Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective
Program Authors Action Learning Systems, Inc.
Robin Scarcella, Ph.D., Hector Rivera, Ph.D., and Mabel Rivera, Ph.D. English Language Development Isabel L. Beck, Ph.D. and Margaret G. McKeown, Ph.D. Vocabulary Penny Chiappe-Collins, Ph.D. Decoding
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 1 99/27/08/27/08 111:00:441:00:44 AMAM Welcome to Gateways from our English Language Experts As educators today we know more about developing effective materials to teach English to English language learners (ELLs) than ever before. More specifically, we are able to address the critical needs of these students in ways that are grounded in proven practices and responsible research. We choose to be affiliated with Gateways because these grade-appropriate materials are tailored to meet the needs of English language learners. This program was tested with diverse groups of English language learners— those who have just arrived in the United States, those with educational gaps, those highly literate in their first languages, those not literate in any language, and those who have ceased to make much improvement in learning English over many years. Throughout the testing, these materials appealed to teachers and students alike. Most importantly, Gateways, based on research and proven effective teaching practices, helps to accelerate learners’ development of English in real classrooms with real students. This program helps to get English language learners into core-curricular instruction quickly, where they can continue to acquire the academic, content-specific language skills needed to succeed in life and, if students so choose, in higher education.
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NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2 110/16/080/16/08 44:23:56:23:56 PMPM Mabel Rivera, Ph.D. } English Language Acquisition, Level 1A “Similar to other groups of students who also experience academic difficulties, ELLs require effective, empirically-based instructional approaches and interventions to support their development of academic skills and English proficiency. Therefore, instruction must include the most effective approaches to accelerate their academic content learning as ELLs also develop their English oral language proficiency.”
Hector Rivera, Ph.D. English Language Acquisition, Level 1A } “ELLs face potential difficulties related to higher-order language processing, such as unfamiliar vocabulary or understanding complex linguistic structures. Research indicates … there are critical components that we can integrate in our everyday classroom practices in our efforts to assist students in their academic development.”
Robin Scarcella, Ph.D. } English Language Acquisition, Level 1A “English language learners have an enormous challenge. They need to learn English at the same time they acquire content knowledge. They need a rigorous, leveled, common, comprehensive, and intensive curriculum designed to meet their needs.”
Gateways An effective program designed to meet the needs of English language learners and accelerate their academic and oral language development.
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 3
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 3 99/27/08/27/08 44:46:36:46:36 PMPM Research-Based Instructional Recommendations for English Language Learners
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NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 4 99/27/08/27/08 111:06:081:06:08 AMAM The following six instructional recommendations are proven to be effective in accelerating academic achievement of English language learners.
Build Decoding Skills pages 1} 6-9 ELLs need early, explicit, and intensive instruction in phonological awareness and phonics in order to build decoding skills.
Develop Sophisticated Vocabulary pages 2} 10-15 K-12 classrooms across the nation must increase opportunities for ELLs to develop sophisticated vocabulary knowledge.
3} Guide Comprehension and pages Analysis of Challenging Texts 16-19 Reading instruction in K-12 classrooms must equip ELLs with strategies and knowledge to comprehend and analyze challenging narrative and expository texts.
} Promote Reading Fluency pages 4 20-21 Instruction and intervention to promote reading fl uency must focus on vocabulary and increased exposure to print.
5} Engage in Structured, pages Academic Talk 22-23 In all K-12 classrooms across the U.S., ELLs need signifi cant opportunities to engage in structured, academic talk.
6} Structure Purposeful pages Independent Reading 24-25 Independent reading is only benefi cial when it is structured and purposeful, and when there is a good reader-text match.
pages Contrastive Analysis Chart 26-32
Bibliography Inside Back Cover
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 5
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 5 99/27/08/27/08 44:47:25:47:25 PMPM 1 Build} } Decoding Skills
ELLs need early, explicit, and intensive instruction in phonological awareness and phonics in order to build decoding skills.
esearch has made it clear that explicit, intensive decoding instruction to R exercises in sightword memorization ensure success. or context will not address decoding problems. Rather, older students require hen providing such instruction, well-structured, transparent instruction in W it is critical to keep in mind phonological awareness and in decoding that some students may have already strategies (Chiappe-Collins 2010). experienced several years of below-level This is especially true for ELLs with reading and may need to be persuaded underdeveloped phonological awareness that such instruction is worthwhile and phonics skills who have difficulties and relevant. This can be achieved by decoding and reading unfamiliar words. providing engaging, fast-paced instruction Regardless of age or first language, that teaches decoding skills missed in the students facing these obstacles need primary grades. Moreover, it is crucial that explicit and systematic instruction these lessons be integrated with frequent (Rivera and Rivera 2010). reading and writing experiences with texts that are both fundamentally decodable deally, educators will start interventions and age-appropriate. Such instruction can I early and not wait until students have promote accuracy and fluency in word developed their English oral-language reading, which in turn will enable students proficiency. Verbal proficiency is unlikely to devote their cognitive energy to the to remediate difficulties in understanding essential aim of reading—comprehension the underlying sound structure of the (Chiappe-Collins 2010). language. Thus, delaying intervention until children gain increased proficiency in English is not a good practice (Rivera and Rivera 2010). Students must receive early,
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NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 6 99/27/08/27/08 111:08:051:08:05 AMAM Gateways provides decoding skills early, explicitly, and intensively.
Program Level 1A1B234 Phonemic Awareness a. Phoneme identifi cation, including counting phonemes in words; distinguishing initial, fi nal, and medial phonemes; and matching initial, fi nal, and medial sounds in spoken words b. Phoneme blending c. Phoneme segmentation d. Phoneme manipulation, including phoneme addition and deletion, grade 1; phoneme substitution, grades 1-2; phoneme reversal, grades 2-3 Phonological Awareness a. Recognizing words in sentences b. Segmenting words into syllables c. Detecting rhymes d. Blending onset/rime Phonics a. Alphabetic principle, including letter identifi cation in kindergarten, and sound- letter matching b. Grapheme/letter-sound correspondences, including letter combinations for individual phonemes (e.g., ci, ge, wh, e, oa, igh, _ck, and a_e) Decoding and Word Recognition (Attack) Skills a. Word structure and fl uency, including rapid naming (colors, objects, digits, and letters) b. Sight word reading c. Blending single and multisyllabic words d. Recognizing common patterns automatically, including consonants, short vowels (e.g., CVC words and other short-vowel syllable patterns), digraphs, and trigraphs (e.g., _tch and _igh) e. Consonant blends, long vowels (CV syllables), and vowel digraphs f. Vowel diphthongs and r- and l-controlled vowels g. Advanced syllable patterns in multisyllabic words h. Word analysis, including word origins and meaning (morphology, syntax, and semantics)
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NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 7 99/27/08/27/08 111:08:501:08:50 AMAM 1 Build} } Decoding Skills
Gateways helps English language learners “crack the code” to decoding skills. Gateways’ decodable readers provide students with a sophisticated design, scaffolded practice that solidifies phonics skills, and incrementally increased text complexity to improve fluency. These recurrent elements support students as they increase their understanding, ability to apply skills with automaticity, and confidence—in other words, “cracking the code” to phonics skills mastery.
