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Home , Kiritimati, Line Islands, Manra, Phoenix Islands, Tabuaeran, Teraina

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Archaeol. 36 (2001) 146Ð152

Voyaging and basalt exchange in the In this paper, we report on the source of basalt arti- Phoenix and Line archipelagoes: the facts from the Phoenix and Line using wave- length-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (WD-XRF) analy- viewpoint from three mystery islands sis. We tabulate the presently known hard evidence of inter- interaction throughout and inves- ANNE DI PIAZZA and ERIK PEARTHREE tigate the sailing strategies required to conduct these voyages.

Abstract Previous archaeological research in the Phoenix and In this paper, we present evidence of long distance interaction through geochemical sourcing of basalt artifacts for some of the The consist of 3 and 5 raised reef ‘mystery islands’ in the Phoenix and Line groups. We demonstrate islands situated just south of the , between that they were far from isolated, but in contact with , the 2¡48S and 4¡45S and 170¡45W and 174¡37W. They Marquesas and perhaps the southern Cooks during the mid 12th to range from 9 km2 (Kanton or Canton) to 0.5 km2 the mid 14th centuries. We also investigate how sailing strategies (Phoenix) and have a total land area of 29 km2 (Garnett may have affected patterns of interaction through a review of other 1983). cases of inter-archipelago contact based on WD-XRF data. We The archaeology of the Phoenix islands is virtually conclude that the weather patterns around Tataga Matau in the unknown although marae, platforms, shelters, uprights western Pacific allow interaction from any direction at some point and a pond were reported by early visitors to , of the year, while in the eastern Pacific access to the quarry (or Hull) and Kanton (Arundel 1890 cited in sources (Eiao, Pitcairn) is more restricted due to the less pre- Bryan 1942, Ellis 1936:14, Bryan 1942, Bryan cited in dictable westerlies. MacGregor n.d.). The only systematic archaeological descriptions1 come from brief visits by Gordon MacGregor and Henry Bigelow in 1933 and 1939 There are numerous islands scattered throughout respectively. They recorded 71 features on Manra, 18 on Oceania which have archaeological remains but which Orona, and 3 on Kanton including rectangular platforms, were unoccupied at the time of European discovery. marae, paved trails, burials and one basalt adze. Undated These islands were first called the ‘mystery islands’ by surface features on MacKean are reported by Throssell Bellwood (1978). This term is still being used by and Specht (1989). archaeologists (Terrell 1986, Kirch 1988, Irwin 1992, The Line islands consist of 4 atolls and 6 raised reef Weisler 1996). The majority of the mystery islands are islands straddling the Equator2 (Garnett 1983). They atolls and the greatest concentration of them are the 18 extend from 6¡30N to 11¡27S, about 1,100 nautical islands of the Line and Phoenix archipelagoes in the miles3 (nm). They have a total land area of 436 km2 Republic of (Fig. 1). We felt that a study on although with its 321 km2 accounts for most these atolls offered certain advantages. First, they lie of it. The rest of the islands vary considerably in area, outside the hurricane belt, therefore the sites should from about 40 km2 (Malden) to 0.2 km2 (Vostok). have suffered minimal storm damage. They had been The Lines have benefited from more archaeological abandoned, thus we suspected good site preservation. research than the Phoenix group. Holden and Qualtrough Finally, they are amenable to interaction studies. All (1884:21) published a plan of a marae from Caroline artifacts made out of volcanic rocks would have been island and wrote that diggers had found ‘50 imported. graves’ containing ‘stone axes and highly polished green The people inhabiting these mystery atolls have been stones such as are used by the Maoris of , considered to be castaways or as Emory (1943:13) put it and spears of the same description’. Emory reports ‘wanderers from the east’ lost on their way between high marae, tombs, rectangular platforms, mounds, trails, islands (Buck 1938, Emory 1934, Sharp 1956). Yet the paved house sites and numerous artifacts on , basalt exchange reported here demonstrates that Manra Kiritimati and Malden islands (Emory 1934, 1939). A. (or Sydney), Kiritimati (or Christmas) and Tabuaeran (or Sinoto excavated a marae, a tomb and habitation features Fanning) were far from isolated, but instead had some of the widest interaction spheres presently known in 1. These descriptions come from a manuscript by G. Polynesia. The Phoenix islands sphere included Tataga MacGregor with a supplementary report by H. Bigelow Matau in Samoa. The Line islands sphere is larger still housed in the Bernice P. Bishop Museum archives, with a direct link to the Marquesas and an indirect link to . Carson (1998) gives a seriation of architectural the southern Cooks. elements based on this manuscript. 2. Eight of the islands are part of the Republic of Kiribati, while Palmyra and Jarvis are administered by the United CNRS — CREDO, Université de Provence, 3 Place Victor States. Hugo, 13331 Marseilles, France 3. One nautical mile equals 1.85 km.

