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Muslims in Eastern Europe EGDŪNAS RAČIUS MUSLIMS IN EASTERN EUROPE THE NEW EDINBURGH ISLAMIC SURVEYS SERIES EDITOR: CAROLE HILLENBRAND Muslims in Eastern Europe The New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys Series Editor: Carole Hillenbrand Contemporary Issues in Islam Asma Asfaruddin Astronomy and Astrology in the Islamic World Stephen P. Blake The New Islamic Dynasties Clifford Edmund Bosworth Media Arabic Julia Ashtiany Bray An Introduction to the Hadith John Burton A History of Islamic Law Noel Coulson Medieval Islamic Political Thought Patricia Crone A Short History of the Ismailis Farhad Daftary Islam: An Historical Introduction (2nd Edition) Gerhard Endress A History of Christian–Muslim Relations Hugh Goddard Shiism (2nd Edition) Heinz Halm Islamic Science and Engineering Donald Hill Muslim Spain Reconsidered Richard Hitchcock Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations to Contemporary Practice Mawil Izzi Dien Sufism: The Formative Period Ahmet T. Karamustafa A History of Islam in Indonesia Carool Kersten Islamic Aesthetics Oliver Leaman Persian Historiography Julie Scott Meisami The Muslims of Medieval Italy Alex Metcalfe The Archaeology of the Islamic World Marcus Milwright Twelver Shiism Andrew Newman Muslims in Western Europe (4th Edition) Jørgen S. Nielsen and Jonas Otterbeck Medieval Islamic Medicine Peter E. Pormann and Emilie Savage-Smith Muslims in Eastern Europe Egdūnas Račius Islamic Names Annemarie Schimmel The Genesis of Literature in Islam Gregor Schoeler The Quran: A Historical-Critical Introduction Nicolai Sinai Modern Arabic Literature Paul Starkey Islamic Medicine Manfred Ullman A History of Islamic Spain W. Montgomery Watt and Pierre Cachia Introduction to the Quran W. Montgomery Watt Islamic Creeds W. Montgomery Watt Islamic Philosophy and Theology W. Montgomery Watt Islamic Political Thought W. Montgomery Watt The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe W. Montgomery Watt www.edinburghuniversitypress.com/series/isur Muslims in Eastern Europe Egduˉnas Racˇius Edinburgh University Press is one of the leading university presses in the UK. We publish academic books and journals in our selected subject areas across the humanities and social sciences, combining cutting-edge scholarship with high editorial and production values to produce academic works of lasting importance. For more information visit our website: edinburghuniversitypress.com © Egdūnas Račius, 2018 Edinburgh University Press Ltd The Tun – Holyrood Road 12 (2f) Jackson’s Entry Edinburgh EH8 8PJ Typeset in 11/13pt Baskerville MT Pro by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire and printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 4744 1578 1 (hardback) ISBN 978 1 4744 1579 8 (paperback) ISBN 978 1 4744 1580 4 (webready PDF) ISBN 978 1 4744 1581 1 (epub) The right of Egdūnas Račius to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 (SI No. 2498). Contents List of tables, boxes and maps vii Glossary of Islamic terms viii Foreword and acknowledgements xi 1 Autochthonous Islam of Eastern Europe – populations, practices, institutions 1 Statistics 1 Practices 9 Institutions and authorities 15 2 Historical overview 23 Mongol-Tatar invasion of Eastern Europe and its consequences 24 Russian possessions in Eastern Europe and its Muslim population 28 Ottoman possessions in South-eastern Europe 36 3 North-eastern Europe 45 The Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and its legacy 45 Russia 51 Ukraine 61 The Baltic States 66 Belarus 72 Moldova 75 4 Successor states of Yugoslavia 78 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and its legacy 78 Bosnia and Herzegovina 83 Montenegro and Serbia 92 Kosovo 100 Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 104 Slovenia and Croatia 109 5 South-eastern Europe 113 Albania 114 Bulgaria 119 Romania 128 vi Muslims in Eastern Europe 6 Central Europe 135 Poland 136 Hungary 139 The Czech Republic and Slovakia 141 7 Islam in Eastern Europe, Eastern European Islam: new faces, new challenges 145 Foreign actors 150 Assimilation, emigration (depopulation) and immigration 153 Converts 157 Radicalisation 159 8 Considering the other side 164 Notes 171 Bibliography 173 Index 182 Tables, boxes and maps Tables 1.1 Muslim populations in Eastern Europe 3 1.2 Largest East European ethnic groups of Muslim background 7 1.3 Spectrum of forms of Islamic religiosity in Eastern Europe 16 1.4 Mosques and other prayer facilities in Eastern Europe, estimates 18 1.5 Institutions of Islamic religious education in Eastern Europe 21 7.1 Eastern European Muslims in England and Wales, arriving between 2001 and 2011 155 7.2 Refugee quotas according to the EU resettlement and relocation scheme from 2015 