CHAPTER 1 • LESSON 3 Linking Standards and Instruction DEVELOPING Gateways Standards In This Lesson Reading: Match spoken words to print words. Students match spoken words to words printed in STEP STEP 2 their Anthology and in their Student Practice Book VOCABULARY activity. Reading: Identify and classify basic categories of words. Students classify categories of words related to “Guts: TR-18 Our Digestive System” by participating in a word chat. Reading: Use context clues to resolve ambiguities about word Students use context from “Guts: Our Digestive Anthology Practice Transparency and sentence meanings. System” to figure out word and sentence meanings. 15 min. Book Literacy Instructional Objective &Language Coach CORRECTIVE Students learn three new vocabulary STEP The choice of words in this step If an answer does not seemCHAPTER to 1 BUILDING promotes the use of language in words: ridged, intricate, and texture. be related to the vocabulary WORD SKILLS a variety of contexts. Here you will word, ask students to explainLESSON 3 find words that can be used across 1. Developing Vocabulary is the step further. If students respond in a 3 disciplines. in the lesson in which we learn new way that shows understanding words that improve our ability to of the word, congratulate them Review Focus Sounds Many researchers maintain that communicate both in speech and and move on. If students “the following types of words are respond in a way that does not characteristic of academic English: in writing. show understanding, restateWrite the letter or letter pattern of each sound that you hear. general words that are used across the explanation and ask the academic disciplines (as well as in 2. Today’s objective for Developing everyday situations outside of academic Vocabulary is to learn three new question again. LESSON 3 UNIT 2 settings), technical words that are used vocabulary words: ridged (rijd), CHAPTER 1 in specifi c academic fi elds, and non- a a_e ay o o_e oa i_e ie u ue e ea Review lessons 1 and 2 intricate (IHN truh kiht), and texture 3. The first word we will learn today technical academic words that are used (TEHKS chuhr). across academic fi elds.” is ridged. Follow along in your —Accelerating Academic English, Anthology as I read the text aloud. Robin Scarcella Instructional Routine In the selection, the author describes 1. ay 2. ie 3. u 4. o_e 5. ue 6. oa the intestinal walls as ridged. A English Language Learners Introduce Vocabulary ridged surface is usually flat with It is important to know the language 1. Turn to page 54 in your Anthology. raised strips that lie side by side. 7. a 8. i_e 9. a_e 10. e 11. o 12. ea level of each of your English language Look at Lesson 2 Vocabulary. In Everyone, say ridged. (ridged) learners. Many teachers forget that Lesson 2, we learned the three intermediate or advanced students vocabulary words: automatically, Structured Student Interaction Blend Focus Sounds (who sound like they have mastery churn, and essential. of everyday English) still need explicit Discussion Frames instruction in vocabulary development. 2. Now look at Lesson 3 Vocabulary on Write the following discussionPut your finger on each dot. Slide your finger across the arrow as you say the page 55. Today we will learn three frames on the board. Systematic ELD instruction is rare sounds. Blend the sounds together. new vocabulary words from and “at the advanced levels, depriving A is ridged students of the opportunity to master about the selection “Guts: Our because . the academic language necessary to Digestive System,” by Seymour 1. rose 2. bike 3. shake 4. team compete in higher education academic Simon. Encourage lively but focused A is not ridged contexts.” discussion as you introduce each because . Gale’s Birthday —Rethinking English Language new word. Instruction, Susana Dutro and Discussion Structure Carrol Moran Which would you describe 5. true 6. even 7. zero 8. tray It is Gale’s birthday. She is nice. as ridged, a grassy field or a Jay made Gale an ice cream cake in plowed field? Explain. (Possible answers: A plowed field is the shape of a lime with her name ridged because has raised strips on it. Jade gave Gale some pale lace. of dirt lying side by side; A 9. lady 10. tie 11. race 12. hose Spike made Gale a blue hat. Blake grassy field is not ridged because is flat.) gave Gale a pet mole. Bea gave Gale a ticket to ride twice on a huge slide. 13. sea 14. coat 15. rude 16. blue Gale thanks them again and again. 60 CHAPTER 1 • LESSON 3
NLG_TGD1B2_U2C1L3_FF.indd 60 9/30/08 1:05:57 PM Teacher teaches skills.
Students practice
CAI_SPB1b_1_U2C1L3_FF.indd 195 1/2/08 12:47:53 PM skills in Practice 43 Book. CAI_ANT1b_U2_C1_DEC_CP.indd 43 12/4/07 2:04:04 PM Students apply skills in reading.
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NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 8 99/30/08/30/08 77:11:51:11:51 PMPM Gateways Decodable Text Criteria • 75% previously taught letter-sounds • 20% previously taught high-frequency words • 5% other
Sophisticated design honors students at all grade levels.
Unit 1, Chapter 2, Lesson 5 Decodable
LESSON 5 UNIT 1 wh, ng, sh, th (/th/ and /TH/) CHAPTER 2
Songs
Ding, ding, dong! The bells sing a song. This song is old. When Mom was a kid, she sung this song. She sings lots of songs. Ding, ding, dong! When we sing new songs, I can sing along. Ding, ding, dong! New Fish
Josh and his pal Chang wish to get new fi sh. Josh must dash to a shop for fi sh. When can Josh take a break? Now Josh has Math. Then Josh is in a show. When will Josh get new fi sh?
22 23
CAI_ANT1B1_U1_C2_DEC_CP.indd 22 12/4/07 2:02:27CAI_ANT1B1_U1_C2_DEC_CP.indd PM 23 12/4/07 2:02:35 PM Designed scaffolding ensures students’ success. Unit 3, Chapter 2, Lesson 5 Decodable
LESSON 5 UNIT 3 al (fall), eigh (eight), CHAPTER 2 ol (cold), wa (wash)
Gold Bars
“Did you see the morning paper yet?” asked Colt. “Which paper?” said Walt. The Sleigh Ride “The Daily Call.” “Not yet. What did it say?” Snow covers the ground. It is time for a “A load of freight fell off a bridge,” said Colt. sleigh ride! The sleigh holds eight people. Each “What is the freight?” boy and girl bought a ticket to ride on the “It is eighty-eight old gold bars.” sleigh. One by one they walk to the sleigh and “Wow!” Walt cried. “That must weigh a ton!” jump in. “I bet it sunk down deep in the river.” Waldo puts his hands in his pockets to keep “We should fi nd it!” warm. It is cold outside. As the sleigh glides “Good plan, Walt. Then we can wash it and take through the woods, a girl calls out, “Hold on to it back to the people who own it,” said Colt. your seat! Don’t fall!” “Maybe they will give us an old gold bar as Sleigh bells ring as the reins shake. Waldo a reward!” begins to sing a winter song. Everyone else joins in. Even the horse neighs! What a fun sleigh ride!
94 95
CAI_ANT1b_U3_C2_DEC_CP.indd 94 12/4/07 2:08:07CAI_ANT1b_U3_C2_DEC_CP.indd PM 95 12/4/07 2:08:08 PM Text complexity increases in proportion to phonics skills mastery.
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 9
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 9 99/30/08/30/08 77:12:21:12:21 PMPM 2 Develop Sophisticated Vocabulary} }
K-12 classrooms across the nation must increase opportunities for ELLs to develop sophisticated vocabulary knowledge.
hen learning a new language, the sophisticated, academic language to W students tend to pick up informal participate fully in the core curriculum. conversational language first, particularly The gap widens with time as native in schools when peers can speak freely English speakers are exposed to richer in social settings such as in the cafeteria vocabulary while ELLs are frequently or on the playground. In class, however, presented with materials in simplified English language learners often struggle language rather than the sophisticated to keep up with their peers and seem language that they need for academic to lose ground quickly. Dr. Isabel Beck success (Cummins 2003). and Dr. Margaret McKeown suggest that these students are losing ground because oo often, vocabulary instruction they lack the sophisticated vocabulary T for English language learners necessary for academic success. For these emphasizes conversational English over students, as well as for native English rigorous academic vocabulary, virtually speakers, vocabulary instruction is most ensuring that English language learners’ productive when it focuses on words of academic language remains significantly general utility that are common across small. Vocabulary instruction should domains. These are words that ELLs center upon understanding the differences are unlikely to learn independently yet between conversational and academic represent concepts with which they are language, showing how words relate to familiar (Beck, et al. 2002; Carlo, et al. one another and can be transformed into 2004; Dutro and Moran 2003). Even after other words, and exploring the various they’ve developed a core base of English levels of word knowledge, including the language and vocabulary, many ELLs need to apprehend multiple meanings of a fall behind because they do not have single word (Rivera and Rivera 2010).
