AN ANALYSIS OF CHINESE EFL LEARNERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT THE ROLE OF ROTE LEARNING IN VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES Xiuping Li A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Sunderland for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April 2004 iii To my dear parents, for their understanding and support ii ABSTRACT This study sets out to investigate Chinese EFL learners’ beliefs about the role of rote learning (RL) in vocabulary learning strategies. The focus of the study is Chinese EFL learners’ culturally-influenced beliefs about their preference for RL strategies as opposed to other memory strategies (MSs). Based on the literature, there is a widely held belief that Chinese EFL learners rely on RL and that they are passive learners. Although recent studies (e.g. Bond ed. 1996; Kember 1998; Kennedy 2002), have offered reinterpretations of the values concerning RL from Confucian heritage cultures (CHCs), no specific or systematic study appears to have been carried out to focus on RL to discover precisely how and why Chinese learners hold the belief that they rely on RL. What is more lamentable, there is no clear description of the features of RL and almost no consensus in the literature of which memory category RL exactly belongs to. This study addresses the need for a concrete understanding of the role of RL in EFL vocabulary learning by looking at Chinese EFL learners’ own beliefs. This study has four main aims: (1) to promote a concrete understanding of the concept of RL in the literature; (2) to explore Chinese EFL learners’ culturally- based beliefs about their preference for RL strategies; (3) to offer a challenge to widely-held beliefs that Confucian culture is a negative influence on learning; (4) to offer guidance to EFL teachers/researchers who are interested in Chinese EFL learners’ memory strategy choice and use. The data for the study was obtained through three instruments---questionnaires, interviews and an English vocabulary test. The subjects were 100 Chinese learners in the English Department at a large University in the Northeast area of China. To confirm the results of the study and to show their generalisability across China, open- ended questionnaires were also administered to Chinese university teachers from different parts of China as “advanced learners”. The data was analysed using descriptive analysis, Condorcet’s method, Kendall’s W, content analysis, chi-square, triangulation and factor analysis. The main hypothesis (Chinese EFL learners believe that RL strategies are preferable to other memory strategies for learning and memorising vocabulary. They hold positive beliefs about RL, because they consider iii RL strategies to be consistent with traditional Chinese culture and values.) are supported by both quantitative and qualitative results. The findings of the study indicate that Chinese EFL learners generally hold highly positive beliefs about RL in EFL vocabulary learning because they believe that this form of RL---an integration of repetition, memorisation, practice, including reviewing and understanding---suggests consistency with traditional Chinese culture and values. The results also suggest that there is significant difference between the learners who hold positive beliefs and those hold negative beliefs about RL. A factor analysis of the 28 items on their beliefs showed the current situation for Chinese EFL learners, reflecting traditional Chinese learning strategies (Active CHC-based MSs; Repetition with perseverance strategies; Repetition with association strategies; Memorisation through practice strategies; Exam-oriented MSs and Repetition to enhance better use of words strategies), which serve as the features that could characterise Chinese EFL learners. Six factors (Chinese educational/cultural background; EFL environment; traditional habit; national situation/examination demand; Chinese linguistic background/the way of learning mother tongue; and Failure to try out “best” strategies) were identified relating to the reason why RL was so popular and why there continues to be a reliance on RL in China. The responses from teacher questionnaire ascertained the generalisability of the findings. The findings of the study indicate that Confucian heritage learners’ use of RL actually involves far more complex processes than have been supposed to be the case. Thus, the researcher suggests a new term “Active Confucian-based MSs” to distinguish these strategies from passive RL. The subjects’ beliefs also suggest that they believe RL is an effective way of learning EFL vocabulary, but not the best way. However, the findings suggest that their belief that RL is consistent with Chinese culture and values tends to override other considerations. