article studies how boys Te article studies the representation of men and girls from Estonian schools of general edu- and women in Maarja Kangro’s short story col- cation perceive diferent aspects of school as well lection „Hüppa tulle” (Jump into Fire). As litera- as themselves, their opportunities and the limits ture as a form of art has the ability to question of permissible within the school. Te study of norms dominant in a society, including tradi- high school students conducted within the pro- tional gender norms, the article seeks to fnd out gram “Gender Equality and Life-Work Balance”, whether and in what way the men and women funded by Norway Grants, elicited responses characters in Maarja Kangro’s work interact with from 649 students that provided a multilayered gender stereotypes of today’s Estonian society. picture of students’ gender-marked perceptions Kangro has been chosen for analysis because of of the school and the efect of gender stereo- her socially critical and ironical mode of writing. types on students’ self-perception as students. Te representation of gender has this far been Te theoretical framework of the article intro- studied in Estonia through literary analysis. duces the notion of social grammar that links Te present article provides a methodologically gender and school roles into a unifed pattern novel linguistic analysis of literary data. of behavior. Te material was analyzed with the Specifcally, the article focuses on two help of thematic qualitative content analysis. Te aspects: what are the characteristics and actions discussion takes a closer look at the similarities of men and women characters represented in and diferences in the opinions of respondents of the short stories. Te analysis covers all noun both genders, their self-positioning as the crea- phrases referring to characters. Te analysis tor-subject of actions and changes as well as the is based on Michael Halliday’s (2004) func- limits of freedom and the permissible. We con- tional grammar, specifcally relational processes clude that, as the result of gender stereotypes, describing being and material processes refer- students’ descriptions of school contain more ring to actions. references to gender diferences than gender Protagonists and minor characters are similarities, which culminates in the descrip- clearly distinguished in Maarja Kangro’s short tions of what is normal for both genders. How- stories. Te linguistic analysis demonstrated that ever, the shared role of the student also unites the minor characters are represented in a very students’ desire for change at school. Te neo- stereotypical manner. Descriptions of men stress liberal agenda has not added gender equality to macho attitudes, descriptions of women appear- schools. ance. Men have more important professions, women low-paying ones. However, the protag- onist who is female and describes the events is emphatically non-traditional. For example, the woman protagonist is sexually active, sometimes untypically violent. As the protagonist’s attitude

124 Ariadne Lõng 1/2, 2016 Summaries towards the minor characters is clearly ironical, ization as the image of the “real” man are very their gender-stereotyped world appears some- likely to expect submission and obedience from what pathetic. Tus, characters who embody women and consider them people with fewer unequal gender roles have not been introduced rights. Violence is a means of establishing power by chance or in order to imitate social norms, and control as well as an act securing masculin- but with the goal of ridiculing them. ity that can be practiced by men with a very dif- ferent socio-economic status. Alcohol use helps Estonian men’s violence to demonstrate adherence to the norms of mas- culinity, but it is also a handy excuse to reduce against their intimate part- men’s responsibility for acts of violence. ners Caught by the French Revo- Kadri Soo Te article studies the violence perpetrated lution – fourishing and by 18-54-year-old Estonian men against their destruction of feminism. female partners or wives and the related risk Te example of Olympe de factors. Te empirical data are derived from Gouges (1748–1893) as a the 2014 survey of Estonian men’s attitudes and behavior. Of the 1137 men studied 12% state voice of political feminism that they have used mental, physical and/or sexual violence against their women partners. Tiina Veikat Men’s violence is above all related to socio-cul- Te article aims to introduce a contemporary tural attitudes that support violence. Attitudes of the French Revolution, Olympe de Gouges, that explain and justify hitting women and a brave voice for women’s political rights. De reduce the responsibility of the man help violent Gouges has been written into history above all men normalize their actions and lead to the rep- as the author of the “Declaration of the Rights etition of episodes of violence. Men, who have of Woman and Woman Citizen” that demanded themselves experienced abuse as children, are equal civic rights and duties to men and women. more likely to act violently in their relationships, In addition to diferent pamphlets and essays, de support the man-breadwinner family model and Gouges also wrote many plays and ofen faced gender inequality in sexual relationships. Alco- difculties in getting her socially critical plays hol use is a statistically important factor, but its staged. impact on perpetrating violence is weaker than In writing about de Gouges one has to that of attitudes supporting violence. Men’s labor write about the impact of the revolution that force participation status and the fnancial state shook French society in the second half of the of the household are not related to aggressive 18th century that, at least for a few years, also behaviors in a relationship. meant greater rights to French women than In conclusion, it can be said that men’s under the ancien régime (briefy, for example, violence against women partners is primar- right to divorce, equal treatment of children in ily related to patriarchal values that legitimizes the distribution of inheritance, the abolition of male dominance and privilege as well as double the lettres de cachet, etc.). Under the banner of standards in sexual and family relationships republicanism Parisian women sought the right (but also in the public sphere). Men who have to bear arms, which legally meant becoming a adopted the described stance during their social- citizen with full rights. Women also gathered in