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NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 1010 99/27/08/27/08 111:14:271:14:27 AMAM Students develop sophisticated vocabulary and keep it in action.
Gateways tackles the vocabulary gap by offering a variety of strategies to help students practice, discuss, and deepen their understanding of high-utility vocabulary and academic vocabulary, thus increasing and strengthening students’ reading, writing, and oral participation.
English language learners can activate high-utility vocabulary and academic vocabulary. English language learners and native speakers alike understand the concept of something being good, whether they call it “buena” or “good.” Since English language learners will likely learn the word “good” on their own, the word “superb” is a better choice for instruction. In addition, class discussions will naturally give them academic words, such as “question,” to help them express more skillful observations and evaluations of their reading, writing, and speaking.
¡Buena Good pregunta! question! Superb question!
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NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 1111 99/27/08/27/08 111:16:441:16:44 AMAM 2 Develop} } Sophisticated Vocabulary
Gateways offers rich and relevant vocabulary instruction that English language learners can use for a lifetime. Gateways goes beyond instructing and practicing a word. This program integrates vocabulary through the multiple layers of hearing, seeing, using, discussing, and writing vocabulary throughout the day. Language-rich opportunities enable students to actively use and maintain newly acquired vocabulary. Engaging read-alouds, discussion topics, vocabulary games, writing activities, and graphic organizers are daily tools used to increase word mastery. Plus, Structured Student Interactions provide multiple encounters with vocabulary, providing students with a strong, flexible knowledge of words and giving teachers a quick way to assess student comprehension.
tudents need [multiple] exposures to a word and S its meaning, across multiple contexts (different texts, classroom discussions, writing activities), in order to gain deep understanding of a word.”
–Hector Rivera and Mabel Rivera
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P M 10/24/07 5:24:43PM 2 Develop} } Sophisticated Vocabulary
Increased exposure to academic vocabulary leads to increased academic achievement.
In addition to sophisticated oral vocabulary and elevated word choice, Gateways also provides explicit instruction in the academic vocabulary required to be successful in a school environment. Because sophisticated academic vocabulary is embedded into each lesson, students gain a thorough understanding of common academic terms used in all core-curricular instruction—and a variety of ways to think about the accompanying texts.
Academic vocabulary addressed in each lesson is featured in the Teacher’s Lesson Overview.
Academic Vocabulary
UNIT 1 In This Lesson: Planning My Day (5 min.) Students preview the learning objectives for the day. CHAPTER 1
STEP 1 Making Connections (10 min.) accuracy Students: Listening and Speaking: Ask relevant questions and respond to queries with LESSON • connect what they already know to the letter “The appropriate elaboration in oral settings. Listening and Speaking: Summarize spoken messages and formal presentations. Teacher of One” by Barbara Henry. Listening and Speaking: Interpret a speaker’s verbal and nonverbal messages, character • discuss what makes people in “The Teacher of One” purposes, and perspectives. admirable. 3 conventions OVERVIEW STEP 2 Developing Vocabulary (15 min.) Students learn four new vocabulary words: Listening and Speaking: Use details, examples, anecdotes, or experiences to explain or extraordinary, dazzling, acclaim, and intrepid. clarify information. edit Listening and Speaking: Clarify and support spoken ideas with evidence and Transparencies examples. TR-7 TR-31 TR-8 TR-32 fluency STEP TR-26 TR-33 3 Practicing Fluency (15 min.) TR-27 TR-34 Students: Reading: Read aloud a variety of texts with appropriate fluency, accuracy, pacing, TR-28 TR-35 intonation, and expression. TR-29 TR-38 • read aloud part of “The Game Ball” with fluency by TR-30 TR-39 narrative focusing on accuracy and pacing. • learn how to find chart fluency progress. Blackline Masters pacing A-5 A-6 STEP 4 Building Word Study Skills (30 min.) Students: Writing: Correctly spell simple words that have blends, contractions, compounds, Academic Vocabulary In This Lesson: plot • review, practice, and spell compound words. orthographic patterns, and common homophones. • understand the spelling homework assignment. accuracy character conventions prewrite STEP 5 Reading for Understanding (40 min.) edit fluency Students: Reading: Use appropriate strategies, such as full comprehension, location of information, and personal enjoyment, when reading for different purposes. narrative question • review on and under-the-surface reading. Listening and Speaking: Summarize spoken messages and formal presentations. pacing • learn to use the reading strategy Summarizing Reading: Identify the main events of the plot, their causes, and the influence of each event on future actions. plot prewrite sentence question STEP 6 Applying the Conventions of English (20 min.) sentence Students: Writing: Use simple and compound sentences in writing and speaking. setting setting • review understanding of nouns and verbs. summarize • understand and identify subjects and predicates title and use them in sentences. write summarize Complete Academic Dictionary appears in STEP 7 Writing with Purpose (40 min.) Student Practice Book. title Students: Writing: Create multiple-paragraph compositions that provide an introductory paragraph, establish a central idea with a topic sentence, include supporting • review stages of the writing process. paragraphs, and conclude with a paragraph that summarizes the points. • use a narrative frame to complete a first draft about something they did that was admirable. write
Reviewing My Day (5 min.) Students review the learning objectives for the day. Complete Academic Dictionary appears in
CHAPTER 1 • LESSON 3 83 Student Practice Book.
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14 Gateways
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NLG_TGD301_C1L3_083_122_FF.indd 83 9/30/08 2:07:50 PM cademic English entails more than the linguistic A dimension. It also involves cognition. For instance, readers must think about text in order to interpret it.”
–Robin Scarcella
Academic Dictionary in the Practice Book provides a quick reference for students.
Academic Dictionary
a clarify to determine meaning of unknown accuracy vocabulary or unclear ideas reading words, phrases, and passages correctly coherence the arrangement and connection of details analysis in a text so that they make sense to the the separation of something, such as text, reader into parts in order to study the whole compare and contrast argument to compare is to look at how two or more a statement that expresses a point of view things are similar; to contrast is to look at about a topic how two or more things are different
controlling idea b a one-sentence summary of an boldface interpretation which helps to organize a special type used to emphasize or composition highlight a word or words conventions rules that support the correct spelling and c grammar of a language cause and effect the cause is the reason something happens; the effect is the result of e something happening edit to correct spelling, grammar, and caption punctuation errors explains what is shown in a picture or illustration evaluating ideas to examine the kinds of support a writer character has used a character is a person or an animal in a story evidence facts and details that support an idea, conclusion, or opinion
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Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 15
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 1515 99/30/08/30/08 77:45:20:45:20 PMPM 3 Guide Comprehension and Analysis} } of Challenging Texts
Reading instruction in K-12 classrooms must equip ELLs with strategies and knowledge to comprehend and analyze challenging narrative and expository texts.
ffectual comprehension instruction and anything they might know about the E for ELLs must be direct, explicit, specific text or its topic. This also gives and systematic. It must actively engage them the opportunity to check and reflect students in self-monitoring and in carefully on their predictions. selecting comprehension strategies as they read. Additionally, students must learn Clarifying: Monitoring understanding to recognize how to adjust the process during reading cues ELLs to recognize for the type of text, its format, and the when their comprehension breaks reasons for reading it. There are several down and to identify the knowledge techniques that are used to promote active (e.g., of a vocabulary word or a content reading and engagement with a text. Four concept) that they need to repair their techniques that have been shown to be comprehension. effective are the following: (1) making predictions consciously before reading, (2) Questioning: By questioning as monitoring the clarity of understanding, they read, ELLs actively engage in (3) asking questions during reading, and self-monitoring and are able to reflect (4) summarizing what has been read after upon their use of strategies during the reading (Rivera and Rivera 2010). comprehension process.
