l" hoc Siqno v,nces ln rern Croo&oYvrrt

o Milo5oBRKNEzEvlc,,,Development of orthodoxy In And The Croatianorthodox Church", Hruatska revija, Munchen-Barcelona, June 1979, 229.-262.(translation )

Onthe 4th of April1942,almost ayeat after the Independent State of Croatiawas founded, newspaperspublished a governmentstatute No. XC-800- 2-1942 announcing the establishment of the CroatianOrthodox Church. On the 5th of June,on thebasis of thisstatute, the constitution of the CroatianOrthodox Church was approved, and on the7th of Junethe MostRev. Germogen was enthronedas thefirst Orthodox Metropolitan of .The CroatianOrthodox Church was active in Croatiauntil the end of thewar when it wassuppressed by the new Yugoslav authorities and the MetropolitanGermogen was executed. I actively participated in thefounding of theCroatian Orthodox Church,writing the church's constitution, negotiating with the Croatian authorities and was secretary to MetropolitanGermogen.

Thetime has come to tellthe truth, calmly and objectively, about the founding of theChurch and the functionwhich the performed during the Second World War in the IndependentState of Croatia.For a betterunderstanding of how this autocephalous Church came into beinga shorthistorical survey of thedevelopment of Orthodoxyin Croatianterritories is required(the presentday Yugoslav Republics of Croatiaand of Bosniaand ).

THEDEVELOPMENT OF ORTHODOXYAMONG THE CROATS

BEFORETHE TURKISH CONQUEST Before the final schism with Rome in 1054the old Patriarchate of Constantinopledid notextend to the landssettled by the Croatswith the exceptionof someparts of Dioclea:the territorieswest of the riverDrina and west of the townof Budvawere outside of the EasternPatriarchate. Even at thetime of Photius'sschism (863-923), when the Metropolitanof Split lookedeastward, he neverthelessremained outside the jurisdiction of Constantinoplebut was subordinateto theAquileian Patriarchate. The situation did not change when the Bulgarianscreated a patriarchatein Ohrid(927- 1018), nor was it affectedby the splitof Christianityin 1054into the Westernor RomanCatholic Church and Eastern or OrthodoxChurch.

Thefirst penetration of Orthodoxyinto Croat territories occurred at the beginningof the 13thcentury foflowingthe conquest of RedCroatia (Dioclea or Zeta,Travunja and Zahumlje)t by StevanNemanja, theGrand Count of Rascia(), and by hisson Stevan, already crowned king of Serbia.ln 1219 SavaNemanjic founded the and established two episcopal sees (Ston and Prevlaka/)on Croatian Catholic territory. The one in Stonwas short lived due to the lackof an Orthodoxpopulation in thatarea, while the other survived until 1485, when it wastransferred to Cetinje in presentday . In the meantime,the Serbian Orthodox Church in theterritories of present dayEast Herzegovina and Montenegro, with support from the Serbian State, and with sporadic pressure,including forcible conversions, succeeded in limitingCatholicism to a narrowstretch of land alongthe coast. During the Turkish domination in thisregion the process of conversionto the Orthodoxfaith resulted in thedisappearance of Roman Catholicism from Montenegro about the year 1650,and in reducingthe Croatian Catholic population in thecoastal region to smallpockets around thecity of Kotor.Catholicism survived along the Dubrovnikcoast, protected by the boundariesof the DubrovnikRepublic. There was no Orthodoxy,prior to theTurkish invasion, among the Croats in Bosnia(west of therivers Drina and Neretva) and in Srijem(north of theriver Sava).

THEPERIOD OF TURKISH RULE With the Turkish advancements, the first Vlachs (nomadic herdsmenoriginating in a regioncalled Old Vlach east of theriver Drina), appeared in theterritory of EastBosnia. Descendants of theold Roman population from the Balkan Peninsula, they were Orthodox(unlike the Croatian Catholic Vlachs in the Dinaric-Velebitregion) and were known in various regionsand at differenttimes as Arumanians,Czinczars, Riscani, Rkaci and Eastern-Greeks. With the rapidfall of theKingdom of Bosniain 1463and the Turkish advancement into Croatia, irregular military supportingunits of Vlachs,called Martholosen, were brought by the Turks to thenewly conquered territories.They also came to settleand work the land in centralCroatia which had been depopulated as a resultof theconstant fighting. These Orthodox settlers were predominantly Vlach herdsmen, partlyslavonicized, and came from the central Balkan regions: Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Albania,Montenegro and East Herzegovina. The strong migratory movements of theVlachs affected a numberof othernationalities: , Serbs (Rascians), Macedonians, Albanians, Bulgarians, Greeksand also Croats (Uskoks, Prebjezi, Bunjevci, Predavci). The language of theVlachs, apart fromVlacho-Romanian, was predominantly a ljekavian-Neostokavian dialect,2 due either to their gradualwestward movement through the ljekavian regions or elseas a resultof theirlong stay in the ijekavianterritories of EastHerzegovina, Montenegro and Sanjak.

I Red Croatia:approximately the area of the Herzegovinaand partsof Montenegroalong the coast. - ljekavian-Stokavian:the Croatianlanguage comprises three dialectgroups distinguished by their respectivewords for "what?": sto, ca and kaj. Hencethe namesof these dialects:Stokavian, Cakavian and Kajkavian.Another classification of Croatian 'lat": dialectsis made on the basisof the tripledevelopment of the CommonSlavic sound e, i, (i)je.Hence the names Ekavian, lkavianand (l)jekavian.Whereas the Serbianliterary language is stokavianand Ekavian,the Croatianliterary language is Stokavianand (l)jekavian. TheOrthodox Church followed the migratory population. First monasteries appeared, some of them builton theruins of abandonedFranciscan friaries. During the 16thand 17th centuries, on theTurkish heldterritories, 3 Serbian Orthodox monasteries were founded in Herzegovina,8 in Bosnia,9 in East Croatia(2 in Slavonia,Tin Srijem),3 in SouthCroatia () and 4 in BosanskaKrajina.3 In Banska,or ChristianCroatia,a 2 monasteries were founded. In 1502the first metropolitan see was foundedin the Krusedolmonastery in Srijem,in Croatianterritory. In Srijemthe Orthodoxsettlers were predominantlyEkavian speaking Serbs, while in the remainingCroatian lands, particularly in the regionsbordering on theTurkish held territories, ljekavian speaking Vlachs predominated among the settlers.Following the restoration of theSerbian Patriarchate in Pecin 1557,it succeededin bringing underits jurisdiction the majority of theOrthodox clergy, including the Greco-Vlach (Phanariot) clergy whowere dispersed over those regions of Croatiaand Southern Hungary conquered by the Turks. Makarije,the firstpatriarch of the restoredPec Patriarchate, founded the episcopalsee in Orahovica forTurkish Slavonia and the Dabro-Bosnian see for the rest of Croatia-Bosnia under Turkish rule. A periodof closecooperation with the Turks followed (1557-1690) and during that time the Patriarchate of Pecevolved into a strongtheocratic and feudal force, a kindof autonomousgovernment inside the o Ottomanempire. The Patriarchs of Pecexploited the situation, undertaking intensive campaigns to convertCatholic Croats to Orthodoxyand at the sametime were using pressure on the Catholicclergy to paytributes to theSerbian Orthodox hierarchy. Conversion to Orthodoxywas at thattime encourageddue to thewars being waged between the Ottoman empire and the EuropeanCatholic powers,resulting in thepersecutions of Catholics,considered to bethe most unreliable element under the Ottomanrule. Many remaining pockets of Catholicismwere converted to Orthodoxyat thattime in theterritory of TurkishCroatia (Bosanska Krajina and North Dalmatia) and in the Dubrovnikhinterland, unlessthey had already embraced lslam. Many Catholics changed to Orthodoxyvoluntarily for lackof Catholicclergy, as the Franciscans,the only Catholic priests or monkseven partly tolerated by the Ottomanrulers, could not provide for the religious needs of theCatholic Croats.

Afterthe Christian/lslam battle line was consolidated in frontof thecity of Senjand in thezones betweenthe rivers Kupa-Una and Cazma-llova in Croatiain themiddle of the 16thcentury, the boundaryline remained unchanged for almost 150 years, untilthe end of 1699.During that time (particularlybetween 1597 and 1605) numerous Uskoks and Prebjezi, among them a numberof the Orthodoxpopulation, crossed into the territory of ChristianCroatia. ln 1595,by a previousagreement withthe Archduke Ferdinand, the bishop of theVlachs, Vasilije, moved from the Croatian territory held bythe Turks (Orahovica) and established the first Orthodox episcopalsee in theCroatia-Slavonia region.His successor, Simun Vratanja, entered into a unionwith the Catholic Church of theCroatian Christianterritory in 1611,recognizing the bishopof Zagreb.This Uniat episcopate known as Svidnicko-Marcanski had about 60,000 adherents using the Greco-Slavonic rite. (lts bishops being: Predojevic,Stanislavic, Kordic, Mijakirc Zorcic, etc.). At the sametime, two moreOrthodox episcopal seeswere founded on Turkishheld Croatian territory (Medak and Savina) and two episcopal sees transferredtheir seat to the territoryof Bosnia(Zvornik and Sarajevo,in 1709).

-? BosanskaKrajina: the regionbetween the riversUna and Vrbas.

4' BanskaHrvatska: the area that remainedof Croatiafollowing the Turkishinvasion and the Venetianannexation of Dalmatia; underthe jurisdictionof the ban (viceroy)and Sabor (the CroatianDiet). THEROLE OF THE METROPOLITAN SEE OF KARLOVCIFollowing the wars at theend of the 17th centurythe Turks were expelled from parts of Croatianterritory (Slavonia, Lika, Banija and a largepart of the Dalmatianhinterland) and also from Hungary and Northern Serbia. These wars caused two otherimportant migratory movements of theOrthodox population; led by the PecPatriarchs Arsenije Crnojevicin 1690,with 37,000 Serbian families; and Arsenije Joanovic Sakabenta in 1737.These two migrationsfollowed the wars between Austria and Turkey and were the resultof the insurrectionand retreatof the Orthodoxpopulation from the rebelliousregions and were directed towards South Hungary(Backa and Banat) and Eastern Croatia (Srijem). In contrast to theearlier, predominantly Vlachmigrations, which moved westward and spoke either Vlach or theljekavian Neostokavian dialect,these new northern migrations consisted mainly of Serbswho spoke the Ekavian dialect.

As a resultof thesemigrations and because of theborder, which at thattime separated them from theirfellow Serbs under the Turkish domination, the ties between the Metropolitan of Srijemand the PecPatriarchate were weakened. The Patriarchate was gradually losing its Serbian character and was laterdissolved, (in 1766),its territory returned to thejurisdiction of thePatriarchate of Constantinople. Fromthat time almost all the nominatedbishops were Phanariots.

In 1690the Austrian Emperor Leopold recognised the supremacy in religiousmatters of Arsenije Crnojevic,not only over the recently arrived Orthodox population which he hadled, but also over those Christiansof theGreco-Slavonic rite who had crossed into the Christian part of Croatiamore than a centurybefore and had formed the Eastern Catholic Svidnicko-Marcanska diocese. This began the rivalryin thefirst half of the 18thcentury between the Croat-Vlach supporters of churchunity (Uniats) andthe Serbian Orthodox Metropolitan of Srijemfor jurisdiction over the people of theGreco-slavonic ritein theterritory of Croatia.In the struggle the opponents of unitysucceeded not only in stiflingthe attemptsof theGreek Catholic bishops to achieveunion in partsliberated from the Turks (Slavonia andSrijem) but also in gainingcontrol of thepopulation of the Easternrite in EastLika, Kordun and Banija,which previously had adhered to union.At thesame time the Serbian metropolitan see in Srijembegan its organization of theOrthodox Church, not only for the Serbian population in Srijem andin SouthernHungary (Vojvodina), but also among the Orthodox Vlachs and Croats in therest of Croatia.An episcopalsee was founded in Karlovacbut was soon divided into: Karlovacko- Senjska andKostajnicko-Zrinopoljsko-Licka (1713-69); Pakranska (1705); and Lepinsko-Severinska (1734-50). Theepiscopal see of Srijemwas from 1751 administered by a metropolitan,at first from Krusedol, and laterfrom Srijemski Karlovci.

