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- ‘new and ‘fringe’ of existence e th by complicated is problem The progress. very perceptions. indigenous as, off passed even and with, confused increasingly are in unscientific are that many include perceptions public widespread where world modern a In the broadest sense I s of the term, awareness the mutual and from derived to be astronomy inscientific for progress - world cultural ‘genuine’ of comprehension science modern where the two ‘world two the where From an anthropological point of view, the whole concept of a ‘path of progress’ in in progress’ of ‘path a of concept whole the view, of point anthropological an From perspectives, cultural other downgrades implicitly it since anathema, is discovery astronomical t in exist still that cosmologies’ ‘indigenous many the as such and them hold who those provoking risks one education a prerequisite, clearly I is shall arguenecessary level of that the reconciliation can and understand, to astronomers modern by attempts fundamental more through achieved be only ultima cultural perspectives and the heritage associated with them. One of the most obvious potential potential obvious most the of One them. with associated heritage the and perspectives cultural a of heritage natural the towards attitudes common from derive could benefits dark skies. dark 1 mail: Copyright owned by the author(s) under terms the Commons owned author(s) by the Copyright Creative Attribution the of

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University Road, LEICESTER LE1 7RH, U.K. 7RH, LE1 LEICESTER Road, University E- Clive Ruggles Clive Leicester of History,University ArchaeologyAncient and Schoolof Indigenous Astronomies and Progress in Modern Modern in Progress and Astronomies Indigenous Astronomy Accelerating Rateofthe Astronomical Discovery August11 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Brazil Janeiro, de Rio

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elopment, and rightly stresses the importance of

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iety”. However, in the context of many peoples of the world, and particularly particularly and world, the of peoples many of context the in However, iety”. ediency, and consequently influence levels of support (both governmental and governmental (both support of levels influence consequently and ediency, How is the progress of modern astronomical research influencedby wider perceptions of To ‘Western’ sensibilities, the traditional calendar of the Mursi This paper concerns indigenous perceptions of astronomy and attempts to address, in address, to attempts and astronomy of perceptions indigenous concerns paper This Descending from the pedestal Approaching the divideApproaching 2.1 2.1 2. 1. Introduction Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous private) and in particular funding priorities. funding particular in and private) [1] world’ developing the for ‘Astronomy initiative strategic new education and outreach. isalso It true the (as Strategic Plan states) that astronomy “embodies a role important an play to continues [and] culture and technology science, of combination unique soc modern in role cultural important an play to continues that ‘astronomy’ the nations, developing within astronomy,and of science in general? An obvious answer is that public perceptions affect political exp -edge scientific cutting to research. The contribute to IAU’s Strategic nations developing enable capacity and education facilitating in astronomy of role inspirational the emphasises rightly Plan buildingwell as furthering as sustainable dev soci of functioning the for importance its and sky the of perceptions of sense the modern scientific or (for want of a better term) ‘Western’ astronomy. In such contexts, there are innate hurdles on the path towards even the acceptance, let alone better comprehension and as scientific of modern advancement, the to contribution that ‘Western’ astronomers attempting to communicate ‘their’ astronomy must acknowledge and respect the importanceof theseindigenous astronomies; andgreater respectcan only come from a greater degree of comprehensio laughable. When asked, everyone including children can recite a chant counting off the months months the off counting chant a recite can children including everyone asked, When laughable. and relating the seasonal activities associated with each month, such as sor pastoralists and cattle herders still living in almost complete isolation in the Omo valley Omo of isolation the complete in almost living in still and herders pastoralists cattle [2,3] 1960s the until Ethiopia -western south it month what certain for knows actually nobody practice in However, rains. big the of coming is at any given time, believing this tothe be preserve of ‘experts’who, when one tries, can never broad terms, how best to establish productive communication, mutual respect and understanding and understanding respect mutual communication, productive establish to best how terms, broad acrossthe barrier or ‘divide’ that exists between the mindsetsof Western traditional peoples in many developing countries regarding astronomy. I shall go on to argue argue to go on shall I astronomy. regarding countries developing in many peoples traditional that, havingdone this, we can begin appreciate to a range of potential benefits for progress in scientific astronomy thatcan be derived the from m within be embedded may they though even live, people which within cosmos of the sense make cultural practices that are completely different. in common with those of modern science of modern those -views whose with goals world common —in cultural ‘genuine’ PoS(sps5)029