Comprehension Strategies with Summarizing: Having ELLs summarize Research-Based Relevance to what they have read requires that they English Language Learners synthesize the information to differentiate more important from less important Predicting: When ELLs make predictions information (Action Learning Systems before reading, they must recall what they 2003). know about the type of text to be read
16 Gateways
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 1616 99/27/08/27/08 111:21:391:21:39 AMAM Gateways focuses on the comprehension strategies—Predicting, Clarifying, Questioning, Summarizing.
Graphic organizers of all comprehension strategies provide visual schemata for English language learners. Parallel graphic organizers used in narrative and expository texts show students how to adjust strategy application for the type of text being read.
Reading Tree Summarizing
R DING FO STEP REA NG REA STANDI DING FO UNDER R UNDER STA CHAPTER 1 NDING CHA PTER 1 1 Summary STEP LESSON Text: 5 LESSON 1 5 Tree Reading Tree: Expository
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ace: vidence, Surf redict with e he- infer, p Question #1 r-t ulate, larify de spec n Text: ds to C Un ect, opinio Wor onn ly an to c , imp Que lyze stion #2 ana k Questi 1. Make a quic Prediction #1: on #3 prediction.
• Unit 2 a word Textual Evidence: k 2. Look for Practice Boo x, Practice Book ending, prefi • Unit 1 or root word. 3:36 PM suffi x, 1/19/08 1:4
CCAI_SPB20AI_SPB201 1_C1L1_00_C1L1_ 001-1-011_CP011_C of P.i.indd 9 e part 258 ndd 9 3. Identify th Summary: speech. Under-the- 9 Surface .indd 258 how, why, wo On _251-262_CP uld, co -th B202_C1L1 uld, a e-Su CAI_SP nd sh who rface ould , whe r clues in re, when ed 4. Look fo Question #1 , and what happen ther 1/17/08 11 pictures or o :28:41 AM
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Practice B ook • Unit 2 • Unit 1 Practice Book
CCAI_SPAI_SPB2B201_C3L1_165-175_CP. 352 01_C3L PMPM 1_165-1 /08 2:30:392:30:39 75_CP.iinddn 1/19/081/19 dd 173173 173 Practice Book • Unit 2 363
352 54_CP.indd _C2L2_342-3 CAI_SPB202
1/17/ 08 4:32 Clarifying CAI_SPB202_C2L3_355-366_CP.indd 363 1/19/08 2:54:29 PM :01 PM Predicting Questioning
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 17
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 1717 99/27/08/27/08 111:22:111:22:11 AMAM Guide Comprehension and 3 Analysis} } of Challenging Texts
Scaffolded comprehension instruction promotes student-motivated success. The following elements of the instructional design support English language learners in successfully developing their use of comprehension strategies.
Can endangered animals be saved? Reading selections are aligned to theme-based instruction. 2 Chapter 1 Living Underwater 86 Swimming Upstream: The Salmon Situation 88 Orcas on the Edge 94 Pollution and Marine Life 100 Coral Reef: A City That Never Sleeps 108
Chapter 2 Life in the Forest 112 Animal Recovery 114 Jane Goodall: Living with the Chimps 122 Life in the Amazon Rain Forest 128 Elephants: Our Last Land Giants 138
Chapter 3 At Home in the Cold 142 Life on Ice 144 Witness Stories 156 Out in the Cold 162
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UNIT 2 BEFORE YOU READ CHAPTER 3
Before You Read
Prereading instruction builds ReadingRe Focus
Genre Expository background knowledge. An expository text informs the reader. This type of text includes facts and details. Expository texts are nonfi ction texts.
Reading Strategy Questioning To question is to explore information by making thoughtful inquiries. It is important to know how to ask questions. Being able to ask questions and provide the answers about the text shows a good understanding of what has been read. Questioning helps us make predictions about information the text may reveal.
Reading Skill Questioning for Compare/Contrast To compare is to look at how two or more things are similar. To contrast is to look at how two or more things are different.
Compare and contrast is on-the-surface information that compares and contrasts READING FOR P CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTANDING TE Who, Where, When, and What Happened information. S 5 LESSON 1
Topic Introduction Text Feature Focus Text: Build Background: Title, Subtitle A title is the main heading used to identify a text. Topic: Gail Blasser Riley A subtitle is a secondary title that tells more about the text.
Titles can be used to predict what the text will be about. Titles can also be Related Terms: The term I know most about is: used to tell the reader what the visual aids in the selection are about. 1. Activate Prior Knowledge What I know: Good readers think about what they already know and add to it. 2.
What Do 3. YOU What do you predict “Life on Ice” will be about? Think? 4.
144 5.
6.
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Prereading instruction elicits 88.
9. student prior knowledge. 10.
Practice Book • Unit 2 237
18 Gateways CAI_SPB402_C1L1_231-240_FF.indd 237 1/18/08 4:11:08 PM
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 1818 110/11/080/11/08 11:17:4711:17:47 AMAM CHAPTER 1 READING FOR UNDERSTANDING LESSON 2 STEP 5
STEP READING FOR READING FOR CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING UNDERSTANDING Action must be taken to protect salmon, and STEP 5 LESSON 2 LESSON 2 Notes this responsibility belongs to the government. 5 In addition, fishermen should only be allowed NotesThe first step the government should take to 3. Who can make sure thatto the fish during fishing seasons. These seasons are fishermen were honestly reporting Saving the Salmon prevent salmon extinction is to regulate the already set, and anyone caught fishing off-season Notes their salmon catch? 2 1. Where do the salmon live?number of fish that can be caught. Currently, should be fined. If the person has too many 5. What does the aut Part 2 of 2 hor say should there are rules about the size of nets the violat happen to people Pacif ic ions, he or she should caught fishing off- lmon population in the fishermen can use, but this is not enough. be forbidden from seas The sa fishing in the are on? ries has grown a again. Then, if h Northwest over the last few centu Fishermen should have to report the number of e or she still ame. refuses to obey, there sh ller, and humans are to bl salmon they catch. Monitoring this number will ould be jail time. These smaller and sma new government joy eating salmon. It’s regulations sho A lot of Americans en ensure that there are plenty of adults to spawn. uld also set up a fat needed reward system for those who r and the good kind of eport violators. high in protein Furthermore, government inspectors can In co very healthy food. This nclusion, it’s import for solid nutrition. It’s a make sure that the fishermen report the correct ant that new Practice Book selections or salmon on regulations be put in there’s a huge demand f 4. Would these government regulations place to help sustain is why number of fish caught. Any extra fish over the salmon the bles. Unfortunately, the populations in th this country’s din ner ta limit will be thrown back. Once the maximum work? e Pacific Northwest. ave been terribly The salmon are in troubl the Pacific Northwest h e, and the main rea 6. Do rivers of in number of salmon have been caught in the area, for this son the author’s ideas convince you? encourage student types of salmon is overfishing. The b overfished. Four of the five the fishermen would have to move elsewhere or est solution is for Why or why not? angered Species the government to control the number area are on the federal End of fish the n they could even start a fish farm if they needed caug ent regulation of salmo ht, enforce fishing sea list. More governm more fish. sons, and punish extinction. violators. These l interaction with text. ent salmon aws will fishing is needed to prev help make sure that y cut the numbers el about there are plent Overfishing has greatl 2. How does the author fe y of nutrient-rich salmon t n in o enjoy ime when salmo ing salmon fishing? at dinnertime for centuries to of salmon. There was a t regulat come. re thriving. Over 16 the Pacific Northwest we n the Columbia River million wild salmon lived i Now there are only How does this author ershed in the mid-1800s. propose Wat k and to help the salmon p populations of Chinoo opulation around 160,000. The recover? en totally wiped salmon have almost be Sockeye s. Moreover, overfishing out in the last fifty year Without large ls too many adult salmon. kil salmon to spawn each year, the numbers of adults
will completely die off.
control regulation
248 Practice Book • Unit 2 247 Practice Book • Unit 2 it 2 Practice Book • Un
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Analyzing Visuals
What does the presence of the jaguar tell you about this forest?
