Social Movements and Inclusive Peace in Nepal Mukta S

Social movements and inclusive peace in Nepal Mukta S. Tamang Over the last two decades, a number of collective actions by different social groups have given rise to social movements as significant forces in the Nepali socio-political landscape. In their efforts to influence a new future for the country, these movements have explicitly challenged the prevalent political power structure in Nepal that has been dominated largely by males belonging to a section of the hill Bahun and Chhetri (‘high caste’) groups, while also contesting the imposition of symbols, rituals and meanings that legitimise inequality in the country. Four major mobilisations have made significant strides agreed between the Communist Party of Nepal- in rallying their constituents to attract the attention of Maoist (CPN-M) and the Seven-Party Alliance (SPA) the state: by women; by Dalits (‘low caste’); by Madhesis of political parties, and the promulgation of an Interim (from the southern Tarai plains); and by Adivasi Janajati Constitution in 2007. Nepali political parties agreed (indigenous peoples). Other social movements have to the restructuring of the state and to electing a protested against specific issues of injustice and representative Constituent Assembly that would write discrimination, including anti-slavery movements a new constitution. Mobilisation by marginalised social opposing various forms of bonded labour – kamaiya, groups was elemental in introducing issues pertinent to kamlahari and haliya – and the peasants’ movement their respective interests in both the CPA and the Interim led by landless farmers. More recent examples of Constitution, including in relation to proportional inclusion mobilisation have reacted to and resisted inclusive in state structures. change. These latter instances reflect an attempt to reassert the dominant ideology and institutions, and This article outlines the evolution of the four major social include the identity movement associated with the Khas movements mentioned above: their key agendas and Arya (‘upper caste’ Hindu groups with origins in the strategies that led up to the 2006 People’s Movement hills – see below), the pro-monarchy movement, and and beyond; their successes and failures; the fissures the ultra-nationalist movement. among the different movements; and the challenges they face. The social movements’ calls for equality, justice and The Second People’s Movement of 2006 heralded inclusion have had a positive role in deepening democracy important changes in Nepal, particularly the and inclusive peace in Nepal, but there remains work to Comprehensive Peace Accord (CPA) later that year be done to prevent a slide back into acrimonious division. Two steps forward, one step back: the Nepal peace process // 97 Evolving social movements analysis of the persistent patriarchy in Nepal, as well as – agendas and strategies the intersection of differentiated experiences of women Janajatis, Dalits, Madhesis and women have led the current belonging to historically marginalised communities. wave of social movements. These groups participated in the First People’s Movement of 1990 that brought The first attempts at resistance by women go back as about the reinstatement of democracy and opened up early as the beginning of the twentieth century. The Nari space for organised collective action. Prior to that, when Samiti (Women's Committee) was formed in 1918 by the the autocratic monarchy was firmly in power and was social reformer and religious ascetic, Yogmaya, is believed severely suppressing dissent, social movements had been to have played a crucial role in the abolition in 1920 of disparate. But after 1990, the articulation of their agendas sati – the tradition of Hindu women being burnt alive on against long-standing grievances and their mechanisms the funeral pyre with their dead husbands. Yogmaya also of mobilisation became more robust. Mainstream political advocated the abolition of untouchability. parties at that time remained largely oblivious to the growing aspirations of these movements or viewed them Political parties established in the 1940s to fight against the as peripheral. They were focused primarily on regime autocratic Rana rule set up women’s wings and, although change and opening up space for party politics, using the women’s participation in the parties remained largely rhetoric of class liberation and development. The parties nominal, their involvement in political struggle marked saw issues of language, gender, caste and ethnic equality an important threshold. The big victory of voting rights for as secondary and believed that social equilibrium would women was achieved in 1951, but these organisations also come automatically with modernisation. raised other important issues such as the right to education for girls, the end of child marriage and polygamy, and Nevertheless, social movements in the 1990s were freedom for widows to remarry. pioneering in transforming Nepal’s public debate and raised issues fundamental to deepening democracy: Like all movements, the women’s movement during the social and economic inequality, linguistic and cultural partyless Panchayat period remained tightly controlled. rights, secularism, caste- and ethnicity-based Many women leaders were simply co-opted by the state- discrimination, and recognition of diversity and identity. sponsored All Nepal Women’s Organisation. After the 1990 The first victory of social mobilisation could be seen in political change, the women’s movement became divided the recognition of Nepal as a multi-ethnic and multi- along political lines. Also, practically all the women’s lingual country in the 1990 Constitution. But despite wings of the political parties and other state-supported this, the actual materialisation of the principle of women’s organisations were led by the wives and relatives diversity remained disappointing. The Janajati and of powerful politicians and bureaucrats, and predictably Madhesi movements, therefore, demanded the federal represented the ‘upper-caste’ elites of Nepali society. restructuring of the state as a counter to centralisation and a guarantee of regional autonomy. The work of women scholars and professionals nevertheless contributed substantially to raising the profile Strategies adopted by social movements over the past of the situation of Nepali women and the need for changes 25 years have gone from gentle pleading to nationwide in government policies and programmes. The milestone strikes and acts of outright rebellion. While the different 1981 study by Meena Acharya and Lynn Bennett, The Status social groups share a common narrative and collective of Women in Nepal, provided first-hand information on the memory of marginalisation, their distinctive experiences role and status of women in households and society for and relationships with the state have translated into unique developmental planning. trajectories of resistance. The priorities, commonalities, variations, alliances as well as cleavages among different The availability of foreign funding led to the proliferation social movements are best understood in their respective of NGOs after 1990, and, notwithstanding all the associated historical contexts. strengths and weaknesses, this external support became an important part of women’s mobilisation. Women’s Women’s movement: groups were formed, and income-generating activities and gender equality and inclusion awareness-raising were extended even to remote corners The women’s movement began in earnest from the 1950s of the country. NGO activities also fostered research on and alongside the wider political push for democracy. It has media advocacy for the rights of women. now expanded to include a larger section of women and a broad-based agenda of gender equality and social Nepal ratified the Convention on the Elimination of inclusion. Over time it has also incorporated a sharper All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) 98 // Accord // ISSUE 26 Women members line up at the opening of the first Constituent Assembly, 27 May 2008. © Kiran Panday in 1992 without reservation, marking a landmark for have on their lives and prospects. For example, only women’s rights in Nepal. Increased engagement with the recently has been there growing recognition of the fact international human rights community helped to legitimise that Dalit, Madhesi and Janajati women suffer from and expand the horizons of campaigning for women’s patriarchy as well as these other forms of discrimination rights. The adoption of the 1995 Beijing Declaration and arising out of their identity. Platform for Action was significant for both state and non- state actors. The subsequent UN mechanism for periodic Adivasi Janajati movements: from review of CEDAW and the Beijing Declaration proved to anti-imperialism to self-determination be an important way of keeping up the momentum of the Adivasi Janajati, or ‘indigenous nationalities’, are also movement as well as monitoring progress on the promises referred to as ethnic groups in Nepal and comprise made for promoting women’s empowerment. around 40 per cent of the total population of the country. Mobilisation by Janajatis can be divided chronologically The involvement of a substantial number of young women into four major stages of resistance along the timeline of from rural Nepal in the Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist’s state formation. The first anti-state movements by various (CPN-M) ‘People’s War’ was another significant point in the Janajati groups came in response

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