As a resultof thesedevelopments the metropolitansee of Karlovcibecame an Orthodox EcclesiasticalProvince which up to 1920embraced allthe Orthodox Serbs, Vlachs, Croats and Romaniansin SouthernHungary ffojvodina) and in Croatia.Orthodox Vlachs and Orthodox Croats livingin partsof Dalmatiaunder Venetian rule, and in Bosnia,were outside of itsjurisdiction, as were Romaniansfrom the 1860s, when the RomanianOrthodox Church was founded in Hungary.The Metropolitansof Karlovcititled themselves the Supreme Metropolitans (Serbian Archbishops) and acknowledgedthe supremacy of the Patriarchof Pec.Only, after the Patriarchate of Pecwas abolishedin 1766did Metropolitan Josif Rajacic receive the title of Patriarchin 1848.

Afterthe formation of the metropolitansee in Karlovci,the OrthodoxChurch in Croatia,officially knownamong the Croatian Vlachs and Croats as EasternCatholic, came more and more under pressurefrom the Serbian Orthodox Ghurch whose aim was to takecontrol of thenon-Serbian Orthodoxclergy and population, in particularthe numerous Vlachs, most of whomwere stavonicized or croaticized.With the weakening and subsequent abolition of the PecPatriarchate in 1766,this aim lostits impetus in theterritories under Turkish rule, but gained momentum in BanskaCroatia and in VojnaKrajinas through the workings of themetropolitan see of Karlovci.In the second half of the last centurythe serbianization of the non- Serbian Orthodox population culminated in thecreation of a serbianchurch-nation consciousness among the majority of theorthodox population in croatia.since thattime Serbian has become for many synonymous with Orthodoxy. In thisway modern Serbian nationalismmoved not only northwards through migrations but also westwards through conversions to SerbianOrthodoxy. This caused Serbian ethnic dispersal and formed a substantialSerbian minority in theCroatian territory. At thesame time the ancient centre of theSerbian Church in pec remained outsidethe influence of themetropolitan see of Karlovciand was gradually setled by the Albanians. Duringthe dictatorship of Khuen-Hedervaryin croatia (1883-1903) the first serbian orthodox schools werefounded, and in Pakraca SerbianOrthodox Faculty of Theologywas opened. The flag of the Kingdomof Serbiawas later taken as theOrthodox flag in Croatia.Similar developments took place in Bosniaand Hezegovina after the Austro-Hungarian occupation when, in 1g05,autonomous Serbian OrthodoxChurch schools were officially confirmed. This characteristic method of awakeningnational consciousnessthrough the religious affiliation brought the classification of the majority of Orthodoxas Serbs,and the analogous classification of Latin and Greek rite Catholics as Croats,thus grealy impedingthe awakening of nationalconsciousness among the Muslim population. The most negative resultof thiswas that what used to be a religiousmosaic was transformed, Croats and Serbs intermixingwithout respect for their historical, cultural or politicalboundaries, which in turncaused complicationsbetween these two and the other nations on the BalkanPeninsula. The result of this processwas the very slow formation of Serbiaand Croatia into modern religiously heterogeneous nations(especially Serbia) and the formation of substantialminorities in theCroatian and Serbian territories:28.8 % inthe present day Republic of Serbia,20.60/o in thepresent day Republic of Croatia (withSerbs making 14.2 %) and a verycomplicated situation in theRepublic of Bosniaand Herzegovina(39.6 % Muslims,37.2 % Serbsand 20.6 % Croats).6This led to intolerance,friction and conflictbetween the minorities and the indigenouspopulation. This was greaily exploited by the foreigners:the regime of Khuen-Hedervaryin Banska Croatia, the Autonomists in Dalmatia,the regimeof Kallayin Bosniaand Herzegovina, ltalians, Germans and Hungarians during the Second WorldWar, etc. In additionto thisthe extermination of Muslims took place in Serbiaduring the last century,and in Sandjakand in Bosniaand Herzegovina in thefirst half of thiscentury, again by the Serbs.This led to themutual extermination of both Serb and Croat minorities during the Second World War.

THEORTHODOX CHURCH lN 1918-1941 When the Kingdom of Serbs,Croats and Sloveneswas founded in 1918there were three autocephalous Orthodox Ghurch regions in the territoryof thenew state at themetropolitan level: Kartovci, Belgrade and Montenegro-Littoral. Alsothe Dalmatian part of the Bukovinsko-Dalmatianmetropolitan see and the National AutonomousSerbian Orthodox Ghurch in Bosniaand Herzegovinaunder the supreme rule of the

' Vojna Krajina(Military Frontier):that regionof Croatiaforming a militarydefence zone establishedto containTurkish raids: outsideof ban'sjurisdiction.

6 Accordingto the censusof 1971. Patriarchof Gonstantinople.All

Serbia.as thePatriarch (1920-30). PatriarchDimitrije was succeeded by Varnava Rosic (1930-37), up to thattime Metropolitan of Skopje.During his time the Serbian orthodox Church violenfly resisted the concordatbetween theKingdom of Yugoslaviaand the Holy See which the government of Milan Stojadinovicwanted to ratifyin 1937.During this conflict Patriarch Varnava died, and blood was shed in thedemonstrations whichfollowed, on the 19thof July1937 in Belgrade.The new patriarch Gavrilo Dozic(1938-50) was arrestedin April 1941 in theostrog monastery by theGermans and, since he refusedto collaborate,was interneduntil the endof thewar.

The process of organizationof the OrthodoxChurch in Yugoslaviawas started by enacting temporarylegislation aboutthe Serbian Patriarchate (23th october 1g2O) and centralizing the administrativeand judicial power of theserbian Patriarchate (13th December 1g2o),the law of the Serbianorthodox Church (8thNovember 1929) and finally the constitution of theSerbian Orthodox Church(16th November 1931).

In itsorganization theSerbian orthodox church was, in theperiod between the two wars, one. indivisibleand episcopalian, withmain administrative divisions into eparchies in hierarchicand administrativematters. Inthis way the name Eastern Catholic Church was officially abolished in Croatiaand all the orthodox in theterritory of Yugoslavia,including the non-Serbian poputation (Macedonians,Montenegrins, Vlachs,Croats, Bulgarians, Ukrainians, Romanians, Albanians, Greeks, czinczars,etc.) were subordinatedto the Patriarchin Belgradeand considered to be of the Serbian orthodoxfaith. There is no doubtthat the neglect and persecutions of non-Serbiannations in pre-war Yugoslavia,primarily croats,Macedonians and Albanians, caused illfeeling towards the serbian orthodoxchurch also, as theone most favoured and privileged. The colonization of purelycroatian andCatholic regions by Serbianvolunteers, persecution of Muslimsafter the First world war, building of Serbianorthodox churches andattempts to penetrateinto purely Catholic territories like the Adriatic coast(the island of Vis forexample) caused, in additionto ethnicanimosity, even more iil will towards theSerbian Orthodox Church.

THEDEVELOPMENT OFTHE VARIOUS NATIONAL ORTHODOX CHURCHES In contrastto other worldreligions which haveno close ties with individual nations, and unlike the Catholic church, which is underpapal authority, ,,The theOrthodox Church has no commonOrganisation. patriarchof constantinoplehas no authorityover the orthodox churches of othercountries. Territories in the East, lostby Byzantium duringits decline, gradually lost contact with the central authority, while the regions borderingon theFrankish empireand Byzantium oscillated for some time between the popeand the ecumenicalPatriarch (Moravia, Bulgaria,Dalmatian ThemeT). on gainingstrength the new mediaeval statesunder the Byzantine culturalinfluence aimed for politicaland ecclesiastic independence. The Bulgarianruler Simeon,after proclaiming himself Emperor of the Bulgariansand Greeks in 925. established in Bulgariaa patriarchatewhich became independent from Byzantium (927-101g);

' Dalmatianor ByzantineTheme (province):the cities of ,Trogir, Split, Dubrovnik and Kotorand the istandof Krk, osor (Cres and Losinj)and Rab, ruledby the Byzantiu?nin the eartyMiddle Ages.

6 Bulgariansagain enjoyed an autonomousChurch in thetime of lvanAsjen ll (121841).At thesame time,while Byzantium was in disarrayduring the fourth Crusade, Sava Nemanjic founded the independentSerbian archiepiscopacy in 1219 which became an independentpatriarchate in thetime of TsarDusan in 1346.lts archbishop,Joakinije, was proclaimed "The Patriarch of theSerbs and Bulgarians".The Turkish invasion meant the end of theindependent Serbian Church. The Romanian Churchwas autonomous between 1425 and 1440. The Byzantine Emperor and the Patriarchof Constantinople,seeking help from the West against the Turks, tried once more (1439) to resolvethe questionof schism(Florentine Union). Their move was used by theRussian Church as a pretextto denyallegiance to the Patriarchof Constantinopleand then to declaretheir independence in 1448. TheMetropolitan of Moscowtook the title of Patriarchin 1589.Peter the Great abolished the Moscow Patriarchate(1721) and in itsplace in- stalled the HolySynod. The Patriarchate was restored only in 1917.8Following the rehabilitation of the Orthodox Church in the BalkanPeninsula after the long periodof closecollaboration with the Turks, it startedactively to participatein the resistanceagainst theOttoman rule, and in additionto religiousneeds played a partin preservingliteracy, culture, and in nurturingnationaltradition. The Patriarchate of Pecplayed the same role (1557-1766). After the nationalstates were formed on the BalkanPeninsula the autonomous Churches were established in theirterritories. Beside the Patriarchateof Constantinoplethe following Churches became independent:the Greek Orthodox Church (synod 1828, autocephalous 1833, recognised 1850); the RomanianOrthodox Church (autocephalous 1865, patriarchate 1925); the Bulgarian Orthodox Church (independence1870, exarchate 1945);. the HungarianOrthodox Church (independence 1930); the SerbianOrthodox Church (autonomy 1830, autocephalous 1879, patriarchate 1920); the Albanian OrthodoxChurch (autocephalous 1939); the MacedonianOrthodox Church (autonomy 1959, autocephalous1967)and the Croatian Orthodox Church (autocephalous only 194245).In addition to thefour Patriarchates (Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem) there were also numerous nationalandautocephalous Churches in existence:Russian (2), Georgian, Sinaian, Cypriot, Polish, Czechoslovak,Finnish, Dodecanese, Ukrainian (2), American (3), Syrian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian,etc.

THECROATIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH

THELEGAL AND OFFICIAL POSITION OF THE ORTHODOX PEOPLE IN THE INDEPENDENT STATEOF CROATIADURING 1941 Following the collapse of Yugoslaviaafter the attack by the Axis powers,the IndependentState of Croatiawas founded on the 1Othof April1941 . The newly formed statewas comprised of theTriune Kingdom (Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia) and of Bosniaand Herzegovina(but excluding Medjimurje, part of GorskiKotar, the coastal part of NorthernDalmatia betweenthe riverZrmanja and the townof Split,Boka Kotorska and all the islandsexcept Pag, Brac andHvar). According to thecensus taken in 1931,the territory of theCroatian State had a total populationof 6.042,306;30.5 % of which(1,845,340) were Orthodox. This does not take into account theabove mentioned territorial losses in whichthe Croatian Catholic population was predominant. The regimeof thenewly formed statb was totalitarian and authoritarian. The head of state,Dr. Ante

8 Pravoslavge(The Orthodoxy),Encyclopaedia of the LexicographicalInstitute, Vol. 5, LZ, Zagreb, 1969 Pavelicsand the Ustasha movement held allthe legislative and executive power. Legislation No Y\y\XV-232-Z-1942of 24th January 1942 re-establishing the Croatian Diet and the convening of the Diet,on the23rd of February1942 did not basically change the system of government.Religious mattersin thenew state came under the jurisdiction of theMinistry of Justiceand Religion. The internalorganization of thisministry was prescribed by the legislation of the9th of August1941. The ministrieswere divided into departments each with its own special responsibilities. One section only wasestablished at first,but later a Departmentfor Religionheaded by Fr.A. R. Glavas.Within the competenceof thisdepartment was "to regulate the status and legal relations of all religionsand their clergy;also religious matters of generalilegalimportance' .10 From March 1942 a Committeefor Justiceand Religion was active in the Diet;a memberof thiscommittee was a retireduniversity professorand former vice-ban, the respectedwriter Dr. Vinko Kriskovic.

Theministerial decree of l Bthof July1941 ruled that the title "The Serbian Orthodox Faith", which was consideredto be at discordwith the newstate organisation, be replacedwith "The Greek- Eastern Faith"as it wascalled before 1 91 8. By the decreeof the 4th of December 1941 "on the territoryof the IndependentState of Croatiathe Julian calendar is abolishedfrom the Sth of December1941 for the Greek-Easternand the Greek- Catholic Church and the Gregorian calendar is introduced".11

Theofficial view regarding religious freedom and the status of Orthodoxduring 1941 could be seen fromthe speech presented to the Dietby the Minister for Justice and Religion, Dr. Mirko Puk. "On the questionof religion,the Croatian government follows the principle which the founder of the Partyof Right,Dr. Ante Starcevicl2, enshrined in theheart and soul of theCroatian people. In hisguide for the followersof theparty he saysin clause136: the Partyof Rightmust teach the people that religion is a spiritualmatter, that no nationcan be dividedon a religiousbasis, that religion must be free,that no onecan impose his own religion by force, that a nationmust be onein happiness,well-being and freedom,and that the present disunity in Croatiais usedby theenemies of thepeople" .13 After this liberalquotation however, Dr. Puk continues: "The Croatian government recognizes 3 religions in Croatiai. e. theCatholic, Western or Easternrite, Muslim, and Evangelical of theAugsburg Helvetian confession".At theend of hisspeech Dr. Puk referred to " ... theSerbian Orthodox and Greek-Eastern Church.The Independent State of Croatiais notpersecuting the Greek-Eastern religion, but it cannot recognizethe Serbian Orthodox Church! lt is a knownfact that the EasternChurches belong to theso- calledCaesarean Churches i. e. to Churcheswhere religious matters are influenced by the establishment,as in thenomination of Churchhierarchies, so thatin realitythese Churches have no freedomin theirstructure or Organisation,neither do theyfunction freely but remain organs of the

o- Dr. Ante Pavelic(1 889-1959), founder of the nationalistUstasha organization in 1931; leaderof the IndependentState of Croatiafrom April 1941to May 1945. t0-' Spomen-knjigaprve obijetniceNezavisne Drzave Hrvatske 10.4. 1941.- 10.4.1942. (Bookof Remembranceto commemoratethe first anniversaryof the IndependentState of Croatia,1 0 April 1941 to 10 April 1942),State Officefor fnformationand Publicity,Zagreb, 1942 tt rbid.

^-l) Dr.AnteStarcevic(1823-1896),Croatianpolitician,founderofthePartyofRights.

13 As footnote10. establishment.The head of stateis alsothe head of theChurch and it is a knownfact that the laity playsa predominantrole. Therefore, to allowthe formation and existence of theSerbian Orthodox Churchon theterritory of theIndependent State of Croatiawould mean allowing the government of theSerbian State partly to governin theterritory of theIndependent State of Croatia,using the SerbianOrthodox Church. This no countryin theworld would or couldallow, and the Independent Stateof Croatiawill not allow it either.Those who for any reason do notwish to recognizethis historic conditionare free to leavethe territoryof thisstate".1a

Dr.Ante Pavelic in hisaddress to thefinal session of theCroatian Diet on the28 th of February 1942,referred also to the questionof Orthodoxyin the IndependentState of Croatiawith the following words:"Gentlemen! One thing which has so oftenhad its repercussions, both good and bad, for the Croatiannation and for our Croatian homeland is thequestion of theOrthodox Church. Not the Orthodoxreligion but the Church, because there is onlyone Christian religion. We usedto havea Greek-Eastern Church. lt wascalled Greek-Eastern because the Orthodox in ourcountry were under theGreek Patriarch whose chief care for them consisted in receivinghigh rewards for the anointing of bishops.The same situation also existed in Hungary.Hungarians, however, passed a lawby whichall Orthodoxwere made subjects to theSerbian Patriarch. Soon after the Croats copied the Hungarians andthe same law was passed in Croatia.In this way the Orthodox came under the ruleof theSerbian Patriarch,and the name'Serbian Orthodox Church'was coined. There is noone in Croatiawho has anythingagainst the Orthodox faith. Everyone is prayingto Godaccording to hisown conscience, accordingto whathe haslearned in hisyouth, by hisbirth, by hisschooling and upbringing, and as he thinksbest for the salvation of hissoul. lt is notfor us to enterinto that most intimate side of human life,into the question of thesalvation of thesoul. lt is nottrue that the Croatian State aims to convert theOrthodox to theCatholic faith. That is notpolitical. That is leftto theindividual conscience. I personallywrote a circularwhich was distributed to theauthorities responsible in theprovinces and askedthem to keepa recordof theconversions, not only to Catholicismbut also to lslamand to Evangelicalism,and to givepermission only when satisfied that the convert is honestand doing it out of conviction.I stressed in thecircular that all meansmust be employedto preventany kind of force beingused by anybody. Despite this, violence was used in somecases but this was not done by the State,or withthe approval of theState, but by individualswho acted illegally or, if by officials,then theyhave overstepped their authority.15 Gentlemen! No one is touchingOrthodox but there is no room fora SerbianOrthodox Church in the Stateof Croatia.I repeat: there can be no Serbian,can be no GreekOrthodox Church. Why? Because everywhere in theworld Orthodox Churches are national Churches.The Serbian Orthodox Church is partand parcel of theSerbian State. The hierarchy of the SerbianOrthodox Church is ledby the Serbian State. lts staterepresentatives appoint the Patriarch, or at leastparticipate in hisappointment, and all the hierarchy depends on him,from bishop to

14 As footnote10.

^-t5 The existenceof this circularis attestedby the ArchbishopStepinac in his letterto Dr. Pavelic,dated 2Othof November 1941, in whichthe circularof 30th of August 1941 is mentionedand in whichthe Archbishopsays: "You have yourselfpublicly denouncedthe atrocitiescommitted by the individualswho calledthemselves Ustashas and whom you have orderedto be shot for their crimes.Your resolutestand to bringorder and justiceto the land deservesto be fully acknowledged". chaplain.All this is dependenton theSerbian establishment. This is so in Serbia,and has been so in thepast in unfortunateYugoslavia, but it maynot and will not be in theCroatian State. World Churcheswhich do notdepend on a statecould exist in Croatia,and there are such Churches. But if a Churchis nota worldChurch, then it canonly be a Croatiannational Church, it canonly be a Church whichhas full freedom in thespiritual domain and in freedomof conscience,but in allother matters it mustbe underthe control of theCroatian State. We willnever permit any Church to becomea political tool,particularly not one aimed against the existence of theCroatian nation and the Croatian State. Therefore,sensible men who care for spiritualthings will get together to analysethis question and to finda satisfactorysolution for the Orthodoxfaith, for the welfareof the people,and for the goodof the CroatianState".16

Fromthe address quoted above by theMinister Dr. Puk, and from the address by the Headof the Stateto theDiet, it willbe concludedthat the official position which the government of thenew state adoptedwas characterized by the following:

1. To affirmthe Croatian nation as a modernand religiously heterogeneous nation, in contrastto the outdatedand harmful identification of a nationwith a particularreligion. 2. In contrastto the liberal viewson thequestion of religionas proclaimedby Starcevic,to adopttotalitarian and authoritarian officialrecognition of onlyfour religions: Catholic (Roman Catholic and Greek Catholic), Muslim, ProtestantLutheran and Protestant Calvinist. 3. Notto recognizeor to tolerate,in theterritory of the IndependentState of Croatia,the Serbian Orthodox Church as an autocephalousnational Church of theSerbian State. 4. To explainthat the conversion of a numberof Orthodoxto Catholicismand the atrocitiescommitted against the Orthodox population under the Ustasha name, had no supportfrom thegovernment nor was it encouraged.5. To solvethe problem of Orthodoxyin a Croatianframework by recognizingan autocephalousCroatian Orthodox Church.

THECOMPLEXITY OF THE SITUATION IN 1941PRIOR TO THE FOUNDATION OF THE CROATIANORTHODOX CHURCH An unbiased,objective and detailed historical analysis of events in the IndependentState of Croatiaduring 1941 has not yet been written. Neither is it ourintention to writeone, as thiswould require a completebook. But, as thereis a needto givea conciseaccount of eventswhich influenced the situation of Orthodoxyin the lndependentState of Croatiaand led to the foundationof theCroatian Orthodox Church, it is necessaryto explainand clarify some basic notions. Thelack of a clearunderstanding of these notions prevents a properanalysis of thesevery complex events,events which were the result of equallycomplex causes and were made capital of by malicious generalization.lt is necessaryto explain,first of all,the relationship between modern Serbian and Croatiannationalism, the Catholic/Orthodox relations, and finally the relations between the andthe Ustashas.

CONFLICTBETWEEN MODERN SERBIAN AND CROATIAN NATIONALISM Modern Serbian nationalismbegan to developat thebeginning of thelast century in theBelgrade pashalic of thethen Turkishterritory, mainly under the influence and with the support of themetropolitan see of Karlovciin theHungaro-Croatian region of Vojvodinaand East Srijem. Without a contemporaryplatform for statehoodit tookfor itsbasis the ancient Serbian tradition of Dusan'sempire and the death of Tsar l6 As footnote10.

l0 Lazaron theField of .On the other hand the lack of a formal,national, cultural and religious centrewas substituted for by the metropolitansee of Karlovci,supported periodically by the Russian Church(the Patriarchate of Pechad been denationalized long before and subsequenfly abolished). Theinsurrection in the territory of theBelgrade pashalic, of thealready decadent Turkish empire, resultedin thecreation and subsequent recognition (in 1833)of theSerbian principality with help from tsaristRussia. lslam was eliminated from the territory and the principality became a nationallyand religiouslyhomogenous centre for future assembling of landsin whichthe Serbs lived; also a centre forthe Great Serbian imperialism, with expansionist policies into territories with no Serbianpopulation or wherethe Serbian population was in a minority.These territorial aspirations were based on the desireto renewDusan's empire (by conquest of Sanjak,Macedonia, Albania and Montenegro) and theextent of theactivities the Pec Patriarchate had had during Turkish rule (Vojvodina, Bosnia and Herzegovinaand Croatia excluding a narrowstretch between the riverDrava and the Adriatic).