Can endangered animals be saved?
112 113
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UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4
• Students learn to successfully • Students independently utilize each of the key utilize each of the key comprehension strategies comprehension strategies. with teacher modeling. • Extensive use of modeled choral • Minimal use of modeled choral reading is provided for students. reading is provided for students. • Minimal use of independent • Extensive use of independent reading is provided for students. reading is provided for students.
Student Teacher Responsibility Responsibility
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 19
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 1919 99/27/08/27/08 111:26:091:26:09 AMAM 4 Promote} } Reading Fluency
Instruction and intervention to promote reading fluency must focus on vocabulary and increased exposure to print.
any ELLs who struggle with t is critical that students be provided M reading comprehension have I with well-written texts featuring grade- fluency difficulties even though their level appropriate language, for these can reading rates are within the average range. give students access to the full register of These learners are not likely to improve English that is used in academic writing. their fluency through phonics instruction, Students can utilize these texts to develop nor do they require more practice learning and ultimately master the vocabulary, the code or increasing their decoding rate. grammatical structures, phraseology, In fact, students whose decoding skills are and rhetorical devices associated with automatic can devote greater cognitive that register (Fillmore and Snow 2000). resources to comprehension of the text. Thus, through repeated modeled and oral When readers encounter a word meaning reading, students increase their fluency they do not know or do not understand skills. One distinct advantage of repeated in the context of the passage, reading oral reading is that it compels the reader rate and fluency decrease. In this case, to slow down and focus on each word. comprehension influences fluency even Concurrent advantages to this are the if decoding is automatic. These students’ opportunities to increase vocabulary and difficulties reflect underdeveloped to practice reading and speaking with vocabularies and an insufficient exposure appropriate intonation and expression to print. Research indicates that these (Francis, Rivera, et al. 2006). students would benefit from an increase in exposure to printed matter and comprehensive activities that incorporate oral reading practice, constructive feedback, discussion, and questioning (Francis, Rivera, et al. 2006).
20 Gateways
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2020 99/27/08/27/08 111:26:521:26:52 AMAM English language learners hear and practice fluent reading in each daily lesson. Gateways builds layers of fluency practice into each age-appropriate text selection. English language learners repeatedly activate rich vocabulary, increase their exposure to print, and improve fluency skills.
UNIT 2 CHAPTER 1
astronomer a person who studies outer space
magnify make something As the teacher reads an Anthology selection look bigger aloud, students increase their exposure to print and proper modeling of fluent reading.
Exploring the Universe Tamra Orr
When [the Italian astronomer] Galileo thought to point his telescope toward the sky, what he saw amazed and shocked him. It altered the history of his own life as well as that of the world. The basic structure of the telescope has not changed much over the centuries, but other modifications have turned the simple, handheld instrument into massive equipment that is capable of more than Galileo could ever have imagined. In the early 1700s, Sir Isaac Newton made a huge advance in telescope development when he found a solution to a common problem. [Early] telescopes used glass lenses. One complication of these lenses was that some of the bright objects observed had unwanted rings of color added around them. One way to counteract this problem was by
CHAPTER 1 PRACTICING making telescopes longer. Some reached more than one hundred feet FLUENCY LESSON 3 STEP 3 in length. Another problem with glass lenses was their weight. Glass is quite Excerpt from heavy and made telescopes bulky. In addition to this, glass lenses NASA: Worth the Risk? Number can be supported only from the side, and as they got bigger, gravity of Words distorted the images. Newton handled this by using curved mirrors. This allowed telescopes to magnify objects not hundreds of times, NASA has also developed important technology that is used in 10 82 but millions of times! everyday life. A new machine called the Secure Ambulation Mode 20 83
walker (SAM) makes walking easier for people who have trouble 30
moving around. It uses the same types of materials that NASA uses 42 CAI_ANT3_U2_C1_PT07_082-085_CP.i1 1 10/17/07 10:51:02 AM
CAI_ANT3_U2_C1_PT07_082-085_CP.i2 2 10/17/07 10:51:11 AM to make machines easier to bend and control. Airplanes are now 53
safer, too. They have stronger tires and computers that help pilots fly 65
in the dark and during bad weather. New engines will make planes 77
travel faster than ever. 81
Each space shuttle launch costs about 450 million dollars. 90 Currently NASA is given over 16 billion dollars from the government. 101 Repeated practice helps students become more This is about 0.7 percent of the federal budget. NASA would like 113 more money for its research. However, the government must divide 123 automatic at recognizing high-frequency words as well as its funds among many sources. 128 Student Model: Persuasive Essay 133 read quickly, smoothly, and with good expression. The United States government should limit funding for the NASA 143 space program. NASA’s programs are both dangerous and expensive. 152 The risks and costs of these missions outweigh the successes in 163 space research. 165 Space travel is dangerous. In the short amount of time that NASA 177 has been exploring space, there have been some horrible accidents. 187 CHAPTER 1 STEP 5 READING FOR UNDERSTANDING LESSON 1 Words Per Words Correct Minute Errors Per Minute Clarify misunderstandings as needed. Refer to page 79 in the On the Where branch, I needed. Anthology to see this section of wrote . . . – = text. 17. Next, I will take notes on the Where On the When branch I wrote . . . branch. On this branch I will take Structured Student Interaction On the What Happened branch notes on the places in the text. I will I wrote . . . 256 Practice Book • Unit 2 write space and Mars. Model writing Discussion Structure on transparency. With your partner, continue Read Text: Partner Reading taking notes on the Summarymary Now you write on of Section 3 18. space and Mars Tree. Remember too take notes CAI_SPB302_C1L3_253-262_FF.indd 256 1/17/08 3:06:19 PM the branch. This is where 1. Give directions for partner reading. Where on Who, Where, When, and WhatWhat the text says the scientists explore. in this section of Happenedd 3. Give students 5 minutes to read the Clarify misunderstandings as the narrative.narrative. YYouou should add needed. passage and listen to their partners aanyny new ininformationformation to what read. Monitor student interaction. yyou’veou’ve already written. If there 19. The next branch I will takee notes Clarify misunderstandings as is no new ininformation,formation, youyou on is the When branchanch. OnOn this needed. Refer to page 79 in the ccanan skipskip that branch forfor this branch I will take notes on the time Anthology to see this section of section of text. TakeTake 2 minutes or date in thee text. I will write 1958,1958, text. to continue tatakingking notes. Be today, and 2003.03. Model writing on prepared to share yyourour work Read Text: Partner Reading transparency.. Structured Student Interaction witwithh tthehe cclass.lass. GiveGive stustudentsdents 2 of Section 3 20. Now you writee 1958, today,today, andand minminutesutes to take nnotes.otes. MMonitoronitor Discussion Structure 2003 on the When bbranch.ranch. TheThe texttext student interaction. ClariClarifyfy With your partner, take 2 says this is whenhen the events took misunderstandings as needneeded. minutes to continue taking Give directions for partner reading.place. Clarify misunderstandings as (PPossibleossible answers:answers: On theth Who notes on the Summary Tree. Be 1. needed. bbranchranch I wrote ChalleChallenger, prepared to share your work CoColumbia,lumbia, satellites,satellite and with the class. Give students 2 21. Next, I will takeke notes on the ShaSharonron Christa McAuliffe; minutes to take notes. Monitor Students hear and practice fluent Give students 5 minutes to read theWhat Happenededd branch. OnOn this OnOn thethe WhereWher branch I wrote student interaction. Clarify 3. branch I will take notes on events orbitorbit; On the When branch I misunderstandings as needed. or activities inn the text. I will wrote 1986 and 2003; On the (Possible answers: On the Who write passage and listen to their partners NASA exploresxplores space and WhatWha Happened branch I wrote branch I wrote technology, reading through Model writing on modeled, choral, studies Mars. SpaceS shuttle exploded. NASA SAM, airplanes, and the transparency. read. Monitor student interaction. sends satellites into orbit.) government; On the Where Now let’s discuss our answers. branch I wrote nothing; On the 22. Now you writee NASANASA ex exploresplores spacespace and paired reading activities. What did you write on the When branch I wrote nothing; Clarify misunderstandings as and studies Marsars on the What , , , and On the What Happened branch Happened branch.anch. TheseThese areare the Who Where When What needed. Refer to in the most importantnt actions in the text Happened branches? Call on a I wrote NASA’s technology is page 79 so far. Clarify misunderstandingmisunderstandings as few pairs to share. Write student used in everyday life.) needed. responses on transparency. Now let’s discuss our answers. Anthology to see this section of Clarify misunderstandings as What did you write on the Read Text: Partnerner ReadingRead needed. Who, Where, When, and of Section 2 What Happened branches? text. Discussion Scaffolds Call on a few pairs to share. 1. Give directionss forf partner reading. Provide the following language Write student responses scaffolds as needed to support 2. Give students 5 minutes to read the on transparency. Clarify discussion. passage and listen to their partners misunderstandings as needed. read. Monitor student interaction. On the Who branch, I wrote . . . Clarify misunderstandings as
CHAPTER 1 • LESSON 1 25
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 21
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2121 99/27/08/27/08 111:27:231:27:23 AMAM 5 Engage in Structured, Academic} } Talk
In all K-12 classrooms across the U.S., ELLs need significant opportunities to engage in structured, academic talk.
