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AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT in ARLINGTON, VIRGINIA, from the CIVIL WAR THROUGH CIVIL RIGHTS By

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AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT in ARLINGTON, VIRGINIA, from the CIVIL WAR THROUGH CIVIL RIGHTS By BUILT BY THE PEOPLE THEMSELVES – AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN ARLINGTON, VIRGINIA, FROM THE CIVIL WAR THROUGH CIVIL RIGHTS by Lindsey Bestebreurtje A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy History Committee: _____Dr. Jennifer Ritterherhouse________________ Director _____Dr. Zachary Schrag _______________ ______Dr. Suzanne Smith ________________ _____Dr. Stephen Robertson __________________ ______Dr. Brian Platt _______________ Department Chairperson ______Dr. Cynthia Kierner ________________ Program Director Date: _____March 27, 2017 ____________ Spring Semester 2017 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Built By the People Themselves – African American Community Development in Arlington, Virginia, From the Civil War through Civil Rights A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Lindsey Bestebreurtje Master of Art George Mason University, 2011 Director: Jennifer Ritterhouse, Associate Professor Department of History and Art History for Doctor of Philosophy Spring Semester 2017 George Mason University Fairfax, VA This work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noderivs 3.0 unported license. ii DEDICATION To my loving husband, Justin Rodgers. Nevertheless She Persisted. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this time to thank some of the people who contributed to the success of this dissertation. First and foremost, I would like to thank the many archivists, librarians, and professionals who helped me through the research process. A big thank you to Heather Crocetto and the entire team at Arlington Central Library’s Center for Local History, where I conducted the vast majority of my research. Appreciation goes to John McClure, Laura Gilmour Stoner, and the dedicated professionals at the Virginia Historical Society for their assistance. And finally the staffs of the Library of Virginia, George Mason University (GMU) Special Collections and Archives, and the University of Virginia Special Collections and Archives. I would like to acknowledge the research and writing grants I received which helped to partially fund this process. Thank you to the Virginia Historical Society for their Andrew W. Mellon Fellowship, and to GMU for their Graduate Assistantship, Tuition Scholarship, and Provost’s Award. While these sources of funding helped greatly, throughout my project I had the honor to work in the field of public history at some truly inspiring institutions. I would like to thank a few of the amazing individuals who helped me throughout this process. Paul Gardullo and William Pretzer at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of African American History and Culture, Robert Vay at GMU Special Collections and Archives, Lisa Davidson at the Historic American Building Survey, Sharon Leon, Sheila Brennan, and Joan Troyano at the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, and Jason Martz and the entire “#BOOM” team at the National Park Service. Without the personal, professional, and academic support of each of you this project would not have been possible. Thank you to the members of my committee – Jennifer Ritterhouse, Zachary Schrag, Suzanne Smith, and Stephen Robertson – for their input, editing, and support. A special thank you to my committee chair, Dr. Ritterhouse, for helping to shape me as a scholar iv through M.A. and Ph.D. courses, by taking me on my first research trip, and by working closely with me throughout this dissertation. And to Dr. Schrag, for being a particularly dedicated second reader. Beyond my committee, I would like to acknowledge the broader GMU community. Thank you to all of the inspiring professors with whom I had the privilege to work. Special acknowledgements to Professors Censer, Crew, Petrik, Scully, and Zagarri for their guidance through the doctoral program. Thank you also to my peers in the Ph.D. program for providing a truly collaborative and supportive environment. Thank you to Amanda Regan for her support in the program and invaluable help with my website. Thanks as well to Zayna Bizri, Megan Brett, Gretchen Burgess, Erin Bush, Sara Collini, Eric Gonzaba, Sheri Huerta, Ben Hurwitz, Janelle Legg, Claire Love, Anne McDivitt, David McKenzie, Jordan Patty, Lynn Price, Spencer Roberts, Celeste Sharpe, Nate Sleeter, and Jeri Wieringa. But special recognition must be reserved for Jackie Beatty, in whom I have found a protest buddy, book club partner, 8 a.m. texter, and lifelong friend. Thank you to some of the amazing friends in my life. To Lara Dumont, my lobster. To Liz Looney, Aimee Grimshaw, Katy Smotrys, Jess Wilk, and Tracy Keogh – here is to another decade of long weekends together at the beach. To Kyle Kearney and Jacob Chang, for being an ever present source of laughter. And to the “Fairlington crew” for all the wine tastings, pool days, and game nights that served as welcome distractions. Most importantly, I would like to give credit for the success and completion of this project to my family. To my incredible husband, Justin Rodgers, who helped to keep me sane and motivated through the perfect combination of laughter, reassurance, and movie marathons. To my parents, Anton and Donna Bestebreurtje, who led by example to show me the unparalleled power of hard work and dedication. As my Mom always says: “sharp pencil, sharp mind.” To my sister Katie Koentje, for always being my biggest fan, best friend, and for bringing two delightful men into my life: my brother-in-law Erik and nephew Ryan. To the family I gained through marriage – Steve, Terry, Meghan, and Katy Rodgers – for their love and encouragement. And to the entire Bestebreurtje, Baker, Button, Cantwell, Cash, Fitzpatrick, Jackson, McCormick, Rodgers, and Zirinksy clans: thank you. I love you all enough to never make you read my dissertation. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii Abstract ............................................................................................................................... x Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 About Arlington County................................................................................................ 14 Green Valley .............................................................................................................. 18 Historiography ............................................................................................................... 26 Chapter Outline ............................................................................................................. 41 Chapter One - “Where They Had Lived Undisturbed for Nearly a Quarter of a Century”: Freedman’s Village and the Expansion of Black Arlington, 1860-1900 .......................... 48 Freedman’s Village: The Expansion of Black Arlington .............................................. 51 Hall’s Hill ...................................................................................................................... 63 Problems for Freedman’s Village ................................................................................. 76 The Freedman’s Village Diaspora................................................................................. 89 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 114 Chapter Two - “Suburban Homes… in Sight of the Monument”: Streetcar Suburbs and White Arlington’s Expanding Control, late-1870s-1920s .............................................. 118 Suburban Villages ....................................................................................................... 122 The Era of Good Government ..................................................................................... 134 The Good Citizen’s League and their Clean-Up Campaign .................................... 134 Suburban Boom ........................................................................................................... 151 From Villages to Suburb.......................................................................................... 151 Impacts on Black Arlington ..................................................................................... 160 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 168 Chapter Three - "So That We May Occupy Our Rightful Place": Population Boom and Changing Realities for Black Arlingtonians ................................................................... 171 Multiple Generations of Community Organization .................................................... 173 Federal Employment and Land Boom ..................................................................... 182 vi County-Wide Legal Changes ...................................................................................... 194 Municipal Changes, Zoning, and Planning ............................................................. 194 Impacts on Arlington’s Black Community .............................................................. 199 Racial Conflict ......................................................................................................... 218 Conclusion
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