Theformation of modernCroatian nationalism had a completelydifferent origin. lt wasbased on the continuityof ancientCroatian statehood, beginning with a principality,later a kingdom(the first king, Tomislav,crowned in 923),preserving its individuality during the time of Hungaro-Croatianpersonal Union;17on thehistoric, legalistic and ethnic conception of a Unitarylllyricum (in Dalmatiam, Croatiam, Bosnamet Slavoniamdistinguitur), during and after the Renaissanceand the autonomous Triune Kingdom(Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia), within the HapsburgMonarchy. Although with an apparenly solidbase for statehood and with traditions in constitutionaland legalistic institutions (like ban /viceroy/ andSabor /DieU), 19th century Croatia had great weaknesses also. The ruling class, in part denationalisedaristocracy, took no partin thecontemporary Croatian national movement but strongly resistedit. Inaddition to this,three centuries of territorialseparation (Ban's Croatia, Military Frontier, VenetianDalmatia, the DubrovnikRepublic and the territories under Turkish rule), the militaryzone in thegeographical centre of Croatianterritory, and migrations, weakened the consciousness of its ancientstatehood in someareas. "The Croatian NationalAwakening Movement" introduced modern nationalideas on theunity of theCroatian language and culture (from 1830). But at thesame time it usheredin thenebulous ideas of lllyrianism,Slavism, and Yugoslavism. For this reason modern Croatiannationalism was left behind the development of modernnationalism in Serbia,and it was Starcevicand "Pravastvo" (the Party of CroatianRights) who could be consideredthe foundersof modernCroatian political nationalism which had worked, not only in unitingthe Military Frontier and Dalmatiawith the Triune Kingdom, but also on unificationwith Bosnia, Herzegovina and lstria.

Theconflict between Croatian and Serbian modern nationalism started when nationalist ideas spread,from the region of Zagrebon theCroatian side and from the Novisad/Belgrade region on the Serbianside, towards , at thattime still in Turkish hands, its population nonawakenednationally; and when the metropolitan see of Karlovciaimed for a definiteinclusion of all theOrthodox from the territory of theTriune Kingdom (Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia) and from Bosnia andHerzegovina into the Serbs. "Pravastvo" (the Party of CroatianRights) resisted this with the modernidea of a multi-religiousCroatian nation, but the anti-Croatian regimes of Khuen,Hedervary in Ban'sCroatia, Autonomists in Dalmatia,and Kallay in Bosnia,saw to it thatthe Serbian equation,

-t7 Croato-Hungarianpersonal union, also knownas "PactaConventa": an agreementfrom 11 02 by which Croatiabecame an associatedor autonomouskingdom under the suzeraintyof the Hungariancrown.

11 Orthodox= Serb,prevailed. This later brought the analogous equation: Catholic = Croat.The Muslims wereleft mostly unaligned in the middle.A numberof Orthodoxand Muslims, however, accepted the modernformula propagated by "Pravasi" about the religiously heterogeneous Croatian nation, and that is whythere are a numberof Orthodoxand Muslim Croats; cases of Catholicor MuslimSerbs were exceptionallyrare.

CATHOLICISMAND ORTHODOXY Catholicism as a majorbranch of WesternChristianity is thefaith of themajority of theCroats and also gave a Catholiccharacter to theAustro- Hungarian Monarchy. lt wasthe religion of thedynasty and of themajority of nationsmaking up the monarchy: Austrians, Hungarians,Croats, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes and Ukrainians. As a universalChurch, Catholicismat thattime still aimed to proselytise,but this was founded on a purelyvoluntary basis. A proofof thiswas the fact that the privileged position Catholicism enjoyed in Austro-Hungarywas not exploitedduring the last few centuries. There was no proselytizationeither through persuasion or force.Religious freedom was complete.

TheOrthodox Church, as alreadymentioned, has no unitaryorganisation like the Catholic Church. In additionto beingdivided into old and traditional national Churches, Orthodoxy was also adapting itself to thenewly formed nations and to the newnational states and it oftenbecame their main propellent force.On the other hand these newly formed nations and national states encouraged the formation of theirown Orthodox Churches to freetheir citizens from the control of othernational Orthodox Churcheswhich were under the influence of foreignstates and governments. From these developmentsit followed that the territorysettled by the Croatswas a meetingplace for threemajor faiths:Catholic, Orthodox and lslam. While Catholicism and lslam are universal religions, Orthodoxy is dividedinto a numberof nationalChurches. As theCroats had not founded an autocephalous CroatianOrthodox Church by the time of NationalAwakening(although in 1861Kvaternikls appealed to banSokcevic to found a Ghurch),the Serbian Orthodox Church took its place for the greater part of theOrthodox population among the Croats and at thesame time succeeded in winningover to the Serbiancause the majority of theOrthodox population, mainly the already slavonicized and croaticized descendantsof theVlachs. In otherwords the proselytism of SerbianOrthodoxy among the Croats did notonly have a religiouscharacter (as in theofficial Catholic Church) but also had a nationalistic Serbiandimensions, which sometimes led to nationalintolerance.

THECHETNIKS AND THE USTASHAS The Chetniks, a Serbianmilitary Organisation with expansionistaims, was formed in Belgradein 1903with the intentionof fightingthe Turks. Later it was engagedin a waragainst Bulgarian comitadjis and against the Austro-Hungarian occupying forces duringthe First World War. Between the two wars (1918-1941) the Chetnik Organisation became an extremist(Great) Serbian monarchist group with the aim of turningYugoslavia into a GreatSerbia by usingterror and extermination when necessary to "clear"mixed regions from non-Serbian elements, as forexample the purging of Muslimsfrom Sanjak after the First World War. Thus Chetniks became an importantelement in thepersecution of Croatsin pre-warYugoslavia.

IR-- EugenKvaternik ('1825-1871), Croatian politician; with Ante Starcevic co-founder of theParty of Rights;in 1871attempted andunsuccessful uprising in Rakovica,Croatia.

T2 Theformation and development of theUstasha movement is describedby the historian, Jere Jareb, as follows:"After 1918 the Croatian people found themselves for the first time in a Balkanstate where bruteforce, murders and secretive revolutionary organizations were normal political phenomena. The philosophybehind the formation of theUstasha movement was the conviction that force must be answeredby force.The Ustashamovement was an answerto the (Great)Serbian oppression and to lawlessnessin Croatia.For the first time in Croatianpolitics the Ustasha movement introduced and appliedBalkan political methods. lt was necessaryto showthe Serbsthat the Croatsalso knew how to useguns and to defendthemselves and attack. Radic's1s and Macek's2o politics of pacifismand humanitarianismonly provoked contempt from (Great) Serbs. lt is possiblethat this kind of politics createdan illusionand a confidenceamong the (Great) Serbs, making them believe that it wouldbe easyto finishoff the Croats". E. "Dido" Kvaternik, one of theleading Ustasha functionaries, said this: "AntiSerbian feeling was the essence of the Ustashadoctrine, its raison d'etre and ceterum censeo. Thiswas the result of 20 yearsof ruleby Belgradein Croatiaand of theknowledge that the Serbian rulingestablishment wanted to exterminatethe Croatian nation. Aleksandar Karadjordjevic2l created AntePavelic, Chetniks created Ustashas".

Sowhen Croatian and Serbian nationalisms came into conflict, the extreme Chetnik and Ustasha organizationscame to gripsin theirown specific way.

THECONFLICT BETWEEN THE USTASHAS AND THE CHETNIKS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF CROATIADURING 1941 AND ITS CONSEQUENCE FOR ORTHODOXY Soon after the IndependentState of Croatiawas founded, the newgovernment consolidated relatively quickly in thoseareas which constituted "Banovina Hrvatska" (Ban's Croatia from 1939 to 1941),and where the majorityof thepopulation was Croatian. In those parts of theformer Vrbaska Banovina and Drinska Banovinawith the compact Serbian districts it tooksome time for the new administration to consolidate,which gave time to theChetnik element to amasstheir arms and prepare the population for an uprising.Already, at thevery beginning, excesses took place, committed by Ustashasin those partsof the countrywhere Serbs were in a minorityand by Chetniksin thoseparts with Croat Muslim or Catholicpopulation in a minority.Political gatherings which took place during the months of May andJune in 1941and at whichthe high Ustasha functionaries harangued against the (Great) Serbs, aggravatedthe situation.At the sametime mass uprisings against the newstate were started by the Serbianpopulation in partsof BosanskaKrajina and in EastBosnia and Herzegovina, organized or encouragedby the Chetniks. The minorities under attack either perished or escaped.Croat Muslims andCatholics into the townsand Serbs into the forests. Following the firstwave of terroristexcesses, massacres,plunderings, house burnings and the destruction of placesof worship(Orthodox, Catholic andMuslim) came retaliations, which caused suffering mainly to theinnocent population who had not escaped.Intervention by the authoritieswas too slowand ineffectivebecause the newadministration

1()'- StjepanRadic (1871-1928), Croatian politician; with his brotherAnteco-founder of the CroatianPeasant Party in 1904;shot and mortallywounded in the BelgradeParliament

'rn -" Dr Vlatko Macek(1879-1964), Croatian politician; Radic's successor as leader of theCroatian Peasant Pafiy; died in exile in the USA.

2l Al"kr"nd* Karadjordjevic,king of Yugoslavia;assassinated in Marseillesin 1934.

t3 wasonly beginning to formand the policestations which had only recently been set up were unable to preventthe mass terrorism. ln thissituation the Serbian minority in sometowns and villages in the Pannonianregion lived in fearof reprisals,which caused some to escapeto Serbia;while others decidedto changetheir religion from Serbian Orthodoxy to anotherdenomination. In the non- mixed, purelyCroatian regions there were no suchproblems and only after the outbreak of warbetween Germanyand the Soviet Union the first communist guerilla units formed. ln themeantime the Partisansskillfully exploited the ChetniUUstasha conflict for their own aims.

Fromthe above circumstances and from a verybrief analysis of eventsduring 1941 , which caused thepersecutions and the civil war in the mixed regions of thelndependent State of Croatia,the followingconclusions can be drawn:1.The presence of threereligions (Catholic, Orthodox and Muslim)in theterritory of the IndependentState of Croatiawas not a causeof thepersecutions and thecivilwar. History has shown that peaceful co-existence and tolerance among the three religions in thisterritory was possible. 2. Theconflict between Croatian and Serbian nationalism was not the main causeof thepersecutions and the civil war because these conflicts were solved in thepast by peacefulmeans and not by the useof force.3. lt is incorrectto presentthe eventsof 1941as if they weretypical for the whole duration of thewar, from 1941 to 1945.4. Conditionswere not the same for thewhole territory of theIndependent State of Croatia.lt dependedon whowere: a) Chetnikor Ustashaleaders, commandants or functionaries.b) Inwhose hands lay the power(Chetniks, officials of theformer Yugoslav government or of theformer government of Ban'sCroatia, HSS /Croatian PeasantsPartyl, Ustashas emigrants, native Ustashas under the oath or self-styledUstashas, the so called"Nastashas",22 c) Whether the region in questionwas ethnically mixed or purelyCroatian or Serbian.d) Whetherthe area was in thezone occupied by ltalianswho supported and aided the Chetniks.e) Thedegree of a rebellioustradition among the population which depended on the geographicallocation of thatarea (whether Pannonian, Dinaric or Littoral).Polemical arguments about "whostarted first?" are pointless because, depending on circumstances,it was started either in the nameof Chetniksor in thename of Ustashas,but always by an irresponsibleelement.