considerable factor in developing to-student interactions are effective A sophisticated language skills is because they allow ELLs to independently time spent on task employing academic formulate ideas, to discuss these in a language. This is best achieved in non-threatening way with their partners, interactive settings where there are and then, reinforced by their partner’s opportunities for repeated exposure feedback, to share their ideas with the to and use of words, as well as for rest of the class (Douglas 2005). Students constructive, educational feedback. This should be encouraged to discuss and is especially true for ELLs. Practicing their clarify one another’s comprehension of language in informal settings is essential the class work and the concepts at hand. for these students’ linguistic development, This is especially important for students especially in developing oral proficiency. not yet fully proficient in English. The However, it is even more crucial that they implementation and frequent use of be provided with structured opportunities structured, academic talk helps prepare in educational settings with supports in students for success in their core classes. place (Rivera and Rivera 2010). Discussions with partners give students opportunities to use the features of anguage learning is not passive. academic English in academic tasks with L Rather, its process is facilitated broad applicability (Scarcella 2003). through active production and interaction. For ELLs to attain fluency in English, they must be supplied with opportunities to practice the language in a structured context that is comfortable, engaging, and therefore generative (Francis, Rivera, et al. 2006). Structured student-
22 Gateways
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2222 99/27/08/27/08 111:28:011:28:01 AMAM Opportunities for structured academic talk permeate every step of the lesson.
To ensure ample opportunities for English language learners to actively participate in class discussions, and to ensure that those discussions are academically focused, Gatewayss builds recurring Structured Student Interactions into each lesson.
What is Structured Student Interaction (SSI)? SSI is a feature of Gateways that occurs throughout the instruction. It provides a consistent framework within which all students can enter into an academic, instructionally relevant conversation. The Discussion Structure varies slightly by lesson so that appropriate times are allocated for thinking, discussing in pairs, and sharing with the class. In this way, all students have the opportunity to discuss the concept, and none are asked to share their thoughts without first developing them.
Structured Student Interaction
Structure Discussion questions promote What prompted Maijue to critical thinking. set the goal of getting an education? (Possible answers: Possible student answers help Going to kindergarten monitor understanding. prompted Maijue to set a goal of getting an education; She set the goal after learning the alphabet; Going to an American
school prompted Maijue to set a goal of getting an education.) Discussion Structure includes Discuss with partner (15 seconds) recommended times for think, pair, and share. Share with class (1 minute)
Discussion Scaffolds EL Provide the following language scaffolds as needed to support discussion.
Maijue set the goal of getting an education because . . . Discussion Scaffolds offer support to respond to a question using She set a goal to get an academic English. education when . . .
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 23
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2323 110/11/080/11/08 11:21:0211:21:02 AMAM 6 Structure Purposeful Independent} } Reading
Independent reading is only beneficial when it is structured and purposeful, and when there is a good reader-text match.
ndependent reading activities stimulates complex thinking and extends I are excellent tools for developing learning (Tharp and Gallimore 1988). To vocabulary, improving fluency and encourage student thinking and reflection comprehension, and increasing students’ on the reading comprehension process, exposure to print. However, these the aim of instruction should be threefold: activities are only advantageous when readers must learn to independently they are thoughtfully strategized and when monitor their own comprehension, identify they meet several conditions. Research the point(s) at which it falters, and then to demonstrates that the most important of choose and apply the relevant strategies these conditions include: (1) the necessity to remediate these difficulties (Francis, for a careful match between the reader’s Rivera, et al. 2006). ability and the text’s characteristics, (2) explicit, specific goals being set prior to esearch demonstrates that there are the reading activity, and (3) connections R two essential factors that influence a drawn between the activity’s content and student’s motivation to read: (1) the value other features of the curriculum (Francis, placed on reading, and (2) the individual’s Rivera, et al. 2006). self-concept as a reader. Self-concept in large part derives from the individual’s ndependent reading activities, skill in reading. That is, by mastering I when properly integrated with other standards in reading, the student becomes classroom activities, will develop students’ motivated. Supporting students with cognitive complexity. Moreover, learning appropriate independent reading activities expectations must constantly be set at will increase their motivation and success the point at which assistance is necessary. in reading. Teachers need to pose problems, ask questions, and give feedback that
24 Gateways
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2424 99/27/08/27/08 111:28:521:28:52 AMAM Frequent independent reading increases reading stamina. The Gateways Independent Reading Library offers 12 titles at each program level that are aligned to the students’ instructional level.
Level 3 Independent Reading Library
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 25
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2525 99/30/08/30/08 22:30:00:30:00 PMPM Contrastive Analysis Chart
The following chart identifies areas in which speakers of various primary languages may have some difficulty in acquiring English grammar (syntax). The type of transfer error and its cause are outlined for each grammatical category.
Nouns
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty Plural forms omission of plural marker –s Cantonese, Nouns do not change form to show the plural Haitian Creole, in the primary language. I have 5 book. Hmong, Khmer, Korean, Tagalog, Vietnamese
Possessive avoidance of ’s to describe Haitian Creole, The use of a prepositional phrase to express forms possession Hmong, Khmer, possession reflects the only structure or Spanish, Tagalog, a more common structure in the primary the children of my sister instead Vietnamese language. of my sister’s children
no marker for possessive forms Haitian Creole, A noun’s owner comes after the object in the Khmer, Vietnamese primary language. house my friend instead of my friend’s house
Count versus use of plural forms for English Haitian Creole, Nouns that are count and noncount differ noncount noncount nouns Russian, Spanish, between English and the primary language. nouns Tagalog the furnitures, the color of her hairs
Articles
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty omission of article Cantonese, Haitian Articles are either lacking or the distinction Creole, Hmong, He has job. between a and the is not paralleled in the Khmer, Korean, primary language. His dream is to become lawyer, Russian, Tagalog, not teacher. Vietnamese
omission of articles in certain Spanish The article is not used in Spanish in this contexts, such as to identify a context, but it is needed in English. profession He is teacher.
overuse of articles Arabic, Haitian The article is used in the primary language in Creole, Hmong, places where it isn’t used in English. The honesty is the best policy. Spanish, Tagalog This food is popular in the Japan. I like the cats.
use of one for a/an Haitian Creole, Learners sometimes confuse the articles a/an Hmong, Vietnamese He is one engineer. with one since articles either do not exist in the primary language or serve a different function.
