CREATING A HOME CULTURE FOR THE PHONOGRAPH: WOMEN AND THE RISE OF SOUND RECORDINGS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1877-1913 by Nathan David Bowers BS, Bmusic, Philadelphia College of Bible, 1997 MA, University of Pittsburgh, 2002 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Music in partial fulfillment Of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2007 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH _______ FACULTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by __________Nathan David Bowers__________ It was defended on _________February 9, 2007___________ and was approved by Dr. Deane Root, Professor of Music, Department Chair Dr. Don Franklin, Professor of Music Dr. Mary L. Lewis , Professor of Music Dr. Michael Broyles, Professor of Music Dr. Deane Root, Professor of Music Committee Chairperson ii Copyright © by Nathan David Bowers 2007 iii CREATING A HOME CULTURE FOR THE PHONOGRAPH: WOMEN AND THE RISE OF SOUND RECORDINGS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1877-1913 Nathan David Bowers, Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh, 2007 This dissertation explains processes of change and adaptation undergone by the early phonographs and talking machines, documenting social and musical forces through which consumers and businessmen shaped an in-home culture for sound recordings during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As a force for change in music in the home, the early phonograph embraced middle-class ideologies exemplified in the parlor of the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-centuries in order to create a domestic market. Early phonograph companies realized that women maintained and managed the affairs of the parlor, deciding what items were purchased for display and what activities were morally acceptable. Other responsibilities included controlling the household funds and providing music education in the home. For these reasons, the developing recording industry targeted women as a specific consumer group ensuring the success of the talking machine and creation of an “in-home” culture for pre-recorded music in America, one that continues to affect the way we consume music today. Initially designed as a speech recorder, Edison’s invention was viewed by the majority of Americans as a machine without daily application. Instead, the phonograph needed to be identified as a perfected instrument, a piece of parlor furniture, and a device capable of saving housewives time, labor and money. By providing pre-recorded music in the form of discs, this device replaced playing and singing around the piano in the iv home. Opera arias were featured in the early phonograph advertisements since they represented the “best music,” sung by the “greatest singers,” and provided an instant source of culture, quality entertainment, education and social status for those who purchased the pre-recorded discs. Capitalizing on the “prima-donna” complex prevalent among young women of the time, the early recording industry also promised superior voice lessons by the greatest singers on repeatable discs. Finally, the early phonograph companies placed a high priority on music appreciation. The ability to enjoy “quality music” and discuss merits of a particular piece became an important display of musical ability, one as relevant and refined as actual playing and singing. v PREFACE This dissertation would not have been possible without the assistance of many teachers, colleagues, friends and family members. Although I cannot possibly list every individual who helped bring this project to a conclusion, I want to recognize as many as I can in the following pages. I thank first my dissertation committee for their valuable insights that helped create the final version of this paper. Specifically, I offer my sincerest gratitude to my dissertation advisor, Deane Root, who contributed many hours with countless meetings, many thoughtful questions, unlimited verbal encouragement and editorial suggestions, all of which contributed to an overwhelmingly positive defense. His genuine interest in this project provided not only practical, but also much needed emotional support throughout its many stages. Don Franklin’s care and concern have been exceptional. He was always available to discuss my latest research and life concerns, and his pertinent questions provided priceless guidance in the formation of this topic. From the beginning, Mary Lewis’s insights and comments have proven invaluable, being the first to question the role of women in the history of the early recording industry. And Michael Broyles, whose gentle spirit and straightforward questions offered me renewed energy at crucial points along the way. Furthermore, his work on the historical understanding of art music in the United States provided research vital to