Whatthen was the main cause for starting the persecutions and civil war in 1941,which in some areasand under specific conditions degenerated from military or semi-militaryactions to mass reprisalsagainst the civilian population and which the adherents of communismlater used for their ownaims, stressing the absurdity of thisconflict? lt wasmainly'the conflict between the Chetniks and Ustashas.ln thatconflict all three religions: Catholic, Orthodox and Muslim, suffered and endured persecutions,including massacres, murdering of priestsand burning down of churchesand mosques. However,neither the Serbian nor the Croatian nation could be collectively blamed for the violence and crimescommitted and for the misuse of power,nor could the members of anyindividual religion, nor couldamorphous groups like the Croatian or Serbiannationalists or themembers of massorganised movementssuch as Ustashasand Chetniks, although these were extremist organisations. Only those

--t) As the Ustashamovement was not numerousbefore the foundationof the IndependentState of Croatia,in many regions there were no organizedUstashas from pre-wartimes. lf the CroatianPeasant Party was weak, or even non-existent,in certain areas of the new state,this allowedirresponsible elements to wear the Ustashauniform and to declarethemselves Ustashas. These undisciplinedself-styled and self-appointedUstashas were of a dubiouscharacter and Ustashaauthorities named them 'Wild Ustashas"or "Nastashas"and did all in their powerto eliminatethem, includingexecutions for crimes.

t4 irresponsibleindividuals who committed the crimes could be heldresponsible, but the majorityof these unfortunatelyremained anonymous; even more, some of themlater succeeded in joining the Partisan movement.

CASESOF CONVERSIONFROM ORTHODOXY TO CATHOLICISMAs canbe seenfrom the situationin 1941the Serbian Orthodox Church, as a Churchwith a Serbiannational character was proscribed,while the Greek- Eastern Church, as theOrthodox Church was renamed and as it usedto becalled in thetime of theAustro-Hungarian empire, was not officially organised or recognisedand remainedwithout a leader.In that way the Orthodox were in factleft without a churchorganization unlessthey belonged to anotherautocephalous Church such as theRussian, Bulgarian, Romanian, etc.,and in whichclergy were available. The formation of theIndependent State of Croatiaand the Ustashacampaigns against the (Great) Serbs made many of theOrthodox population accept the situation,depending on circumstances(for example, renewal of oldloyalty to Croatiaamong the Orthodox"Krajisnici") or createda climateof uncertainty(with regard to possiblereaction from the persecutionof Croatsin pre-warYugoslavia). When it becameknown that power had been misused andatrocities committed, the Orthodox population in mixedareas and in thetowns with Orthodox minoritiesbecame fearful, and while some escaped to Serbia,even when not being persecuted, others,on theirown initiative, converted to Catholicism,or occasionallyProtestantism, to avoid current or possiblepersecutions. Therefore the phenomenon of groupsof Orthodoxconverting to Catholicism representsa separate chapter in theevents which took place in the lndependentState of Croatia during1941. There are three assertions about this phenomenon. a) GreatSerbian and the present officialYugoslav: the conversion took place because the Orthodox populationwere forced by Ustashas,by the government of the IndependentState of Croatia,and even bythe Catholic Church. b) Thesisabout conversions as a resultof fear:the conversions were not forced, neither were they intendedby theauthorities of the IndependentState of Croatia.The Orthodox population came to the ideaand went ahead with it voluntarilyand on theirown initiative, but it wasdone out of fearto save themselvesfrom eventual violence. c) Theassertion by Dr.A. Pavelicand Dr. S. Hefer:the conversions followed from the voluntary desire of someof thegroups of theOrthodox population to be identifiedin faithwith their Catholic brethren in oneCroatian homeland. This would include cases of conversionby someOrthodox to Catholicismout of a convictionthat they were returning to the faithof theirforefathers. To provethis thesis Dr. Pavelic andDr. Hefer quoted deputations of Orthodoxpeasants from the surrounding of Sunjareceived by Dr. Pavelic,and delegations from the region of theGreat County of Baranja(the broader surroundings of Osijek)who were coming to Dr. Hefer.

Thereis no doubtthat the first thesis (a) is incorrect,and that it is propagandistand tendentious for tworeasons: 1. The Catholic Church authorities decisively resisted the conversions when it wasnot clearthat the request resulted from the free wish of theapplicant. 2. Generallyspeaking the majority of theUstasha movement members and their leaders were not particularly pro-Catholic, nor were they especiallyanti Orthodox. They were against the (Greater) Serbs and only because of thatwere they againstthe Serbian Orthodoxy. This is provedby theexcellent relations between the Ustasha

15 ?"q.tiC, D\ n"^ 6''1"}.-..4nr r /*. tlqU^ (H"Ui)ks"r,"&d A n^Ly " ?;ffit^'^ y, -$rZ, f f *11 Agl'tly'j

i "?.ubVo , 0g 6rco DrbrovLo fae<) r / >udb;ns huw+lhimVoCh'anm,, $,t?qf, iet,tt,lz",t?fu-f*'t/^,* ri.,r<-pa gqytto.ln \€ *r^fiU. ;i"!qicin;, BuL B,Js'P)tq" ppuf @l [au|fuil< tt ?ottnct,?oL/7tert? u Tinttarr AtwNzl4ori-/5r-rgo.7

o movementand the Orthodox Macedonians, Bulgarians, Romanians Ukrainians and Russians before andduring the war.

Regardingthe theses (b) and (c), it is probablethat both of thesewere followed depending upon whetherthere were reasons for fearor not.Nevertheless we believethat the casesas describedin (b) weremore numerous. Only in certainacute cases of persecutionsthe local Catholic Church authorities allowedthe conversions as a quickmeans of protectingthe Orthodox population (and their property) witha viewto a laterreturn to Orthodoxy.2tDr. Stlepan Hefer, formally a memberof the Croatian PeasantParty and during the war a highofficial in Osijekand later a ministerin the IndependentState of Croatia,would often recount that in 1941whole villages from the Osijek area came in procession underCroatian banners, headed by the cavalry and led by their elders, to beconverted to Catholicism. Hecomplained that this was later ruined by the self-styled, or "WildUstashas", who started blackmailingand robbing prominent peasant converts.

ORTHODOXCROATS With the problem concerning the Serbian Orthodox Church in the Independent Stateof Croatiait seemsthat in 1941the spiritual needs of theOrthodox Croats were neglected. lt is possiblethat some will try to concludethat the number of Croatsof Orthodoxfaith was very small whentaking into account that the greatmajority of the Orthodoxpopulation on the territoryof the IndependentState of Croatiaat thattime considered themselves to be Serbs.There were only a few whotook into account that, regardless of theirnumber, the Orthodox Croats, following the intensive serbianizationof Orthodoxy in Croatia,found themselves torn between their Croatian national consciousnessand their religious affiliation which officially came under the domain of theSerbian OrthodoxChurch. The contribution of theseCroats to theirhomeland, especially before the metropolitansee of Karlovcistarted openly forcing their equation: Orthodox = = Serb,was very important.These are only some of themost prominent personalities: Anastas Popovic (1786-1872), founderof thefirst Croatian savings-bank, the biggest financial institution in Croatiaat thattime, and a presidentof theOrthodox community in Zagreb;Mosije Baltic (1804-78), an eminentpromoter of agronomy;Dr. Dimitrije Demeter (1811-72), a poet and the first modern Croatian dramatist; Petar Preradovic(1818- 72),the nalAwakening;JosipRunjanin (1821- 78),composer of the Croati 1823-73),a lawyerand politician, secretaryto ban(viceroy) J | 824-87),a politicianand presidentof the Croatian Diet(1873-84); Vladimir Nikolic (1829-66), a poetand a writer;Spiro Dimitrovic Kotoranin (1813- 68),a Croatianwriter; Bude Budisavljevic (1843-1919), a Croatian writer; Danilo Medic (8aa-79), a poet;the HonourableDr. lvo MalinKsaverski (1853-1907), a university professor and a secretary andadviser to theCroatian government; 1856-1926),an historianand presidentof theYugoslav Academy of S ndArts; Mojo Medic (1855- 1939), a zoologist; NikolaKokotovic (1859-1917), a writer and politician (Croatian Party of Rights);the HonourableDr StjepanMiletic (1868-1908), a writer and a reformerof theCroatian theatre; Dr. Milan Ogrizovic

23 Dr.V Macekin his book tn the Struggtefor Freedomsays that the communistsdid not investigatethe reasonswhy Catholic priestsaccepted converts, but persecutedthem for that. "Notablyin the case of a priest from Sarajevo who said to the 'Children, Orthodox converts: your mother, the Ofthodox Church,ls ln dlsfress and is unable to take care of you. You came to the Catholic Church,your aunt, and when your mother has recovered you will return to her.' As a reward the priest was sentenced to death after the wa/'.

t6 '!* 'J lq$,Jo tqzs-, [vo to{f,}tc,.F', "./'Lle k ?hs.",bo/"ilo,W,/?q$ ""8.''**i- S..-4,'€.^\e Ecrh- {'oLde/ ,ffT, fb"u L,nA7,,^*.,L

4 us/o^)c..c-iz a7Lovi{ kol^ot^^ r.^ol,"F^ , (*tu. ZoS, (1877-1923),a poetand writer and a politician(Croatian Party of Rights);Petar Petrovic Pecija (1877-1955),a Croatian writer; the Honourable Svetozar Borojevic of Bojna(1856-1922), a renownedgeneral from the First World War, and numerous other qenerals and hiqh officers of the CroatianHome Guard; Dusan Plavsic, a writerand a secretaryof "TheCroatian Club" in Sarajevo; renownedfollowers of the CroatianParty of Rights,Dusan Kotur and DaneStranisavljevic; StjepanMitrov Ljubisa (???- op. M.K.), a Memberof Parliament;Mihajlo Markovic (1869-1923), an actor;Novak Simic (1906),a Croatianwriter; then the Cr.oAtjalgenerals and officers of the.Sec.Er.d. WorldWar, Gen. Fedor Dragojlov and Gen. Djuro Grujic, of staff in Lavoslav Milic, chiefof ; Vladimir Graovac, commanderof the Cr6itianair forcebomber uniton the EasternFront;2a Dr. Savo Besarovic(???- op.M.K.), a Memberof Parliamentand a ministerin thegovernment of theIndependent State of Croatia;Uros Doder, a Memberof Parliamentin theIndependent State of Oroatia;prominent priests of theCroatian Orthodox Chu.rch: Vaso Surlan, Spiridon Mifka, Miron Federer, Sevast'ljan Peric, DositejTeodorovic, Amvrosije Veselinovic, Rafail Stanivukovic, etc.