26 Gateways
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2626 99/27/08/27/08 111:32:151:32:15 AMAM Pronouns
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty Personal use of pronouns with Cantonese, Haitian The third person pronoun in the primary pronouns, inappropriate gender Creole, Hmong, language is gender free. The same pronoun is gender Khmer, Korean, used where English uses masculine, feminine, He is my sister. Tagalog and neuter pronouns, resulting in confusion of pronoun forms in English.
use of pronouns with Spanish In Spanish, subject pronouns are dropped in inappropriate gender everyday speech and the verb conveys third- person agreement, effectively collapsing the He is my sister. two pronouns and causing transfer difficulty for subject pronouns in English.
use of inappropriate gender, Russian, Spanish Inanimate nouns have feminine and masculine particularly with neuter nouns gender in the primary language, and the gender may be carried over into English. The house is big. She is beautiful.
Personal confusion of subject and object Cantonese, Hmong, The same pronoun form is used for he/him, pronoun pronoun forms Khmer she/her, and in some primary languages forms Him hit me. for I/me and we/us.
use of incorrect number for Cantonese, Korean There is no number agreement in the pronouns primary language. I saw many yellow flowers. It was pretty.
omission of subject pronouns Korean, Russian, Subject pronouns may be dropped in the Spanish primary language—the verb ending supplies Michael isn’t here. Is in school. information on number and/or gender.
omission of object pronouns Korean, Vietnamese Direct objects are frequently dropped in the primary language. That man is very rude, so nobody likes.
omission of pronouns in clauses Cantonese, A subordinate clause at the beginning of a Vietnamese sentence does not require a subject in the If not have jobs, they will not primary language. have food.
use of pronouns with subject Hmong, Vietnamese This type of redundant structure reflects the nouns popular “topic-comment” approach used in the primary language: The speaker mentions This car, it runs very fast. a topic and then makes a comment on it.
avoidance of pronouns by Korean, Vietnamese It is common in the primary language to repeat repetition of nouns nouns rather than to use pronouns. Sara visits her grandfather every Sunday, and Sara makes a meal.
Pronoun one omission of the pronoun one Russian, Spanish, Adjectives can be used on their own in the Tagalog primary language, whereas English often I saw two nice cars, and I like requires a noun or one. the small.
Pronoun confusion of possessive forms Cantonese, Hmong, Cantonese and Hmong speakers tend to forms Vietnamese The book is my. omit final n, creating confusion between my and mine. Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 27
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2727 99/27/08/27/08 111:32:451:32:45 AMAM Adjectives
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty position of adjectives after Haitian Creole, Adjectives commonly come after nouns in the nouns Hmong, Khmer, primary language. Spanish, I read a book interesting. Vietnamese
position of adjectives before Cantonese, Korean Adjectives always come before words they certain pronouns modify in the primary language. This is interesting something.
Comparison omission of markers for Khmer Since there are no suffixes or inflections comparison in Khmer, the tendency is to omit them in English. She is smart than me.
avoidance of -er and -est endings Hmong, Khmer, Comparatives and superlatives are usually Korean, Spanish formed with separate words in the primary I am more old than my brother. language, the equivalent of more and most in English.
Confusion of confusion of -ing and -ed forms Cantonese, Khmer, The adjective forms in the primary language Korean, Spanish that correspond to the ones in English do not -ing and -ed The movie was bored. forms have active and passive meanings. In Korean, I am very interesting in sports. for many adjectives, the same form is used for both active and passive meanings, such as boring versus bored.
Verbs
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty
Present omission of s in present tense, Cantonese, There is no verb agreement in the primary tense third person agreement Haitian Creole, language. Hmong, Khmer, She go to school every day. Korean, Tagalog, Vietnamese
problems with irregular Cantonese, Hmong, Verb forms do not change to indicate the subject-verb agreement Khmer, Korean, number of the subject in the primary language. Tagalog Sue and Ed has a new house.
Past tense omission of tense markers Cantonese, Verbs in the primary language do not change Haitian Creole, form to express tense. I study English yesterday. Hmong, Khmer, I give it to him yesterday. Korean, Tagalog, Vietnamese
confusion of present form and Cantonese, Spanish Speakers of the primary language have simple past of irregular verbs difficulty recognizing that merely a vowel shift in the middle of the verb, rather than a change I give it to him yesterday. in the ending of the verb, is sufficient to produce a change of tense in irregular verbs.
incorrect use of present for Cantonese, Korean The primary language allows the use of the future present tense for the future. I come tomorrow.
28 Gateways
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2828 99/27/08/27/08 111:33:101:33:10 AMAM Verbs continued
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty
In negative omission of helping verbs in Cantonese, Korean, Helping verbs are not used in negative statements negative statements Russian, Spanish, statements in the primary language. Tagalog I no understand. I not get into university.
Perfect avoidance of present perfect where Haitian Creole, The verb form either does not exist in tenses it should be used Russian, Tagalog, the primary language or has a different Vietnamese function. I live here for two years.
use of present perfect where Khmer, Korean In the primary language a past marker, past perfect should be used e.g., yesterday, is inserted to indicate a Yesterday I have done that. completed action and no other change is necessary. In English, when a past marker is used, the verb form must change to past perfect instead of present perfect.
Past use of past continuous for Korean, Spanish, In the primary language, the past continuous continuous recurring action in the past Tagalog form can be used in contexts in which When I was young, English uses the expression used to or the simple past. I was studying a lot.
use of two or more main verbs in Hmong In Hmong, verbs can be connected without one clause without any connectors and or any other conjunction (serial verbs). I took a book went studied at the library.
Linking omission of linking verb Cantonese, Haitian The verb be is not required in all sentences. Creole, Hmong, In some primary languages, it is implied in verbs He hungry. Khmer, Russian, the adjective form. In others the concept is Vietnamese expressed as a verb.
Passive omission of helping verb be in Cantonese, Passive voice in the primary language does voice passive voice Vietnamese not require a helping verb. The food finished.
avoidance of passive constructions Haitian Creole Passive constructions do not exist in Haitian Creole. They speak Creole here. One speaks Creole here. avoiding the alternate, Creole is spoken here.
Transitive confusion of transitive and Cantonese, Korean, Verbs that do and do not take a direct object verbs versus intransitive verbs Russian, Spanish, differ between English and the primary intransitive Tagalog language. He married with a nice girl. verbs
Phrasal confusion of related phrasal verbs Korean, Russian, Phrasal verbs do not exist in the primary verbs Spanish language. There is often confusion over I look after the word in the their meaning in English. dictionary. instead of I look up the word in the dictionary.
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 29
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 2929 99/27/08/27/08 111:33:311:33:31 AMAM Verbs continued
have versus use of have instead of be Spanish Some Spanish constructions be I have hunger. use have where English uses be. I have right.
Adverbs
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty use of adjective form where Haitian Creole, There are no suffix-derived adverb forms in adverb form is needed Hmong, Khmer the primary language, and the adjective form is used after the verb. Walk quiet.
placement of adverbs before verbs Cantonese, Korean Adverbs usually come before verbs in the primary language, and this tendency is At ten o’clock this morning my carried over into English. plane landed. avoiding the alternate, My plane landed at ten o’clock this morning.