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Figure 1: The Central Pacific archipelagoes showing the transport of basalt to the Phoenix and Line islands. Major quarry sources are underlined. Solid arrows show basalt transport from quarry source. Dotted line indicates basalt arti- facts from the same source.

on Tabuaeran (Sinoto 1973). Wester et al. (1992) noted John Sinton, Department of Geology and Geophysics, stone walls on (or Washington). Basalt artifacts University of Hawai’i, using procedures discussed in have been recorded from Kiritimati, Tabuaeran, Flint and Sinton and Sinoto (1997) (Table 1). The two cores were Caroline (Emory 1934, 1939, 1975) as well as Teraina essentially identical and gave a good match with the (Finney 1958). Tataga Matau quarry on Tutuila in Samoa. Sinton noted that the best match is from a single flake from the base of Leafu waterfall (collected by E. Pearthree in 1993), Excavation of a prehistoric habitation site on Manra although they are pretty close to the Tataga Matau aver- island age. On hand inspection, all of the flakes appear to be the same material as the cores. During 1997, the authors excavated 118 basalt flakes and 2 sub-triangular basalt cores (one is a reworked adze with 3 ground surfaces) from a habitation deposit and Excavation of a village complex on Kiritimati island trash pit on Manra in the Phoenix islands. Four addi- tional basalt flakes were surface collected at this site. A In June 1999, we rediscovered Emory’s site 3 on charcoal lens in this deposit dates to 730 ± 80 BP (radio- Kiritimati in the Line islands, consisting of several con- carbon years) (Beta 112420). The dating sample con- glomerate slab alignments, a cylindrical block of , sisted of one taxon, Guettarda speciosa. The calibrated etc. (Emory 1934:20Ð21) which we interpret to be com- result4 at 2 sigma is cal AD 1175 to 1405 (Talma and ponents of a marae. We also found additional features, Vogel 1993, Vogel et al. 1993). 100 m to the west, including a canoe house, paved plat- Both cores were sampled for WD-XRF analysis by forms, a cooking area and a lithic debitage zone. The site