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g stellar heliacal events in order to s’ (really hobbyists)who track the sunrise

-solar calendars that adjust the month count so

month or miss miss or month additional an insert to need —the 3

lopment of formulaic procedures that do not require continual continual require do not that procedures formulaic of lopment consistent but completely fit for purpose in the cultural context context cultural the in purpose for fit completely but -consistent endar also has a much broader significance. It overturns nearly every

,for example,the bigsince rainscome, everyone knows that bigthe rains are Preposterous as this ‘institutionalized disagreement’may as seem a calendrical regulator But the Mursi cal Suppose, for instance, that an ethnologist working with an indigenous community were to were community indigenous an with working ethnologist an that instance, for Suppose, It might seem surprising, then, that the Mursi ‘sun watchers’ are accorded no special social meaning commentators, on hearing this, proclaiming that the Mursi did in fact have a have fact in did Mursi the that proclaiming this, on hearing commentators, meaning - Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous is always disagreement. there reality In This inherent ground. to run be disagreementquite is not new a of beginning the marking moon, crescent waxing the of appearance first the at removed is it nor But estimate. previous their increments simply opinion of school each since month, resolvedwhen sometimes early or late: this seasonal event (alongwith many others) merely serves to shift the balance of opinion. issue The of intercalation out a whole month from time to time in order to keep the lunar month count in step with the with step in count month lunar the keep to in order time to time from month whole a out seasons—never arises: it is simply irrelevant, since continual observations of phenomena of nature, such the as flowering adjustments. of plants continual orthe to appearancelead birds, of assumption that iscommonly (ormade implicitly assumed) byhistorians ofastronomy, as well as manyarchaeoastronomers, about the way inwhich early‘pre -scientific’ calendars inevitabl from a scientific point of view, from anthropological perspective the Mursi calendar can be can calendar Mursi the perspective anthropological from view, of point a scientific from self only not as recognized within which it operates. It is also worthyour of respect as an elegantsolution to a set of activities. subsistence organizing and time of managing problems specific developed (e.g. [4]). The tendency is to try to define a ‘path of progress’ starting with simple simple with starting progress’ of ‘path a define try to to is tendency The [4]). (e.g. developed luni to proceeding cycles, synodic lunar of counts as keep track of the seasonal year (for example by observin the along sunrise of position changing the who observe of specialists existence the discover be surely would this paradigm, progress’ of ‘path the following Then, year. the over horizon taken toimply the existence ofa solar calendar. However, the Mursi show this not tobe the case. Among the Mursi there are indeed ‘specialist determine whether to addan intercalary month), thence to the development of solar calendars observing fixed a from horizon the along sunset or sunrise of position changing the upon based deve the to finally and place, recourse to actual observations. or rock favourite their from watching Omo, River the beyond horizon mountainous the along tree. They can, for example, identifyupstream its and downstream ‘houses’ (where it appears to riseat the same position for several weeks around the solstices) and can typically identify half of the month in which the sun enters and leaves each of its houses. One can almost imagine well vining the future using goat goat using future the vining with, that of and di tendstatus this interest for example, to share reliable nois more it, the sun the that, as Mursi see one until realizes that is, Surprising, entrails. the and plants of flowering the as such nature of phenomena other than many marker seasonal a appearance of birds. It sometimes can be early or entering late or leaving one of its houses (and indeed, it is evident from the Western perspective that it cannot calendar: that they had, in fact, advanced a rung up the ladder towards modern science. same half of a month, since the lunar phases are not correlated with the solaryear). PoS(sps5)029