this project. I thank the librarians and professors in the music department at the University of Pittsburgh for their many contributions to my graduate school experience. Specifically, I thank Jim Cassaro, head music librarian, for his aid in locating resources and materials, vi and providing direction in my many different research projects; Kathy Haines, for generously providing input as well as unlimited access to the many rare collections in the archive at the Center for American Music—her friendship, insights and encouragement have also proven invaluable; John Harvith, for providing valuable feedback in the early stages of this project, and continuing to make his collection of recordings and related materials available to me. I also thank Charles Reynolds for allowing access to the Edison surveys housed at the University of Michigan Music Library. I thank my family, specifically my parents, David and Eileen Bowers, for their years of support, love and prayers, which sustained me through many dark hours—dad, you are still one of the wisest people I know; Mom and Pop Hallstrom for welcoming me into their family, offering artistic insights and spirited conversation—your unmerited support is priceless; and my many brothers and sisters, Jenn, Katie, Amanda, Robin, Kay, Drew, Josh, Eric, David and Steve, for always putting family first, even when I could not. Some friends deserve special thanks: Glen Meakem, for his refreshing, energetic and positive spirit during the final days of this project, and for helping me see “the light at the end of the tunnel;” Mark Peters, for aid and advice on chapter four, strength of character and work ethic; Sam Hsu, for being the first to realize I was a musicologist; David and Eleanor Shockey, for your love of music and teaching; Kevin Patterson, for our craft brewing partnership—you will never know how much I benefited from those hours spent around the brew pot; the guys in Greenville, Bill, Rob, David, Reggie and Jeff, allowing me to vacate for a day or two in the country without ever requiring anything in return; Ed and Susan Norman along with Mark and Carol Elek for helping me replace my computer halfway through this project; and Jason Grant, Joanna Hasting vii Smolko, Dorcinda Knauth, Sister Agatha; Desmond Harmon; Camille Peters, Daniel Grimminger and Brandi Neal for adding to my years as a graduate student with many thoughtful discussions around both the seminar table and the dinner table. Finally, I thank Joy, my greatest friend and wife for her unbelievable support financially, emotionally and spiritually. Thank you Joy, for working full time, paying our bills, preparing our tax returns, brainstorming with me, pretending to listen as I read paragraphs out loud, and examining various tables and illustrations for clarity and errors. Your commitment to this project and your constant belief in me is the greatest gift you could have ever given me. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT iv PREFACE vi CONTENTS ix LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xiii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 The Topic 1 Overview of Chapters 7 Advertising Myths for the Phonograph 13 History and Use of Terminology 20 CHAPTER 2. EDISON’S MISPLACED PURPOSE: PERSONAL RECORD MAKING CREATES A NOVELTY ITEM 26 The Phonograph as a Novelty Item 27 The Public’s Embrace of the Playback Feature 46 CHAPTER 3. THE PARLOR: WOMEN’S PLACE OF POWER 54 Enabling a Moral Imperative: Idealized Environment 55 “Advertising Progress”: Creating a Market for Female Shoppers 70 CHAPTER 4. THE “FEMINIZED” PHONOGRAPH: A QUALITY ITEM AT A BARGAIN PRICE 98 Introduction 98 A Growing Desire for a Change in the Parlor 100 Lower Prices and Free Trials: The Edison, Columbia and Duplex Phonograph Companies 105 “The World’s Greatest Singers!”: The Victor Talking Machine Company 118 ix CHAPTER 5. PERFECTED PHONOGRAPH: REPLACEMENT FOR PRACTICE IN THE PARLOR 127 Perfected Musical Instrument 127 Perfected Musical Furniture 149 Victor’s Victor-Victrola 150 Columbia’s Grafonola 157 Edison’s Amberola 162 Other Music Furniture 163 CHAPTER 6. “THE BEST FRIEND OF A HOSTESS IS THE VICTROLA”: EARLY TALKING MACHINES MARKETED AS LABOR- SAVING DEVICES 168 The Need for Practical In-Home Products 168 Advertisements for Prepared Food and Cleaning Products 170 Advertisements for Machines and Furniture 175 Advertisements for Talking Machines 181 CHAPTER 7. POPULAR MUSIC THAT IS ALSO GOOD FOR YOU: OPERA ARIAS ARE A SUCCESSFUL RECORDED GENRE 188 Introduction 188 Opera: Democratic Music 190 Democratic Ideology Described 190 Opera Arias Are Popular Music 197 Songs as Commodities 210 “Selling America Music”: Owning a Star 223 “Teaching America Music”: Opera Prima Donnas 233 Women Aspire to Sing 233 Women Need Musical Training 241 Records Offer Superior Music Education 248 Conclusion 258 APPENDICES