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coal sample and charred shell respectively. The Core 1 Core 2 Tataga Tataga Matau calibrated results4 at 2 sigma are cal AD 1295 to 1405 for Matau average the first sample and cal AD 1155 to 1285 for the second (Leafu (J. Sinton, sample (Talma and Vogel 1993, Stuiver et al. 1998). flake) pers. com) Among the basalt artifacts recovered were a tanged adze, SiO2 48.88 49.04 48.64 48.52 triangular at the butt and quadrangular near the cutting TiO2 3.12 3.10 3.12 3.42 edge (Napari), a broken quadrangular adze converted into a pounder (Te Kura A), a small flake adze (Te Io), 5 Al2O3 16.44 16.53 16.27 15.51 oven stones, 3 surface collected flakes (one of which is Fe2O3 13.15 13.10 13.16 13.66 Te Kura B) and 1 excavated flake. The three adzes and MnO 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.18 one flake were submitted to WD-XRF analysis by John MgO 4.65 4.78 4.51 4.79 Sinton (Table 3). Only one match has been found so far. The small flake adze (Te Io) came from the adze quarry CaO 7.31 7.18 7.26 7.54 on Eiao in the Marquesas. The others samples are Na2O 3.85 3.79 3.98 3.76 strongly alkalic basaltic lavas and show some similarity K2O 1.71 1.68 1.77 1.55 to Samoan rocks, but the sources remain unknown at P2O5 0.85 0.85 0.81 0.78 present (Sinton, pers. com.). It appears that they repre- sent three different sources. Sum 100.11 100.21 99.68 99.71 Table 1: WD-XRF analysis (calculated without Loss of Ignition) of two basalt cores from Manra island com- Discussion pared to Tataga Matau quarry samples from the geo- chemical database for Polynesian adze studies at the From the Phoenix islands, Samoa (Tataga Matau) is the University of Hawai’i, by John Sinton. easiest basalt source to reach. It is the closest quarry and more importantly, it lies directly south across the trade winds favoring two-way voyaging (Irwin 1992). Assuming that prehistoric canoes had similar perfor- was dated to 620 ± 60 BP (radiocarbon years) (Beta mance to modern reconstructions such as Hokule’a 141327). The dating sample consisted of charcoal from (Finney 1994), the 580 nm voyage between Manra and one (presently unknown) taxon. The calibrated result4 at Tutuila would have required 6 to 8 days in either direc- 2 sigma is cal AD 1275 to 1425 (Talma and Vogel 1993, tion. This course passes within sight of two other Stuiver et al. 1998). Among the material of interest here, islands: Fakaofo and Swains in the group, we recovered a tanged triangular basalt adze in the canoe which could have served as way points. Therefore the house and 63 basalt flakes mostly within a 15 m2 deb- longest distance out of sight of land is less than 300 nm. itage area. The adze and three unpolished flakes (< 4 cm Similarly, from Tabuaeran and Kiritimati in the northern in length) with striking platforms and no apparent use Lines, the closest source across the wind is the southern wear were submitted to John Sinton for geochemical Cooks. It is possible that the match between the flakes analysis. Two different sources are represented but the and adze from Kiritimati with the flake from Aitutaki quarries are unidentified at present (Table 2). The adze indicate that the southern Cooks supplied basalt to the and flakes 2 and 3 match a flake (sample 3) recovered Lines even though the quarry source lay elsewhere. This from the Ureia site on Aitutaki, in the southern Cooks voyage of 1,250 nm would have required 14 to 18 days (Allen and Johnson 1997:121, table 7.7). Allen and in either direction. An alternative hypothesis is that both Johnson stated that sample 3 was exotic to Aitutaki and Aitutaki and Kiritimati were supplied independently. probably exotic to the southern Cooks (Allen and Interaction across the trade winds was not the only Johnson 1997:121). Our flake 1 comes from yet another option. The Eiao material found on Tabuaeran came unknown source. from a quarry situated 1,310 nm upwind, a voyage which is virtually impossible in a traditional canoe against the prevailing trade winds and could only be Excavation of a habitation complex on Tabuaeran attempted with prolonged west winds. Waiting for such island favorable conditions to sail eastward is a strategy ethno- graphically recorded for the (Dening In August 1999, we discovered an anthropogenic 1963, Finney et al. 1989). deposit with dispersed habitation features and activity The four dates from the four sites discussed above areas along the shore, south-east of the Cable where basalt artifacts were recovered span the mid 12th Station on Tabuaeran. It extends for 1.5 km north to to the mid 14th century. This period is consistent with south and approximately 0.2 km inland east to west. Two the occupation of Ureia on Aitutaki and with the wide- habitation features within this deposit date to 620 ± 60 BP (radiocarbon years) (Beta 141927) and 810 ± 50 BP 4. The C13/C12 ratio was not measured but estimated for cali- (radiocarbon years) (Beta 142178) based on a bulk char- bration purposes at –25 ‰.

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Adze Flake 2 Flake 3 Mean Ureia Flake 1 (adze, flake 2, 3) (sample 3) (Allen and Johnson 1997) SiO2 45.06 45.10 44.99 45.05 44.88 44.18 TiO2 3.71 3.87 3.73 3.77 3.63 4.07 Al2O3 15.20 15.16 15.13 15.16 15.12 12.86 Fe203 15.44 15.65 15.57 15.55 15.80 14.59 MnO 0.20 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.17 MgO 5.23 5.15 5.33 5.23 5.43 7.54 CaO 7.53 7.84 7.57 7.64 7.62 12.87 Na20 4.85 4.72 4.88 4.82 4.98 2.25 K2O 1.48 1.43 1.41 1.44 1.44 1.09 P2O5 0.81 0.88 0.82 0.84 0.89 0.44 Sum 99.49 99.99 99.61 99.69 99.99 100.03 Table 2: WD-XRF analysis (calculated without LOI) of one adze and three flakes from Kiritimati island compared to sample 3 (recalculated without LOI) from Aitutaki in the southern Cooks, by John Sinton.

Te Kura A Te Kura B Napari Te Io Eiao (Marquesas) SiO2 45.93 47.03 47.11 46.79 46.95 TiO2 3.55 3.92 3.29 3.84 3.90 Al2O3 14.63 15.61 13.60 15.18 15.23 Fe203 13.21 11.84 12.76 13.33 13.53 MnO 0.15 0.14 0.17 0.15 0.16 MgO 6.48 5.82 7.99 6.31 6.47 CaO 11.29 9.85 9.75 9.40 9.32 Na20 2.49 3.16 2.68 3.10 3.18 K2O 1.35 1.05 1.55 1.01 1.00 P2O5 0.49 0.55 0.40 0.49 0.54 Sum 99.56 98.97 99.26 99.59 100.28 Table 3: WD-XRF analysis (calculated without LOI) of three adzes and one flake from Tabuaeran island by John Sinton compared to the Eiao quarry in the Marquesas (Sinton and Sinoto 1997).