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—is that it implicitly places our own culture on a pedestal,

ce with people from indigenous communities, any attempt (explicit or implicit) to or (explicit implicit) indigenous any attempt communities, from ce with people e problem to that it seem of relativism with this approach sort cultural problem is imply a e might

-fa Imagine you atrself a ‘culturalImagine astronomy’ conference listening to a paper on, let us say, The more insidious problem with extending any sort of ‘path of progress’ approach approach progress’ of ‘path of sort any extending with problem insidious more The indeed or cosmos, the of perceptions indigenous of something understand to is aim our If Th xample of the Mursi calendar not only shows the dangers of extending the ‘path of of ‘path the extending of dangers the shows only not calendar Mursi the of The example Avoiding cultural relativism cultural Avoiding 2.2 2.2 that acknowledges any point of view, or any evidence (or imagined evidence) interpreted in any any in interpreted evidence) imagined (or evidence any or view, of point any acknowledges that way, as being as equallyvalid as the scientific consensus. and scholarly study and analysis of a rain indigenous shamans and how they manipulate the sky and weather. Speaker X is a member of deta his with audience (Western) the impresses but question in community indigenous the remarkthat makes it suddenly obvious that the speaker himself believesthat the shaman really can create rain. A silent shock wave ripples through the audience, who at once become wary of speaker X who has instantly, through this one remark, annihilated his scientific credentials. Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous observatory’ and even ‘ancient astronomy’ itself [6]. It also extends to heritage issues (which are often intimately bound up with contemporary cultural issues): the existence of the ‘oldest of concepts of misguided support in claimed often is world the of region some in observatory’ [7]. pride and identity national outside the framework of modern ‘Western’ science—whether applied to past cu dealing is one When dialogue. a establishing involve clearly must this then science, own our of face-to place one’s own culture on a pedestal will almost inevitably be taken as condescending and patronising. follows It that if we are to take the first steps towards understandin progress’ paradigm outside the confines of modern scientific astronomy. It also draws attention to the fundamental difference of approach thatexists between historians oftronomy as astronomy modern towards progress of paths identify to seek inevitably to and terms own their in achievements human understand to strive who archaeologists, and in emph This difference cultural[5]). diversity (cf. emphasize archaeoastronomers) and (ethnoastronomers astronomers’ ‘cultural between debates numerous (or implicit be can approach progress’ of ‘path a example, for astronomy: of historians and perceived as implicit) in terms commonly used i ones indigenous contemporary measuring other cultures against the milestones of our ownachievement. In the case of past cultures,this relates to ethnocentrism, the tendency (all too are we people the onto things comprehending of ways own our project to archaeoastronomers) interested in [8], and has often been driven, ironically, by a desire to highlight the achievements own our in judged as (again, sophistication of level their demonstrating by cultures past the of terms). any abandon genuinely must we then sky, the and world natural the to relating perspectives than viewpoint rather superior, our is own scientific that assumption) anythought implicit (or just different. PoS(sps5)029

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ot be summarily dismissed as r inr scientific that the method

-minded towards new evidence, actively view while striving to striving while -view world another of

-Western scholar seeking dialogue an academic 5

make make sense of the evidence available to in them a logical way.

ideasand interpretations betweenthe two communitieswith their

still operate entirely within the Western academic framework of tern perspective it moves us no further forward than the the than forward no further us moves it the—from Wes perspective tern

ave to embrace cultural relativism to the extent of abandoning our own own our abandoning of the extent to relativism cultural embrace to ave ablished: way, symmetry est rationality. In is this each side becomes, in a