It willbe of someinterest to mentionthat the mother of Dr.Ante Starcevic, the founder of modern Croatiannationalism and of theParty of Rights,was Orthodox by birth.AIso that the rebelsin the Croatiannational uprising for the independence of Croatia in Rakovica(in 1871),led by Eugen Kvaternik,were blessed in the localOrthodox church by the priest,Father Popovic, and that the majorityof the rebelswere Orthodox, including their commander Rade Cuic. lt willalso be of interestto mentionthat PatriarchJosif Rajacic, the Metropolitanof Karlovci,enthroned ban (viceroy) Jelacicin 1848.At a receptionheld by banSokcevic in 1861,Eugen Kvaternik had drawnban's attentionto the existenceof the OrthodoxGroats and stressed"the needfor a Croatian OrthodoxPatriarch". lt is possiblethat the ban's resignation was the only reason why this idea never materialized.The standpoint of Ante Radicregarding the OrthodoxGroats should also be mentioned.He said:"We do not considerthat everyone of the SerbianOrthodox faith is a Serb;the mind tellsus fhig but we can also seeit amongthe people.We havefound many peasantsof the SerbianOrthodox faith who totd us thatthey are Croats".25In addition to thoseof the Orthodoxfaith whodeclared themselves to be Croats,it shouldbe notedthat there were numerous Orthodox who, due to the influenceof the SerbianOrthodox Church, did not declarethemselves Groats and consideredthemselves to be Serbs,at the sametime feeling that Croatiawas their homeland and that they belongedin the Groatiancultural sphere (,,politiEki kroatizam"- op. M.K.).Among theseare: Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), a renowned scientist who said: "l am a Serbbut my homelandis Croatia";Dr. Pavao Vuk- Pavlovic (1894-?), a universityprofessor, philosopher, and also a numberof Croatianwriters: Stevan Galogala (1893-1944), Vladan Desnica (1905-57), Milan Nolinic (1921), VojinJelic (1921),Cedo Prica (1931), Jovan S. Prica;then the well known artists of theCroatian NationalTheatre:Miso Dimitrijevic (1854- 1909), Mila Jovanovic- Dimitrijevic (1876), Josip Papic A^Nl4d{ P 'o Whil" at the explicitrequest of Dr. Macek,the vice-presidentof the Yugoslavgovernment, Col. I was promotedto there were officers of the Orthodox faith, as for example t{-' ,,Mi ne ddimo svakoga Srbinom, tko je srpsko-pravoslavn zakona (ujere); to nas uii razum, a vidimo to i u narodu. Mi smo naili toliko seljakasrpsko-pravoslavne ujere, koji su nam_kazalida su Hrvati..." (Ante RADIC, Sabranadjela, Zagreb, 1939.). Ove rijediAnte Radica takoclerje naveo Milo5 OBRKNEZEVIC, Razvoj pravoslavlja u Hrvatskoj i Hrvatska pravoslavna ctuva, M0nchen-Barcelona,1979., Posebni otisak iz Hrvatskerevije, sv. 2, 1979.,249-250.

I7 (1881-1927),Gavro Savic (1854-after 1910), Zarko Savic (1861-after 1914), Strahinja Petrovic (1892-?)and Dr. Miroslav Pantic, a formerMember of Parliamentfrom Bijeljina, and others.

We havelisted these concrete examples to showthat Orthodox Croats existed and that they still existand also that there are some Serbs who consider Croatia to betheir homeland. The exact numberof OrthodoxCroats will never be knownwhile the Serbian Orthodox Church has exclusive rightsover the Orthodox population in Croatia.

NEGOTIATIONSABOUT THE FOUNDATION OF THECROATIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH AT THE BEGINNINGOF 1942

Thedevelopment of eventsduring 1941 in the IndependentState of Croatiaimmediately provoked o reactionand condemnation by the Croatian public. The Croatian Catholic primate, Archbishop of Zagreband later cardinal of theCatholic Church, Dr. Alojzije Stepinac, on a fewoccasions publicly condemnedthe ferocity of theUstasha/Chetnik conflicts and its consequences and the disrespect for humanlife and dignity. Professor Filip Lukas, a presidentof "MaticaHrvatska" and a Croatiannational ideologist(1929-1941) also publicly condemned the lawlessness in hisspeech at theannual meeting of "MaticaHrvatska" at thebeginning of 1942.lnthe autumn of 1941Croatian Muslims dissociated themselvespublicly from the atrocities with resolutions signed by eminentMuslim citizens in Sarajevo, Mostarand Banja Luka. Responsible men inside the Ustashamovement, especially those with Catholicand liberal orientation (in contrast to thosewith fascist ideas), after seeing that it wasleading nowhere,informed Dr. Pavelic about the whole situation and in somecases returned their membership cardsas a signof protestagainst the self-styled or "WildUstashas".

Beforethe end of June1941 Croatian regular military forces did not exist; the formation of these beganonly in July1941 after the Croatian government succeeded in convincingRome and Berlin of theneed to establisha Croatianmilitary force. Only toward the end of theyear was a plandrawn up aboutthe formation of "HrvatskoDomobranstvo?'.26 Croatian Serbs were not called to national service.The Chetniks exploited this and recruited them into Chetnik units. During the first months of 1942it becameclear to the majorityof governmentofficials that a deadend hadbeen reached in the guerillawar. Dr. Pavelic then established a headquarters and at thefirst meeting there the problem of theirattitude towards the Serbian minority was raised. According to E."Dido" Kvaternik all the present membersof thegovernment and the representativesof the militaryforces agreed that the timewas rightto smoothout the conflict with the Serbs. Dr. Pavelic stressed that the Croatian Orthodox Church wouldbe establishedas a firststep toward this pacification. Shortly after that came the already quoted speechby Dr.Pavelic in Sabor(Diet) on the28th of February1942 suggesting this possibility as a solution.The question of establishingthe Croatian Orthodox Church was discussed in March1942 in the Departmentof Justiceand Religion when Dr. Vinko Kriskovic courageously stood for liberal changein thelegal status of Serbsin Croatiaon thebasis of humanrights, freedom of confession, ethicsand morality.

26 HrvatskoDomobranstvo (Croatian Homedefence Force): the Croatianregular military force.

18 At thattime I wasin Srijem.I am a Serbby nationality(not an OrthodoxCroat as somebelieve), bornin Belgradein 1910.My forefathers came from Neuzin in Banat.After qualifying as a lawyerI spentmany years in theemployment of theSerbian Orthodox Church, first as an apprenticeto the judiciaryand later as a legaladviser in SrijemskiKarlovci. During the war, in April 1941, I wasserving in theYugoslav army as a lawyerwith the rank of captain,first class. I succeededin escaping captivity,but when Srijem was incorporatedinto the lndependentState of Croatiain October1941 | wasimprisoned, and later released after the intervention of myCroatian friends. Before being included intothe Independent State of Croatia,Srijem was, like Serbia, under German occupation. In April 1941 thePatriarch of theSerbian Orthodox Church, Gavrilo Dozic, was arrested by the Germans in the Ostrogmonastery in Montenegro.For refusing to collaboratewith the Germans he was kept in internmentfor the duration of thewar. In this new situation the synod elected the Metropolitanof Skopje,Josif Cvijovic, to deputizefor PatriarchGavrilo in the territoryof Serbia.During that time the Germanstook from Srijem part of theChurch archives and valuables. Through Metropolitan Josif, who keptin touchwith Patriarch Gavrilo, and was hisclose co-operator, the Patriarchsent a messagethat, dueto thenew situation, everything should be doneto normalizeOrthodox matters in the new CroatianState. Based on thatdirective, the before-mentionedspeech by Dr. Pavelic,and the courageousstand by Dr. Kriskovicin the CroatianSabor, first contacts were made with the authorities of theIndependent State of Croatia,through Fr. A. R. Glavas,Secretary of theDepartment for Religion in theMinistry of Justiceand Religion." Since the authorities of theIndependent State of Croatiadid notwant to havedirect talks with the SerbianOrthodox Church or withits legalrepresentative, Josif, I wasasked, as a layman,to undertakenegotiations. Next I wasreceived by Dr.Pavelic three times. In thefirst meeting, which lasted three and a halfhours, we discussedthe constitution of theCroatian OrthodoxChurch which I draftedon the basisof the SerbianOrthodox Church constitution of the 16th of November1931, mainly by alteringthe referencesfrom the former state, government and nationality to thenew state, government and nationality. Two further meetings were held, mainly for additional revisionsand to talkabout the candidate who would receive the highest hierarchic position. During the negotiationsand discussions I insisted and persevered on thelegal and canonical aspects, and these weregranted to meThe interest of Dr.Pavelic was concentrated mainly on linguisticand symbolic things,since my knowledge of Croatianliterary language and orthography and of Croatianhistory was inadequate.

Duringthe negotiations in Zagreb I sawthat I wasbeing followed and spied upon by certain persons, thereforetwo bodyguards were assigned to me.lt waslater found that the Hungarians, the Germans andthe Englishtook an interestin thewhole affair, hoping to finda politicalaspect to it, butwhen they sawthat it wasonly of a religiousnature, they lost interest. To theassumption by FikretaJelic- Butic thatthe idea about the Croatian Orthodox Church "probably originated in thefirst place from the Germans"on accountof a reportby A. Heferand a statementby S. Kasche(the German ambassador

27 | ,ererber. Fr. Glavaswith great affection.lt was clearfrom the outsetthat he was a very culturedand refinedman (in additionto beinga priesthe was also a teacherand a literarycritic). He sincerelywished to solvethe problemof Orthodoryin a correctway and to everyone'ssatisfaction He said that as the CatholicChurch did not like state interferenceinto ecclesiastical matters,so in the same way the state shouldnot interferewith other confessions.lt is to his credit,that the authoritieswere not involved,to a great extent,in the nominationsfor the CroatianOrthodox Church. Feeling no guilt he did not retreatin May 1945 but his name is on the first list of those executedby the Partisansin Zagreb

t9 in the IndependentState of Croatia),28| have to saythat all myactivities were carried out exclusively withthe Croatian authorities and that there were no indicationsthat the Germans were involved. or thatthey gave the initiative.

Onthe 31 of March1942, on theeve of theCatholic Easter a short"Provision of the lawabout the CroatianOrthodox Church" was published in thegazette "Narodne Novine" under the number XC-817- 2-1942signed bythe Ministerof Justiceand Religions, Dr. Mirko Puk, and bythe head of state, accordingto whichthe Orthodox Church in Croatiawas established. Soon after this legal notice the workof organizingthe Croatian Orthodox Church started, and the final organization and activities were determinedby the constitution of theCroatian Orthodox Church which came into force on theSth of June1942, under the number CLXIV- 1386-2- 1942. The organization of theCroatian Orthodox Churchwas, in accordancewith its constitution, autocephalous and episcopalian. lts ecclesiastical- hierarchicaland autonomous organs were the Patriarchof theCroatian Orthodox Church and the Metropolitanof Zagreb,the HolyArchidiaconal Synod, the High Church Court, the episcopate, the parishchurch courts, the archidiaconaldignitaries, the priests and the church administrative councils. Administrativelythe Church was divided into eparchies, archidiaconal regions and parishes. For dogmaand canon law the Croatian Orthodox Church was based on theHoly Scriptures and on holy traditionin accordancewith the teachings of HolyOrthodoxy and on thecanons of thegeneral church synods,and administratively on the constitution of theCroatian Orthodox Church and on thedecisions andorders of thechurch regions authorized by the constitution.

Inaddition to formulatingand promulgating the constitution of theCroatian Orthodox Church, the selectionof a suitableperson of appropriaterank and qualification for the Metropolitan was important, andfor this consultation and agreement with several high persons in theOrthodox hierarchy was necessary.While the constitutionof the CroatianOrthodox Church was discussed I madecontact with dignitarieswho were willing to acceptthis duty and status and who had all the prerequisite spiritual qualifications.The person who already had the title of Metropolitan,and who responded to the invitation,was the Most Reverend Germogen, the former Metropolitan of Novomoskovskfrom Kuban. MetropolitanGermogen, on leavingthe seminary, attended the Academy of Theology,became a ministerand a parishpriest. Later he becameprofessor, and then rector of theFaculty of Theologyin Saratov.Married and the fatherof a largefamily, he entereda monasteryafter the deathof hiswife. Laterhe becamearchimandrite and was elected as a deputybishop in theeparchy of Don.During the FirstWorld War he was elected Archibishop of Yekaterinoslavand Novomoskovsk. He leftRussia duringthe Revolution and spent some time in Greece,on theisland of Lemnos,and on Mt.Athos. ln 1922he came to theKingdom of theSerbs, Croats and Slovenes and stayed in themonasteries of ,Rakovac and, before the Second World War, in the Hopovomonastery in Srijem.According to theconstitution of theCroatian Orthodox Church, and in agreementwith the ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople,a patriarch would head the Croatian Orthodox Church in Zagreb.This function howeverwas taken by the Most Rev. Germogen at therank of Metropolitan,due to thewar circumstances.Further arrangements were left for the future. Romanian, Bulgarian and Greek OrthodoxChurches, as wellas theecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople,were notified about the

'8J"fi"-Brti",F.: UsfaseiNDH, 1g41-1945(Usfashas andthetndependentStateof Croatia, 1941-lg45),LiberandSkolska knjiga,Publishers, Zagreb, 1977.