spread exchange of Eiao basalt within the Marquesas west to be less common, because one direction or the (Rolett et al. 1997, Rolett 1998) and beyond to Moorea other would be against the trade winds. To further inves- and Mangareva (Weisler 1998:529). tigate these predictions, we compiled a table (Table 4) with all the cases (known to the authors) where inter- archipelago transport of basalt is supported by geochemi- Inter-archipelago exchange: the broad picture cal sourcing (WD-XRF and ion microprobe). For each case, the distance, the sailing course and the voyaging In light of the voyages demonstrated above, we would matrix is presented. expect regular basalt exchange to occur across the trade The 2x2 matrix is derived from the average wind winds5. We would also expect two way voyaging east to directions6 experienced by a canoe sailing the indicated

5. Two way voyaging is most likely within a 30¡ arc (75¡ to 6. Wind directions were derived from the Defense Mapping 105¡ off the wind) based on the performance of recon- Agency Weather Chart of the South Pacific Ocean (publica- structed canoes (Finney 1997:42). tion 107, 1990).

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Island where Archipelago Site Quarry Source Distance (nm) and Voyaging Ref basalt artifacts Based on XRF Course from matrix* were recorded analyses quarry source to receiving island

— Temei Tutuila 700 (to Funafuti) A D at 300¡ A U Best et al. 1992:54, 74

Taveuni Ura Tataga Matau 560 at 254¡ D D U U Best et al. 1992:65Ð66,73

Lakeba, Namuka, Lau group Surf. Coll, Tataga Matau 540 (to Lakeba) D D Best et al. 1992:65Ð66,73Ð74 Kabara, Fiji excavation at 243¡ U U Vanua Balavu, Moce, Fulaga

— TO6 Tutuila 490 (to Tongatapu) D A at 211¡ U A Best et al. 1992:65

Atafu, Tokelau — Tataga Matau and 360 at 343¡ A D Best et al. 1992:65 Nukunonu Surface coll. East Tutuila 320 at 347¡ A U Fakaofo — 300 at 354¡

Manra Phoenix Site 3 Tataga Matau 580 nm at 358¡ A A (This paper) A A

Pukapuka N. Cooks Surf. Coll The closest match 340 at 54¡ U A Best et al. 1992:74, 81 is Tataga Matau D A

Mangaia and S. Cooks — Ra’iatea (?) 500 at 230¡ D D Sheppard et al. 1997:104 Rarotonga 570 at 241¡ U U

Rarotonga — Samoa 780 at 123¡ U U D D Sheppard et al. 1997:104

Aitutaki S. Cooks Ureia Society Is. 510 (from D D (Ra’iatea ?) Ra’iatea) at 255¡ U U

Moturakau Tutuila 700 at 113¡ U U Allen et al. 1997:125,126 D D

Mau’ke S. Cooks - Samoa 880 at 114¡ U U Sheppard et al. 1997:104 D D

Kiritimati Line Site 3 Unknown, matches 1250 (from A A (This paper) a flake from Aitutaki) at 6¡ A A S. Cooks

Tabuaeran Line Te Io Eiao 1310 at 122¡ D D (This paper) (Fanning) U U

Mo’orea Society Te Amaama Eiao 769 at 224¡ D A U U Weisler 1998:523,527

Mangareva Gambier Rikitea Eiao 945 at 160¡ A U Weisler 1998:525 Kamaka GK-1 Eiao A D

Henderson Pitcairn — Mangareva 325 at 105¡ U U Weisler 1996:624 D D Weisler 1997:164 Table. 4: Inter-archipelago interaction in Polynesia based on WD-XRF of basalt artifacts. Sources labeled Tutuila refer to quarry sites other than Tataga Matau. *In the voyaging matrix D = Downwind, U = Upwind and A = Across the wind.