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express her gratitude to Dr Joan Cutting and Dr Elizabeth Atkinson, her supervisors for their encouragement and guidance throughout the research. Without their well-designed plan and meticulous review of the draft, this research would have been impossible. The author would also like to acknowledge and express her appreciation for the statistical assistance and advice of Dr Malcolm Farrow. The author is also indebted to the Chinese EFL teachers and students for their assistance in collecting the data for this study. Most of all, the author has been fortunate in having the incisive comments, critical ideas, advice and encouragement from those research experts, for example, Dr Paul Meara (famous linguist); Dr Chris Bowerman and Dr Felicity Breet (her second supervisors); Dr John Tait, Dr Siobhan Devlin, Dr Susan Mandala (mock viva panel members). Thanks are also due to Dr Paul Kelley (the head of Monkseaton Community High School and Language College), and Mr Mike Butler (the head of Modern Languages at Monkseaton Community High School and Language College), who provided feedback and offered proof reading on a draft of this thesis. Without their help, the entire effort would not have been as complete and as finely tuned as it has come to be. The author also would like to express her special gratitude to Dr Martin Cortazzi (external examiner) and Mr Steve Whitley, and Dr Joe Elliott (internal examiners) for their invaluable comments on this thesis. The author especially highly appreciates the valuable opinions from Dr Elizabeth Atkinson for the final draft. Thanks are also due to many good friends whose interest in this research was a constant source of encouragement and confidence to the author. v CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv List of Contents v List of Tables xv List of Figures xvii Bibliography 290 Appendices 315 vi Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1 Background to the study 1 1.1.1 General considerations about language learning strategies 3 1.1.1-1 Importance of vocabulary learning strategies 4 1.1.1-2 Importance of memory strategies 7 1.1.1-2 (1) Definition of Rote learning (RL) 8 1.1.1-2 (2) Rote learning as repetition, practice and memorisation 10 1.1.1-2 (3) Differences between CHCs and Western understandings of “RL” 13 1.1.1-2 (4) Taxonomy of memory strategies 15 1.1.1-3 Classification & definition for the purpose of data analysis of memory strategies 19 1.1.1-4 Oxford's eight factors influencing the choice of language learning strategies 22 1.1.2 Importance of studying learners' beliefs 23 1.1.2-1 Definitions of belief 23 1.1.3 The relationship between culture and beliefs 26 1.1.3-1 Definitions of culture 26 1.1.3-2 Chinese culture 28 1.1.4 Beliefs about Chinese EFL learners and RL 30 vii 1.1.5 The necessity and importance of the present study 33 1.2 Purpose of the whole study 34 1.3 The research questions 36 1.4 The organisation of the study 37 1.5 The value of the study 38 Chapter Two: Review of the relevant literature 40 2.1 Reviewing major findings concerning language learner beliefs and strategies 41 2.1.1 Horwitz's research 41 2.1.2 Wenden's research 43 2.1.3 Gu and Johnson's research 45 2.1.4 Sakui and Gaies' research 46 2.1.5 Yang's research 47 2.1.6 Summary 49 2.2 Beliefs about the role of RL in VLSs 52 2.2.1 Negative view of RL 52 2.2.2 Positive view of RL 57 2.2.3 Summary 62 2.3 EFL learning in China 63 2.3.1 Historical background 63 2.3.1-1 The role of EFL in China 63 2.3.1-2 EFL learning history in China 66 viii 2.3.1-3 Textbooks and resources 70 2.3.1-4 Traditional methods and results 73 2.3.1-5 Method reforms 75 2.3.1-6 Limitations on Chinese EFL learners 78 2.3.1-7 Summary 79 2.3.2 The influence of the Chinese linguistic background on EFL VLSs 80 2.3.2-1 Some characteristics of the Chinese language 80 2.3.2-2 The influence of the methods of learning Chinese on English vocabulary acquisition 83 2.3.2-3 Summary 87 2.3.3 The influence of cultural/educational background 88 2.3.3-1 Confucianism 89 2.3.3-2 The relationship between Confucius and RL 90 2.3.3-3 The Imperial examination system and its development 95 2.3.3-4 The influence of traditional Chinese culture on approaches to learning 101 2.3.3-4.1 A brief concluding summary 111 2.3.3-5 A close look at the cultural feature of Chinese EFL learners through Confucius' sayings and maxims 111 ix 2.3.3-6 Confucian influence on communicative strategies 123 2.3.3-7 The continuing benefit of Confucian-based culture 125 2.3.3-8 RL and pedagogical reform 127 2.3.3-9 Summary 128 2.4 Hypothesis 130 Chapter Three: The Methodology of the study 132 3.1 Method 132 3.1.1 What this study is about 132 3.1.2 Subjects and settings 134 3.1.2-1 Subjects 134 3.1.2-2 Selection 134 3.1.2-3 Subjects' background 135 3.1.2-4 Teachers’ background 138 3.2