125 diferent clubs that generated a sense of unity and that helped to propagate specifc republican About authors principles and values. In revolutionary France women were active agents in oral and written declarations as well as in taking to arms in a way not seen before. Tis, without a doubt, changed the previous social image of women as fragile and gentle beings whose only place could be at home and presented men with the dilemma of how to return the active women to domesticity. Te rise Kadri Aavik, Ph.D., is sociologist and lecturer of Napoléon and his famous civil code ended in sociology at University. Most of her women’s rights and aspirations achieved during academic research falls into the category of the the revolution. Afer the revolution, the punish- sociology of gender and gender studies. She ment of women ideological leaders was society’s uses and promotes qualitative and intersec- revenge to “male women” who dared to cross the tional research methods. Recently, Kadri has conventional lines and question the Enlighten- started to work on critical animal studies and ment celebration of equal rights that did not live critical university studies, which she approaches up to the ideal of equality in reality. from a feminist perspective. In addition to her academic work, Kadri is also active in Esto- nian civil society in which she promotes gender equality, animal rights and veganism. Contact: [email protected]

Mare Ainsaar, Ph.D., has worked as a researcher and lecturer at the since 1993 and has been an advisor of three Estonian Ministers of Population. She defended her PhD degree in 2004 at the Insti tute of Social Policy at the University of Turku, Finland. Starting from 2003 she has been the Estonian coordinator of the European Social Survey. Her main areas of research are the demographic behavior of people and family policy. Contact: [email protected]

Merlin Kirikal is a Ph.D. candidate in culture research at . Her Ph.D. thesis is dedicated to modernity, the “New Woman” and body in the prose of Johannes Semper. She has also published numerous book reviews in the cultural newspaper Sirp and written creative fction. Contact: [email protected]