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course (Upwind, Downwind or Across the wind7) in the and is indirectly attested by the recovery of artifacts from austral summer and winter. The left column is for the same source in both places, although the quarry February and the right for August. The top row is for remains unknown. On the other hand, the closest basalt voyages away from the quarry and the bottom row for sources to Tabuaeran and Kiritimati are in the Societies voyages toward the quarry. The voyaging matrix presents and Hawai’i -both of which lie to windward- and to date only the prevailing trade winds, ignoring the less fre- there is no evidence that they participated in interaction quent westerlies (including both annual and El Nino with the Lines. Further geochemical work on potential westerlies) used to sail eastward (Finney 1985). Matrices sources, particularly in the Society islands may help to with an across the wind component (A) allow easy two match the 5 unknown sources represented in our collec- way voyaging during part of the year. Eight of the 17 tions from Tabuaeran and Kiritimati. The demonstrated cases presented in the table fall in this category although link between Tabuaeran and Eiao is evidence of long dis- only one link (ManraÐTataga Matau) allows voyaging in tance interaction against the wind. Sharp (1956) would all seasons (AAAA). The other nine cases, which have have argued that this represents a one way accidental no across the wind component, preclude regular two way voyage from the Marquesas. More likely perhaps would voyaging using the trades and require a wait for westerly be a three way voyage (to use Irwin’s term) from the winds. In the 5 cases (DDUU) — if people from the Marquesas to the northern and onward to the receiving islands did the sailing8 — they would have Lines (Irwin 1992), but the simplest course would be for waited on their home island for westerlies to visit the a Line islander to make a two way voyage during an El quarry. They need only stay at the quarry until the trades Nino event. resume, usually a matter of days. In the remaining 4 cases (UUDD), crews sailing downwind on the trades to the quarry would have had to wait there for westerlies. Acknowledgments It is worth noting that there is hard evidence of basalt transport to islands downwind (DDUU) of four quarry This research was financially supported by the Sous- sources (Tutuila, Rai’atea, Eiao and Pitcairn), and to Direction des Sciences Sociales, Humaines et de islands upwind (UUDD) of only the Tutuila source. A l’Archéologie du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, possible explanation is that voyagers, reluctant to wait on Paris and the Centre de Recherche et de Documentation a foreign island, tend to favor upwind quarries or quar- sur l’Océanie (CREDO), laboratoire du CNRS, ries (such as Tutuila) in the western Pacific where the Marseille. Permission to work in the Phoenix and the annual wind shift caused by the Australian monsoon is Line islands was granted by Tamaetera Teaotai, director more predictable and stronger than it is further eastward of Um’anibong (Kiribati Cultural Center), island, (Irwin 1992). In East Polynesia, sailors voyaging down- and the Ministry of Line and Phoenix islands wind to a quarry would have to rely on the less pre- Development, Kiritimati. Additional assistance was dictable winter westerlies associated with frontal systems given by the Wildlife Unit and the Tourism Office, or the even rarer El Nino events to return home (Finney Kiritimati. We would also like to express our warm et al. 1989, Irwin 1992:96Ð97). thanks to the people of Kanton, Tabuaeran and Kiritimati without whom our work would have been much more difficult, and to John Sinton for WD-XRF analyses and Conclusion thoughtful comments.

Sailing strategies help us to better understand or even predict the likelihood of interaction between various References archipelagoes. The demonstrated link between the Phoenix islands and the quarry source at Tataga Matau is Alkire, W.H. 1965. Lamotrek and inter-island socio-eco- foreseeable because they lie directly across the wind nomic ties. Illinois Studies in Anthropology 5, University of from each other and Samoa is the closest source of Illinois Press, Illinois. basalt. Similarly, interaction across the wind between the Allen, M.S. and Johnson, K.T.M. 1997. Tracking ancient pat- northern Lines and the southern Cooks is to be expected terns of interaction: recent geochemical studies in the south- ern . in M.I. Weisler (ed.), Prehistoric Long- Distance Interaction in Oceania: an Interdisciplinary 7. Upwind is a sector 150¡ wide, 75¡ on either side of the true Approach. New Zealand Archaeological Association wind. Across the wind is represented by two sectors 30¡ Monograph, 21:111Ð133. wide, from 75¡ to 105¡ either side of the true wind. Arundel, J.T. 1890. The Phoenix group and other islands of the Downwind is a sector 150¡ wide, 105¡ to 180¡ either side of Pacific. Paper read before the Geographical Society of the the true wind. These figures are derived from the perfor- Pacific, , 3rd March 1885. New Zealand mances of sailing canoes after Lewis (1975) and Finney Herald, July 5 and 12, Auckland. (1997). Bellwood, P. 1978. The : Prehistory of an Island 8. Oral traditions indicate that it was sailors from low islands People. Thames and Hudson, London. who voyaged to high islands rather than the contrary Best, S., Sheppard, P., Green, R. and Parker, R. 1992. (Alkire 1965, Gladwin 1970, Lewis 1975) Necromancing the stone: archaeologists and adzes in

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