156 7.3 Eastern European converts to Islam, as of the mid-2010s 158 7.4 Eastern European muhajirun in the Middle East, beginning of 2016 162 Boxes 1.1 Bektashism 11 1.2 Salafism 14 2.1 Nazi intermezzo 43 3.1 The Chechnya case 60 Maps 1.1 Current confessional distribution in Eastern Europe 5 2.1 Successor states of the Golden Horde 25 3.1 Ethno-confessional composition of the Caucasus 52 4.1 Ethnic composition of Yugoslavia and Albania 80 Glossary of Islamic terms ishq ‘longing’, a seminal category in Sufi Islam, denoting the mutual longing for each other of God and man dawa ‘invitation’, ‘calling’, missionary activities aimed at either convert- ing non-Muslims to Islam or attracting Muslims to a particular interpretation of it dar al-harb ‘abode of war’, the territory ruled by non-Muslims dar al-islam ‘abode of Islam’, the territory ruled by Muslims in accordance with the Islamic law dervish a mystic, member of a Sufi brotherhood dhikr ‘remembrance’, as a rule, collective meditative devotional ritual in Sufism aimed at bringing believers closer to God dhimmi ‘protected’, non-Muslim inhabitant of a Muslim-ruled polity who is obliged to pay a poll tax for which she/he is granted (physical/ military) protection by the Muslim polity fiqh jurisprudence, theoretical and practical explication of the Divine Law of Sharia fuqaha legal scholars and jurists, theoreticians and practitioners of fiqh hijab head-covering worn by Muslim women, usually in the form of a scarf hijra ‘emigration’, relocation from a non-Muslim ruled land (dar al-harb) to a land ruled according to Islamic law (dar al-islam) jamaat ‘collective’, formal or informal group, congregation or commu- nity of like-minded or otherwise bound Muslims jami cathedral mosque, a purpose-built mosque with a dome and a minaret, where Friday communal prayer complete with sermon takes place khalifa viceroy (of God), the supreme administrative leader of the Muslim commonwealth (umma) khanaqa Sufi lodge, ‘convent’ khilafa ‘viceroyship’, political system and form of governance of Muslim polity; also ‘Islamic polity’ madhahib classical Islamic legal schools of thought, originally comprising four Sunni, three Shii and one Khariji Glossary of Islamic terms ix madrasa religious high school, historically the traditional system of second- ary education majlis ‘assembly’, council, a collective body of religious or lay officials maktab religious primary or prep school, usually mosque-based and informal masjid ‘place for bowing’, prayer space, mosque, a converted or purpose- built building without a dome and without or only a symbolical minaret meshihat branch office of the collective body of religious officials mihrab niche in a wall of a mosque facing Kaaba in Mecca mufti in the classical understanding, a legal adviser who, upon usually written request, issues non-binding legal opinions, fatwas; the modern usage of the term denotes the top rank in the Islamic spiritual-administrative institution, formally or informally called the ‘muftiate’ muhajir one who has made a religious emigration, hijra, from a non- Muslim ruled land (dar al-harb) to a land ruled according to Islamic law (dar al-islam) mujahid one who engages in jihad, spiritual and physical efforts to protect, augment, strengthen and spread Islam murid ‘seeker’, adept, follower of a shaykh, member of a Sufi brotherhood musalla ‘place for prayer’, prayer hall, prayer space in a non-designated building nikah Islamic religious marriage ceremony presided over by a religious official niqab face-covering female attire worn by conservative Muslim women and attire of choice among Wahhabis and Salafis qadi judge, judicial official, usually state-employed, issuing binding legal verdicts reis ul-ulama ‘head of the learned men’, chairman of the collective body of religious officials rijaset ‘headship’, executive branch of the collective body of religious officials sadaqa voluntary alms-giving shaykh elder (‘abbot’) of a Sufi convent (tekke, khanaqa, zawiya)/brother- hood (tariqa) Sufi person or aspect (belief, practice, and so on) of the mystical dimension of Islam, Sufism tabligh ‘conveying’, spreading of Islam by missionary activities encom- passing both converting non-Muslims to Islam and attracting Muslims to a particular interpretation of it taqwa ‘fear of God’, piety x Muslims in Eastern Europe tarbiyya (religious) education, both formal and informal tariqa ‘path’, Sufi brotherhood with its distinct chain of leadership and regulations tasawwuf Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam tekke Sufi lodge, ‘convent’ umma ‘community’, ‘group’, commonly used to collectively refer to the commonwealth of the world’s Muslims waqf property or business set off for charitable purposes zawiya Sufi
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