126 Ariadne Lõng 1/2, 2016 About authors

Tiiu Kuurme graduated from the University of Ave Roots is a researcher in social policy at the Tartu, with a degree in Estonian language and lit- University of Tartu. She defended her Ph.D. erature, with a specialization in journalism. She degree in sociology at the University of Tartu in defended her Ph.D. degree at the University of 2013. Her main areas of research are stratifca- Oulu in 2004 on the links between ideas of edu- tion and inequality, especially socio-economic cation and students’ school experience. She has inequality in health indicators and access to worked at Tallinn University, as a researcher and heath care as well as gender equality in the labor lecturer, from 1990. She became associate profes- market. sor of educational sciences in 2004. For 11 years Contact: [email protected] Tiiu has been the program director of the cur- riculum of educational sciences. She has been Marek Sammul (PhD) is an ecologist who has involved in gender studies, in addition to her long worked at the Institute of Zoology and other directions of research, from 2009. She was Botany and later at the Estonian University of one of the authors in the frst Estonian textbook Life Sciences as a lab assistant, researcher and of gender studies and has participated in the senior researcher. At the time of the writing of projects curated by the Estonian Women’s Asso- the article and the fnalization of the study of ciations’ Roundtable. She has written numerous Estonian men he was an analyst at the Center texts in the media on issues of education. for Applied Social Research at the University of Contact: [email protected] Tartu where he focused on sustainable develop- ment and gender equality. From 2016 he works Kati Orru has worked at the University of as the head of the personnel development center Tartu and Estonian University of Life Sciences of the University of Tartu. since 2006 as a researcher and sociologist. She Contact: [email protected] defended her Ph.D. thesis in risk management at King’s College, London. In 2016–2017 Kadri Kadri Soo is a lecturer at the Institute of Social is conducting her postdoctoral research at the Studies, University of Tartu. Her main research Department of Psychology at Umeå Univer- topic is violence in human relationships. She sity. Her main area of research is the links has participated in several Estonian and inter- between people’s social and physical environ- national research projects that have focused ment and their wellbeing and the possibilities on gendered violence, child abuse, parenting, of afecting it. sexual and risk behaviors and the wellbeing of Contact: [email protected] children and families. In the projects and in her publications she has covered topics like gender Riina Roasto graduated from the University of roles, masculinity, gender inequality, life-work Tartu with a cum laude M.A. degree in Spanish balance, family policy and labor exploitation. language and literature. She is currently lecturer Contact: [email protected] of Estonian language and culture at Ivan Franko University in Lviv, Ukraine. In addition to lan- Tiina Veikat graduated from Tallinn University guage teaching she is also a translator and has in 2011 with a degree in Romance Studies and published fction translations from Spanish and continued her education in the Master’s pro- Portuguese into Estonian. gram (2011–2014). In 2009–2010 she studied in Contact: [email protected] France at the University of Tours, in 2013–2014 in the Master’s program of the Paul-Valéry Uni- versity-Montpellier 3, focusing on comparative

127 and French literature. In 2015–2016 she studied international relations and diplomacy at the Estonian Women’s Estonian School of Diplomacy. Tiina’s main areas of research are the history and develop- Studies and Resource ment of feminist thought, French feminism and fragment literature. Among women authors her Center favorites, in addition to the classics, are Hélène Cixous and Luce Irigaray. NGO Estonian Women’s Studies and Resource Contact: [email protected] Center (ENUT) was registered in April 1997. It was established by the Women’s Studies Center of Tallinn University of Pedagogical Sciences, Women’s Training Center and the Gender Stu- dies unit at the University of Tartu. Te confe- rence “Estonian Women in Politics,” held in Tal- linn on February 4, 1999, was a key event that marked its launch. ENUT aims to improve the understanding of human rights and support the development of democracy by facilitating the cooperation of men and women in all areas of life and by supporting gender equality. Over the years, ENUT has gathe- red a rich library in the feld of women’s and men’s studies, supported initially by the Canadian Pro- vince of Ontario, Estonian Relief Committee and the Canadian Women’s Issues Project. ENUT is the only center and library of its kind in Estonia. ENUT has long-term collaboration ties with Tallinn University under the roof of which ENUT is situated. ENUT has had many supporters throughout its history: diferent programs of the EU, the Estonian embassies of Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Netherlands, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany and the USA, UN Develop- ment Program, the Nordic Council of Ministers, Open Estonia Foundation, Fr. Ebert Foundation, the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Afairs, Natio- nal Foundation of Civil Society, Estonian Gamb- ling Tax Council, Estonian Cultural Endowment. Te number of visitors to ENUT’s library and events testifes to the increasing interest of Esto- nian women and men in gender issues. From 2000 ENUT publishes Ariadne Lõng, the peer-reviewed journal of women’s and society and debates gender issues in Estonian society. .

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