20 establishmentof the Croatian Orthodox Church and of theelection of the MetropolitanGermogen. The SerbianOrthodox Patriarch, Gavrilo Dozic, who was in internmentat thattime, and his deputy, the MetropolitanJosif Cvijovic, were also informed, unofficially, about the negotiations, and about the eventualoutcome. Patriarch Dozic agreed with the electionof the MetropolitanGermogen, but was againsthis being nominated as a patriarch.In thisrespect he wassatisfied. Some were critical about theelection of theMetropolitan Germogen on theground of hisadvanced age and because of his Russianorigin, and wrote about him "being dragged from the Hopovo monastery". Firstly, the MetropolitanGermogen lived a monasticlife and was far from being ambitious; his high spiritual and moralqualifications were beyond question. His acceptance of thehighest hierarchic office of the CroatianOrthodox Church was therefore a sacrificefor him.He accepted it onlyfor religiousand humanitarianreason. He knew that, because of hisage, he would probably never become a patriarch andthat it wouldonly be logicalto givethat office to a nativeson. His Russian origin was a compromise.The Orthodox priests of Croatianorigin were few and the choice among them was thereforelimited. On the other hand members of thehigh Serbian hierarchy still required time to overcomethe trauma of thenew state and the newsituation, while the younger ones, who quickly adaptedto thenew conditions, could not be takeninto consideration for the obvious reason of their youthand lack of experience.

THEACTIVITY OF THE CROATIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH FROM JULY 1942 TO MAY1945

Onthe 7th of June1942 the solemn enthronement of theMost Rev. Germogen as theMetropolitan of theCroatian Orthodox Church took place in theOrthodox church of the HolyTransfiguration in PreradovicSquare in Zagreb,also he took canonical possession of themetropolitan see. On that day theguard of honourand musicians were lined up in frontof thechurch, while within numerous faithful wereassembled, with the clergy in solemnvestments. The government was represented by the presidentof theCroatian State Diet, Marko Dogen, the secretary of the Ministryof Justiceand Religion andthe Ministerof Agriculture,Jozo Dumandzic, the mayor of Zagreb,lvanWerner, the State protonotary,Dr. lvan Majcen, the master of ceremonies,Col. Machiedo, the representative of the ZagrebOrthodox community, Mr. PetarLazic, etc. The MostRev. Germogen arrived accompanied by hissecretary, myself. The act of enthronementwas carriedout accordingto the prescribedrite and withthe participationof the Orthodox priests, priors Platon, Vaso Surlan, Serafim Kubcevski, VenjaminPavlovski, Joca Gvijanovic, Miron Federer and archdeaconAleksej Borisov. Minister Dumandzicdelivered a speechand read the decree by thehead of stateappointing the Most Rev. Germogenas the Metropolitanof the CroatianOrthodox Church with his seat in Zagreb(decree No. 6034-8-1942).In hisspeech Dr. Dumandzic said that in foundingthe Croatian Orthodox Church the principleexpressed in theCroatian national proverb "The brother is dearwhatever his faith" was followed.He also stressed that the Croatian nation had always shown religious tolerance and that for centuriesCatholics and Muslim Croats had lived in harmonyand love with the Orthodox. "lt is certain thatthey will all equally love in thefuture their Croatian homeland with which they are closely bound by homeand family, by the graves of theirforefathers and the cradles of theirchildren, and will remain herfaithful sons". He continued and stressed that the constitution guarantees to theCroatian Orthodox Churchwide autonomy and unhindered spiritual activity in accordancewith the principles of the Orthodoxfaith. On the next day, the 8th of June1942, the Metropolitan Germogen took his oath. The ceremonywas followed by a receptionat whichthe headof statewas present,together with the Cabinetheaded by Dr.Dzaferbeg Kulenovic and the Metropolitanwith his retinue, including myself, as

2l wellas therepresentatives of the Zagreb eparchy and of theChurch community, Rew. Joco CvijanovicPetar Lazic, Djuro Jukic, Teodor Vukadinovic and the Abbot Miron Federer.

Thefounding of theCroatian Orthodox Church had immediate and very positive results. About 3000 Orthodoxdetainees were released from various detention camps and prisons (Sisak, Slavonski Brod, etc.)and a numberof thepriests who had not emigrated to Serbiareturned from the detention camp in Capragto theirflock. Orthodox churches which had been closed were immediately reopened. MetropolitanGermogen was personally present at thereopening of churchesin Mitrovica,Ruma, lrig andSrijemski Karlovci. Baptisms and weddings took place in largenumbers and on occasionsup to 200children were baptised in a singleday. In accordancewith the constitution, the eparchies of Brod, Sarajevoand BosanskiPetrovac were established, in additionto the metropolitansee of Zagreb.The organizationof onein BosanskiPetrovac was not possible due to theguerilla war in thatarea. Various interventionson behalfof theOrthodox followed, such as oneconcerning approximately 600 Orthodox reserveofficers who were to havebeen sent into the firstfiring lines, but were spared, some of them beingallowed to returnhome following an appealto theMinister, Artukovic, at 1.a. m.Amicable relationswith the Catholic and Muslim hierarchies were established. During a twohour meeting with theArchbishop of Zagreb,Croatian Metropolitan the Most Rev. Alojzije Stepinac, close collaboration of theChurches and the ecumenical themes were discussed.

Theyoung priests and clerics in Srijemwho were nearing the end of theirstudies had these courses curtailedand were sent to vacantparishes. These appointments were left exclusively to the hierarchy of theCroatian Orthodox Church and the civilian authorities did not interfere. Where the churches weredestroyed or damaged,chapels and small cemetery churches were brought into use as parish churches.On the lOth of April1943, to celebratethe foundation of theIndependent State of Croatia, serviceswere held in Catholicand Muslim places of worship,as wellas in theOrthodox churches. Valuableart treasures such as iconostases,screens and icons from damaged or demolishedOrthodox churcheswere transferred to the Museumof Artsand Crafts in Zagreband preservedthanks to the museumstaff. The Orthodox calendar was published and prayer-books were printed, free of all politicaladditions; the only difference from those published before the war was that the alphabet was notCyrillic but Latin. Essential items from that part of thearchive which had not been taken by the Germanswere brought to Zagreb,where the metropolitan see was now situated. A numberof Orthodoxpriests distinguished themselves in organizingthe Croatian Orthodox Church and the newspaperspublished the following announcement before Christmas 1942: "On the occasion of ChristmasHis Grace the Metropolitanof Zagreband of all the CroatianOrthodox Church, the Most Rev.Germogen has decorated the following clergymen for their conscientious service to theChurch andto thepeople: Baton: Archpriest Evgenij Jarlemski and ArchpriestAleksandar Volkovski; Archpriest:priests Vasilije Surlan, Serafim Kubcevski and AnatolijeParadijev; Abbot: priests SevastiianPeric and DositejTeodorovic and priors AmvrosijeVeselinovic and Rafail Stanivukovic;Pectoral Gross: Abbot Miron Federer,archpriests Cvietin Sovic and Risto Babunovic;Red Sash: Archpriest Aleksej Borisov, priests Joca Cv'ljanoviccVasilije Jurcenko, PavieKozarski, priors Vlasmin Pavlovski, Venjamin Radosavljevic, Mihaiev Milogradski, Dimitrije,lvan Mrackovski, Evgenij Pogorecki, Petar Popov, Bogdan Popovic, Cvjetan Popovic, NikolajSemcenko, Petar Stefanovic, Sergije Selivanovski, Ljubomir Svrtilic and Emilijan Simatovic".Spiridon Mifka, the former parish priest in Visoko,was appointed head of theeparchy of Sarajevoin August 1944. This shows that the assertion that the Croatian Orthodox Church was only

22 an "Ustasha'sinvention" which "consisted of onlyfive or sixRussian priests"has no foundation. lt is clearthat among the above listed prominent clergymen of theCroatian Orthodox Church there were Croats,Serbs, Russians, Ukrainians, Macedonians and Bulgarians, though mostly Orthodox Serbs andCroats, not to mentionyoung priests and those of thelower hierarchic rank. Similarly, the conclusionby Dj. Kasic,in hiswork Srbi i pravostavlje(Ihe Serbsand the Ofthodoxy),that the activity of the "few"Orthodoxy priests in the formationof the CroatianOrthodox Church "was unsuccessful becausethe Serbs sensed the tendency and, to avoidpersecutions, if they were changing their Church,they were more willing to changeto theRoman Catholic faith than to join this artificial creation"is completelysenseless, since it is wellknown that after the CroatianOrthodox Church was founded,there was not one conversion to Catholicism,and that a numberof thosewho had changed theirconfession out of fearreturned to the Orthodoxfaith inside the CroatianOrthodox Church which hadbeen established and was functioning normally

Conscientioushistorians will reach the conclusion that the founding of theCroatian Orthodox Church createdconditions and an atmospherein whichfirst steps could be takentowards the reconciliation andreduction of Serb-Croatconflict, and excesses caused by the irresponsible elements. Although the CroatianOrthodox Church was notdirectly involved in it, the agreementof peaceand co-operation wassigned between some Chetnik units and the military and civilian authorities of theIndependent Stateof Croatia.After 1942 the civilwar waswaged mainly between the Partisancommunist forces witha predominantlyYugoslav orientation on theone side, and the nationalist Croats, Serbs, etc., on theother. lt shouldalso be mentionedthat in 1943the DoraPukovnije (Domobran labour regiments) wereformed, one on the territoryof eachmilitary district, into which primarily Orthodox Serbs were recruitedand those Orthodox Croats from Srijem and Slavonija, who hadnot previouslybeing called to militaryservice The idea was gradually to createmutualtrust between the Orthodox and non-Orthodox citizens,Croats and Serbs, in themilitary field.

I remainedin theservice of theMetropolitan Germogen as hissecretary until the middleof 1944, whena misunderstandingarose between myself and a fewof the Orthodoxin Zagreb.To prevent conflictI decidedto resign,and left for Backa,which was at thattime ruled by Hungary.The end of the warfound me in NoviSad, where I wasat firstarrested, and later released, when I explainedthe religiousand humanitarian motives which led me to partakein thefounding of theCroatian Orthodox Church.Later I emigrated.Some prominent communists from Vojvodina, later to becomehigh functionaries,and a ministerwho was imprisoned in 1941142,all of whomowed their lives to the formationof theCroatian Orthodox Church, intervened on my behalfwhen I wasarrested in 1945.

MetropolitanGermogen, already 85, did not retreat to theWest at theend of thewar when the IndependentState of Croatiawas abolished, and was arrested by the new Partisan authorities in May 1945,together with the ArchpriestAleksej Borisov. Both were executed. I believethat this was done bythe Great Serbian fanatic, chauvinist and non-communist elements, as it cannot be explainedwhy truecommunists would be interestedin religioushierarchical problems and in revengesof a religious nature.In myopinion a greatmistake was made by the new authorities for allowing this crime to happen.Prominent priests of theCroatians Orthodox Church who did not succeed in escapingwere subjectedto heavypersecutions and almost all of themlost their lives.