The basic issue here is that ‘Western’ academic discourse is founded upon setgeneral of a This fictitious scenario is in fact very to close two three or situations that the authorhas Of course, while the discourse is ‘among ourselves’, there is no problem. The Western But how should one react to this non this to react one should how But The answer, certainly, from comes mutual respect. This may be achieved more easily on Once this is achieved, then each side should be able to accept that, while they continue to Thecritical final, and challenging,most step intheprocess is to establish exchange at the -established scientific evidence, then this surelycalls into question the credibility of their Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous seeking new evidence, and so on. If someone holds, or appears to hold, beliefs that contrad that beliefs hold, to appears or holds, someone If on. so and evidence, new seeking principles that, without needing to enter any detailed debates about scientific method, would would method, scientific about debates any detailed enter to needing without that, principles surely be universally characterised as ‘scientific’ in the broadest sense: attempting to assess fairlyavailable the all evidence, alwaysbeing open encountered at first hand in ‘cultural astronomy’conferences, ‘cultural in andhand illustrates first notat only the encountered existenceof the divide (ofwhich speaker hasX suddenly placed himselfon the other side) but also the difficulty of maintaining ‘respect’ among ‘Western’ academics when one reveals oneself as not neces sarily sharing the ‘rationality’. same well wider arguments. understand pertinent aspects of it andto discuss his or her interpretations with other Western Field trivial(Thisa literature.) point, academics. in seem surprisingly but the clouded is it may can anthropologists interpretation when they communicate with ‘informants’ beyond the confines of that that of confines the beyond ‘informants’ with communicate they when interpretation below). §3.2 (see so doing when and methods principles established following framework, Clearly, we do not h principles of scientific endeavour and academic scholarship in order to develop Western models non-Westernof mindsets. anthropologist does not have to accept the tenets the accept to have not does anthropologist ‘across the divide’? How can one genuinely abandon a feeling of superiority, this being (as (as being this superiority, of feeling a abandon genuinely one can How divide’? the ‘across the abandoning without discourse, for meaningful prerequisite essential an argued) already -view world is superio scientific own our that assumption methods? -rational non to superior and ‘correct’ is broadly) (interpreted -views world cann other that mind in by bearing side ‘Western’ the -science’,‘non because they do it but ours, be not may rationality ‘Their’ section. following the in this about say more shall We is a valid rationality nonetheless. sense, the anthropologist studying the other. Yet even now we have arguably achieved no more no more achieved arguably have we now even Yet other. the studying anthropologist the sense, than two sides each observing the other and discussing their interpretations with others back in community own their earlier generations of Western ethnographers who ‘studied’other cultures. believe that their own rationality is the correct one, the other side has valid reasons for feeling the same about their ‘meta’level: the exchange of different ways of rationalising those ideas. At this point we enter realms of anthropological are and [9]) (e.g. 1980s and 1970s the during interest considerable generated that debate PoS(sps5)029

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e of assumptions, for example that the the that example for assumptions, of e opologists to train in Western universities universities Western in train to opologists

-Western viewpoints donot generally share such 6 t one. But we ‘deconstruct’ can enough of Western the world’ to describe this [13]. The individual becomes becomes individual The [13]. this describe to -world’ Western anthr -

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nal/experimental and theoretical science.

www.aaanet.org oncepts of Western and indigenous astronomies in order to achieve a plausible and and plausible a achieve to order in astronomies indigenous and Western of oncepts in an environment’ rather thana passive observer. (To reinforce the point made earlier