Prepositions
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty omission of prepositions Cantonese There are no exact equivalents of English prepositions in Cantonese although there Money does not grow trees. are words to mark location and movement.
Complex Sentences
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty Relative omission of relative pronouns Vietnamese Relative pronouns are not required in clauses Vietnamese. My grandfather was a generous man helped everyone.
incorrect pronoun used to Hmong Hmong uses the same forms of relative introduce a relative clause pronouns for both personal and inanimate antecedents. the house who is big
Adverbial inclusion of additional connecting Cantonese, Korean, The primary language sometimes uses a clauses word Vietnamese “balancing word” in the main clause. Because he was reckless, so he caused an accident. Although my parents are poor, but they are very generous.
use of inconsistent tenses in Cantonese, The primary language lacks tense markers sentences with multiple clauses Hmong, Tagalog, so that matching the tenses of two verbs in Vietnamese one sentence correctly can be difficult. She speaks French before she Learners may also try to analyze the tense studied English. needed in English according to meaning, After she comes home, it was which in some cases can result in the use of raining. an incorrect tense. We will go to the beach if the weather will be nice.
30 Gateways
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 3030 99/27/08/27/08 111:34:011:34:01 AMAM Complex Sentences continued
If versus confusion of if and when Korean, Tagalog The primary language has one expression when that covers the use of if and when for the If you get there, call me! future. instead of When you get there, call me!
Infinitives and Gerunds
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty use of present tense verbs in Haitian Creole, Either the –ing form does not exist in the places where gerunds or Khmer, Korean primary language, or learners tend to use infinitives are used in English present tense verbs instead of gerunds even if they do exist [Haitian Creole]. Stop walk. I want go there.
use of for in infinitive phrases Spanish Spanish uses a prepositional form in similar constructions, which is carried over into They went for to see the movie. English and translated as for.
Sentence Structure
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Difficulty Point Error in English Background
omission of object Korean Korean tends to omit objects and noun phrases after verbs. He dyed [his hair]. Yes, I want [some].
lack of variety in the position Korean Since main clauses always come last in of clauses Korean, there is a tendency to put the main clause last in English. This is not an error Because you weren’t at home in English, but it leads to a lack of sentence and I couldn’t find [you], I left. variety. avoiding the alternate, I left because you weren’t at home and I couldn’t find [you].
clauses that describe earlier Cantonese, Korean The pattern in the primary language is to actions come first describe what happens first while later occurrences follow. This is not an error in After I finish my homework, English, but it leads to a lack of sentence I will watch TV. variety. avoiding the alternate, I will watch TV after I finish my homework.
placement of phrase with the Spanish The phrase with the indirect object can indirect object before the direct come before the direct object in Spanish. object They gave to the girl the book.
Gateways for English Language Learners: A Research Perspective 31
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 3131 99/27/08/27/08 111:34:321:34:32 AMAM Sentence Structure continued
Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty placement of modifiers between Korean, Spanish Word order, including the placement of verb and direct object adverbials, is freer in the primary language than in English. She speaks very well English.
use of double negatives Spanish Spanish requires double negatives in many sentence structures. I no see nobody.
use of clauses for other Russian, Spanish Verbs that take direct objects versus those structures that require clauses differ in the primary language and English. I want that you help me.
Questions Grammar Type of Transfer Language Cause of Transfer Point Error in English Background Difficulty
avoidance of English inverted Cantonese, The primary language doesn’t use subject- question forms in yes/no Haitian Creole, verb inversion in questions. questions in favor of tag Khmer, Korean, questions or intonation Russian, Tagalog, Vietnamese You come tomorrow, OK? He goes to school with you?
lack of subject-verb inversion Cantonese, Hmong, In the primary language, word order is the in questions with helping verbs Russian, Tagalog same in some questions and statements, depending on the context. When she will be home? Where you are going?
omission of do or did in questions Haitian Creole, In the primary language, there is no exact Hmong, Khmer, Where you went? counterpart to the do/did verb in questions. Korean, Russian, Spanish, Tagalog
Yes/no incorrect answer form for Cantonese, Hmong, In the primary language, learners tend to questions yes/no questions Khmer, Korean, answer yes by repeating the verb in the Russian A: Do you want more food? question. They tend to say no by using not and repeating the verb. B: I want. A: Do you have a pen? B: I not have.
positive answer to negative Cantonese, Korean, The appropriate response pattern differs question Russian between the primary language and English. A: Aren’t you going? B: Yes. (when the person is not going)
Tag incorrect tag questions Cantonese, Khmer, The primary language has no exact questions Korean, Vietnamese counterpart to a tag question, forms them You want to go home, are you? differently, or does not add do/did to questions.
32 Gateways
NNLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.inddLG_ELH_FM_ƒ.indd 3232 99/27/08/27/08 111:35:151:35:15 AMAM Bibliography}
Action Learning Systems. 2003. The Literacy Solution. Francis, David; Mabel Rivera; Nonie Lesaux; Michael Monrovia, CA. Kieffer; and Hector Rivera. 2006. Practical Guidelines for the Education of English Language Learners: Beck, Isabel L.; Margaret G. McKeown; and Linda Kucan. Research-Based Recommendations for Instruction 2002. Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary and Academic Interventions. Houston, TX: Center on Instruction. New York: Guilford Press. Instruction English Language Learners Strand.
Beck, Isabel L.; Margaret G. McKeown; and Richard C. Francis, David; Mabel Rivera; Nonie Lesaux; Michael Omanson. 1987. “The Effects and Uses of Diverse Kieffer; and Hector Rivera. 2006. Practical Guidelines Vocabulary Instructional Techniques,” Margaret for the Education of English Language Learners: G. McKeown, and Mary E. Curtis, eds. The Nature of Research-Based Recommendations for Serving Vocabulary Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Adolescent Newcomers. Houston, TX: Center on Instruction English Language Learners Strand. California Department of Education. 2007. Reading/ Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools. Rivera, Hector, and Mabel Rivera. 2010. “Effective Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education. Reading Instruction for Struggling English Learners,” California Gateways Program Overview: 68-71. Carlo, Maria S.; Diane August; Barry McLaughlin; Catherine E. Snow; Cheryl Dressler; David N. Lippman; Scarcella, Robin. 2003. Accelerating Academic English: A Teresa J. Lively; and Claire E. White. 2004. “Closing Focus on the English Learner. Oakland, CA: Regents of the Gap: Addressing the Vocabulary Needs of English the University of California. Language Learners in Bilingual and Mainstream Classrooms.” Reading Research Quarterlyy, 39, 188-215. Tharp, Roland G., and Ronald Gallimore. 1989. Rousing Minds to Life: Teaching, Learning, and Schooling in Chiappe-Collins, Penny. 2010. “The Importance of High Social Context. Cambridge University Press. Quality Phonics and Phonemic Awareness Instruction for Struggling Readers,” California Gateways Program Overview: 62-63.
Cummins, Jim. 2003. “Reading and the Bilingual Student: Fact and Friction,” in English Learners: Reaching the Highest Level of English Literacyy, Gilbert Garcia, ed. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Douglas, Ellen. 2005. “Reading Comprehension and English Language Learners: Assessing Reading Comprehension with English Language Learners” and “Reading Comprehension Strategies for English Language Learners,” LEARN-NC (K-12 Teaching and Learning, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). (http://www.learnnc.org.)
Dutro, Susana, and Carrol Moran. 2002. “Rethinking English Language Instruction: An Architectural Approach,” in English Learners: Reaching the Highest Level of English Literacyy, Gilbert Garcia, ed. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Fillmore, Lily Wong, and Catherine E. Snow. 2000. “What Teachers Need to Know About Language.” Washington, D.C.: ERIC, U.S. Department of Education Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.
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