Fromthe history of theCroatian Orthodox Church, presented above, it is clearthat the numerous articleswhich have dealt with this subject are wrong and untrue. For example, in theentry Ustashas in

23 theYugoslav Encyclopaedia, historian Ljubo Boban states; "The idea was to reducethe number of the Orthodoxpopulation by convertinga partof thatpopulation to Catholicism.But the forcible conversionsof Serbsto Catholicismbrought no results,as themanipulation of theCroatian Orthodox Church,a creationof theUstashas of April1942, brought no results".This uncritical and confused assertionby Boban,who is mixingreligious and national notions, is unworthyof thehistorian he later became.He talks of reducingand converting to Catholicismthe Orthodox population, although it is knownthat the aim of theUstashas attack, in 1941,was not directed against the Orthodox faith (Ustashaswere indifferent to it)but against the Serbs, primarily against the Great Serbs and only throughthem against Serbian Orthodoxy. Boban says that "the forcible catholicizing of Serbs"(now he talksabout the Serbs and not about the Orthodox) and "the manipulation of theCroatian Orthodox Churchgave no results".lf "catholicizing"(which in a majorityof caseswas not forced but requested andaccepted by someSerbs out of fear,in seekingfor protection,or in a desireto equalisewith the majority)did not succeed (which is true),then we canbe gratefulto the"manipulation" of the Croatian OrthodoxChurch and to itssuccess, not failure, because when the Croatian Orthodox Church was foundedthe conversions to Catholicisminstantly stopped, and a largemajority of thosewho had changedtheir religion returned to theOrthodox faith within the Croatian Orthodox Church.

Thecommentary by the high ranking Ustasha functionary E. "Dido" Kvaternik about the Croatian OrthodoxChurch is tendentiousand untrue when he says:"The Orthodox Church was established as theCroatian Orthodox Church with a pureanti-Catholic tendency. A Russian,not a Serb,was appointedits head. lt wasthe Russo-CroatianOrthodox Church which did not appeal to the Serbs".lf Orthodoxyever had a problemin Croatiait wasduring 1941 , becauseof theconflict between the Ustashasand Chetniks. One of theleading exponents of theconflict was "Dido" Kvaternik on the Ustashaside. The formation of theCroatian Orthodox Church and its relationship with the Catholic Churchin Croatiashows that the Croatian Orthodox Church was not established with "anti-Catholic tendencies",neither was its intention to "attract"the Serbs. lt wasa solutionto theproblem of professingthe Orthodoxfaith on the territoryof the IndependentState of Croatiafor all the Orthodox Serbs,Croats, Ukrainians, Russians, Montenegrins, Macedonians, etc., since the activity of the SerbianOrthodox Church, the Church of theneighbouring state of Serbia,was not allowed. The CroatianOrthodox Church was multi-national in the composition of itsfollowers and hierarchy. A relativelymoderate book by PavleOstovic also contains the following untruth: "Horrible cruelties were unleashedupon the innocent population, only for beingOrthodox". The best answer to P. Ostovicis givenby hisparty leader, Dr. Vlatko Macek, in hisbook: "The best proof that the Ustashas did not persecutethe Serbs for religiousreasons is thatthey themselves founded the Croatian Orthodox Churchin 1942,headed by a Russianemigrant bishop".2s

RETROSPECTIVECONCLUSIONS

Froma surveyof the historyof Orthodoxyamong the Croats,as describedabove, it couldbe concludedthat, following the split of Christianity,the Croats remained in theWestern and the Serbs in

--)q Macek,Y : ln the Strugglefor Freedom,Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers,New York, 1957.

24 theEastern Church, and the present day Montenegrins (Dioclea, Zeta), partly in theWestern and partlyin theEastern Church. With the expansion of theSerbian State during the rule of Nemanjics,the Gatholicsfrom the presentday EastHerzegovina and from Montenegro (ancient Red Croatia) were drivento a narrowstretch along the coast up to the Republicof Dubrovnikand to the Kotor- MontenegroLittoral.

TheTurkish thrust into Croatia in the 15thcentury and the two hundred years of a warzone in the middleof Croatia,(Turkish Croatia),3o resulted in a numberof Croatsconverting to lslam,and in the settlementof theravaged and abandoned lands of centralCroatia by theOrthodox population from the Balkanhinterland, mainly by themigratory Vlachs, herdsmen and peasants, people of Romanorigin. Thiswas the reason why the Croatian lands, religiously and ethnically homogeneous prior to the Turkishinvasion, became intermingled both religiously (Catholics, Orthodox, Muslim) and ethnically (Croats,Vlachs and various other Balkan nationalities).

WithSerbians migrating north atthe beginningof the 18thcentury (Srijem, Vojvodina and Southern Hungary)a largecompact group of Serbsof Ekavianspeech came to the Croatianterritory, together withthe retreating Serbian Orthodox Church (the metropolitan see of Karlovci)which in thecourse of thetwo following centuries succeeded in gaininghierarchical control over the Orthodox Vlachs and the Croats,and in the 19thcentury in theserbianization of the major part of them,simply by usingthe equation:Orthodox = Serb.In this way the religiousmosaic in thecentral Croatian regions also becamean ethnicmixture of Croatsand Serbs. To thisthe modern Croatian nationalism of Starcevic respondedby advocatingthe idea of Croatsas a multi-religiousnation of Catholics,Orthodox and Muslims.The identification with Orthodoxy prevented the Serbs from forming a multi-religiousnation, whileamong the Croats there are Catholic Croats, Muslim Croats and Orthodox Croats, the latter beingsubordinated in religious matters to SerbianOrthodoxy.

Theconflict between the modern Croatian and the modern Serbian nationalism originated in the mixedareas claimed by the (Great) Serbians, and by the Croats, on thebasis of historicalrights. ln pre-warYugoslavia the tension increased, resulting in Serbiandomination of thatstate. With the foundationof theIndependent State of Croatiain 1941theconflict between the extreme nationalistic organisations,the Ustashas and the Chetniks, began in themixed areas. In thisconflict the irresponsibleelements under the Chetnik or Ustashabanners started persecuting the minority groups andin the processallthree denominations suffered - Catholicism, Orthodoxy and lslam. Since the governmentof theIndependent State of Croatiadid not recognize the Serbian Orthodox Church as it wasa nationalChurch of Serbsand of theneighbouring state of Serbia,Orthodoxy in Croatiawas left withoutleadership in 1941.The problem was solved in 1942by founding the Croatian Orthodox Church.

Onthe basis of theabove analysis and from our personal participation in the events we conclude, takinginto account all the difficulties, that the existence of theCroatian Orthodox Church, trom 1g42- 45,was positive for all the Orthodox Serbs, Croats and other nationalities on theterritory of the IndependentState of Croatia,from a religiousand from a humanitarianstandpoint. Also in reconciling andreducing the Croato-Serbian conflict caused by pastmistakes and by the Ustasha/Chetnik conflict. ln thisway, after 1941 , the conflict between them was reduced, and in someareas agreement was

'o TurkishCroatia: north-western Bosnia between the Una and Vrbas rivers.

25 reached.For the OrthodoxSerbs, the CroatianOrthodox Church offered a securityand a temporary religioussolution under an authoritarianregime which did not tolerate the Serbian Orthodox Church, a nationalChurch of theOrthodox Croats the Church was a longdesired but hitherto prevented solution fortheir dilemma: their Croatian national feelings and loyalty for their Croatian homeland on theone side,and the only Orthodox Church in Croatia,which was exclusively Serbian national, on theother.

It is to be regrettedthat, due to the short-sightedattitude of someGreat Serbian chauvinists in Croatia,the abolition of theCroatian Orthodox Church was not prevented and the Church left to continuewith a revisedconstitution (of coursefor thoseOrthodox who wanted to remain),in the first placefor Croats of Orthodoxfaith, regardless of theirnumber. This does not mean that a reestablished SerbianOrthodox Church could not have coexisted with the Croatian Orthodox Church for the Orthodoxof Serbiannationality, as fullreligious freedom means toleration and coexistence, not exclusivenessand monopoly of Churches.

It appearsabsurd, yet it shouldbe mentioned,that a communistsystem was biased to suchan extentregarding the existence of theCroatian Orthodox Church that it tooka standpointof militant interventionfor the exclusiveness of the Serbian Orthodox Church, as theonly Orthodox Church, on the territoryinhabited by Croatsand Serbs in Croatiaand against the toleration and coexistence of variousOrthodox Churches. This was later corrected with regard to theMacedonian Orthodox Church, butthe idea of centralizedOrthodoxy unfortunately still prevails in therest of Yugoslavia.Anyone of theOrthodox faith who is neithera Serbnor a Macedonian,and that means a memberof anyother nationalityin Yugoslavia(Slovene, Croat, Montenegrin, Albanian, Ukrainian, etc.) may profess his Orthodoxfaith only as a memberof theSerbian Orthodox Church.

Pastexperience and present day events are teaching us that the delicate problems of religionand nationalityshould be solvedwhile there is stilltime, not when they have erupted with full violence. The intolerantGreat Serbian exclusivity by which all the Orthodox in Croatiaand in Bosniaand Herzegovinaare only Serbs, and the quixotic assertions, by some Croatian emigrant circles, that all the Orthodoxin Croatiaare only Croats, is not realistic.On the territoryof theserepublics there are OrthodoxSerbs as well as OrthodoxCroats. The exact number will be knownonly when there is an atmosphereof fullreligious and national freedom.

CONSIDERATIONSABOUT THE FUTURE

Thehistory and development of Orthodoxyin Croatia,the recent troublesome and tragic experiences,the fate of theCroatian Orthodox Church and the still unresolved problem of freedomto confessthe Orthodoxfaith in Croatia,frustrated by the exclusiveterritorial rights of the Serbian OrthodoxChurch in Croatia,should be a reasonfor concern to allthose who have responsibility, so thatat criticalmoments in thefuture the same mistakes are not repeated. lt is difficultto understand whythe Serbian Orthodox Church holds firmly to itsacquired rights in Croatiaand prevents a normal developmentof freeconfession of the Orthodoxfaith and the existenceof otherOrthodox Churches. lf an OrthodoxChurch for the Croats, for the non-Serbian Orthodox and for those Serbs who have freely joinedit, would be smallin numberbeside a bigSerbian Church, then we cannot see why there is a needfor the Serbian Orthodox Church to be afraid,particularly if the Orthodox Church in Croatiadoes notclaim exclusive territorial rights. There is a greatneed to establishan OrthodoxChurch in Croatia

26 with a generalnon-Serbian character That Churchdoes not haveto be a new editionof the Croatian OrthodoxChurch, founded in difficultwar circumstancesunder an authoritarianregime, which was, to a certainextent, reflected in the set up of the Church.lt couldbe foundedeither on the modelof the MacedonianOrthodox Church i. e. throughthe territorialseparation from the SerbianOrthodox Church;or as a new ecclesiasticalunit nextto the SerbianOrthodox Church in Croatia,formed simply on the basisand on the exampleof the separationbetween the churchand stateand the state constitutionwhich guarantees freedom of confession.The firststeps to be takenare a) the education of a new generationof priestsin the Macedonian,or any otherOrthodox Church, since the pre-world war generationof CroatianOrthodox priests of the Greek-Easternright are alreadydead, and the threeyears of activityof the CroatianOrthodox Church was unableto raisea largenumber of priests; b) settingup of a committeeto foundthe new Church;c) findinga cathedralfor establishingthe Zagrebarchdiocese; d) organizationof an ecclesiasticnational council to electthe archbishopand to draftthe constitution,which would decide, among other things, the nameof the newChurch. Such a Church,like any otherOrthodox Church, would not be monopolisticand wouldrepresent no dangerto anyone,since the governmentwould always have the lastword with regardto thoseactivities which were not of a religiousnature, or were in conflictwith the constitution.