ed to this day through organisations such as the Association of Indigenous Indigenous of Association the as such organisations through day this to ed -view to be able to identify some of these? The answer is yes, and In order to prevent this seeming an insurmountable obstacle, it can be extremely helpful helpful extremely be can it obstacle, insurmountable an seeming this prevent to order In One of the most basic assumptions we make about the ‘world’ (universe/cosmos) is that it Yet anthropology shows clearly thatnon In planningthe Special Session, theorganizers discussed at length the possibility of Cosmologies: ‘ours’ hrough theactivities of people of local descent trained as professional astronomers and 2.3 2.3 Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous sustain ( Anthropologists culture, the idea was to encourage non to do this, we can use to Western ‘models’ ofother frameworks of conceptualisation. of mutual ‘enculturation’.of mutual from thefrom Western perspective to recogniseways in which other world exists as an objective reality thatintelligent we, as entities, can observe, describe and attempt to understand.We also tend to a more make subtle rang and then return to their own countries to practice as anthropologists there. An early example example An early there. anthropologists as practice to countries own their to return then and was the Ethiopian anthropologist Asmarom Legesse, whose 1973 analysis of the Gada system, a northern and Ethiopia southern of people complex Borana the African among social institution Kenya [10], includedaccount an of the Borana calendar that generated a protracted debate of problems the highlighted itself and archaeoastronomers, and anthropologists both among c merging the of continuation modern a ethnoastronomy, Within [11]. interpretation sustainable being is achieved approach in several anthropologist’ non ‘indigenous t astrophysicists (e.g. [12]). of their world aspects present to speaker indigenous an inviting understand. readily could audience the that terms in done be not might this that acknowledged In one sense, the organizers were right to recognize that establishing a meaningful level of academic dialogue is non is words, other in divide, the in approaching stage final useful A own. one’s from fundamentally to recognisethat of some the strongest and basic tenets most of the Western world unlikely to basic form tenets of a differen universe is subject to ‘rules’ or constraints (‘physical laws’) that have some degree of universal applicability,rather than justbeing chaotic. It is suchassumptions that underlie the whole enterprise of observatio foundations.In typical indigenous perceptions, the ‘natural world’ does not exist as a separate the which in objective reality an ‘agent world something that one’s consciousness is submerged within, and we must develop concepts such as ‘being‘lifeworld’, ‘dwelling’ and about cultural relativism: we do not ourselves have to believe that the natural world does not not does world natural the that believe to have ourselves do not we relativism: cultural about PoS(sps5)029

CliveRuggles mong the broader broader the mong —andtheir social partners, and so on. on. so and partners, rstand, the perceptions of der literature on ‘cultural astronomy’ (e.g. (e.g. astronomy’ on ‘cultural literature der

ith cosmos’, the but we can often see verydirect 7

risations. Instead, they establish interconnections and create other perceptions concerning the sky the concerning perceptions —other Neither will they generally recognise what we would see as a

century anthropology has revealed, even the most technologically technologically most the even revealed, has anthropology -century

to sustaining structures of social or political power in complex more societies.

far from it. just (mind/body, from is dualities It notthat they Cartesian —far use do

ntal distinction between ‘empirical reality’ and mental constructs (spirit worlds etc). atedother ‘astronomies’ This is not to deny that indigenous peoples attempt to make sense of their lifeworld by by lifeworld their of sense make to attempt peoples indigenous that deny to not is This All of humankind has a sky, and the night sky remains prominent in many of the world’s world’s the of many in prominent remains sky night the and sky, a has humankind of All In the sense that they represent the attempts of a human society to make sense of the As twentieth The authors, even those who are not trained anthropologists, are generally well aware of Generations of ethnographers, and recently more few specialist a ethnoastronomers, have Thesignificance of ethnoastronomy ssign meaning and significance to what they perceive as existing in the world[13]. 3.1 3.1 3. Bridging the divide those who do.) who those Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous unde to try and appreciate, to order in minds our of independently exist structuring it fundame subject/object) orLinnaean catego cultural taxonomies on the basis of social agreement anduse [14], using ‘dialectic’ rather than logic‘rationalistic’ [15]. at night. Since the the night. Since at sky lit brightly being escaped so far have that nations non-industrialised an form sky the of perceptions indigenous environment, perceived the of part prominent a forms cosmologies. indigenous of part integral us indigeno rationality, alternative an of framework the within albeit lifeworld, or cosmos cosmologies clearly represent ‘science’ in its broadest sense. This is consistent withthe statement, made in the context of UNESCO global heritage, that “In a global context, ‘science’ ding traditional inclu knowledge, of systems or ‘knowledge as broadly defined be may [16]. knowledge’” Furthermore these ‘indigenous cosmologies’ are not passive but prescribe and constrain social action, resulting in preferences for food, dress, plants and animals, marriage unsophisticated human communities have generally developed rich and complex systems that systems complex and rich developed generally have communities human unsophisticated a Theycan also provide basis fora action, forexample stipulating theplacesand where times certain activities should takes place, routes to be taken through the landscape, etc. All of this w harmony in ‘keeping as perceived be might prescription useful a providing from knowledge, cosmological of ‘uses’ or consequences social for seasonal activities among small group a that ensures successful subsistence and ultimately through survival, the limitations of their attempts to understand and interpret “the [mental] constructions that that constructions [mental] “the interpret and understand to attempts their of limitations the implications. Some books offer detailed case studies in ethnoastronomy (e.g. [17, 18, 19]) and 19]) 18, [17, (e.g. ethnoastronomy in studies case detailed offer books Some implications. there are a few compilations (e.g. [20, 21]), but most of this work is scattered a dividing no clear is there (since recently more and, literature astronomical or anthropological line between ‘pure’ ethnography and ethnohistorical, historical, and even archaeological broa the in astronomies), indigenous of investigations 22]). [12, investig PoS(sps5)029

nal and - CliveRuggles

-Western astronomy is

taking ethnoastronomical fieldwork, fieldwork, ethnoastronomical taking -Western for non experience -cultural onomy to our own satisfaction and try to try and satisfaction own our to onomy

world” [28], and so attempt to establish as full

his 8 —how do we, as Western scientists and ethnographers,

vision of of vision

iews—fundamentallydifferent ways of conceptualising the i, for example, social hierarchies were played out in the sky: t ‘reference system’ that helps regulate seasonal and subsistence d within anthropology giving its own particular insights into human human into insights own particular its giving anthropology d within

-fiel —a convenien ve devised based on their observations and interpretations of thecelestial sphere

by focusing on (what we see as) an immutable visual resource common to all of of all to common resource visual immutable an as) see we (what on —by focusing From a Western perspective it is tempting to the see immutable cycles of the sky as a But how do we bridge the divide the bridge we do how But While there is no correct, ‘objective’way of under Ethnoastronomy, and ‘cultural astronomy’ in general, has already provided plenty of of plenty provided already has general, in astronomy’ ‘cultural and Ethnoastronomy, Ethnoastronomical fieldwork: techniques and limitations techniques fieldwork: Ethnoastronomical guar’ constellation [25] does not just happen to coincide with the appearance of earthly earthly of appearance the with coincide to happen just not does [25] constellation guar’ 3.2 3.2 practices and calendrics are widely recognised and investigated:“Non people linking intricately organic, and cyclical is that world the of view on a based frequently and nature in such a manner that there is no essential division between the two. … Because of this, … the practice of astronomy is a central part of socio peoples” [24]. activities. In an indigenous understanding, however, asterisms may well be active participants in the lifeworld. Tothe ColombianBarasana, for example, the appearance of the ‘caterpillar ja caterpillars (an important food source), so that (as it would seem to us) the celestial event acts as a convenient marker for the terrestrial one; in their perception the FatherCaterpillars, of by of earthly numbers increasing the for responsible directly is sky, the in higher and higher rising caterpillars. The stars may also reflect (and affect) society and other aspects of the world in various ways. In ancientHawai traditional genealogies identify chiefly,priestly and commoner stars [26]. Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous ha people living than pursue to easy and obvious more are themes recurring Some [23]. us” of by all shared others. Thus the connections between indigenousastronomical observations and seaso passive backdrop progress from merely describing indigenous astr indigenous describing merely from progress proceed to a level of discourse that might affect ourprogress in science as well as our anthropology? archaeoastronomers,perhaps because it gives Western investigators better a understanding of non-Western concepts and practices that, while differing absolutely the from Western model, are, in the broadest sense, ‘scientific’. ethnographic to equally apply that principles general certain by guided be to has research such native’s the grasp “to trying of goal the had long have Ethnographers [27]. general in research his life, to his relation pointof view, cosmos humanity. Western From a perspective, cultural astronomy may certainly be deemed worthy of attention as a sub ethno to specialist appeals also But it cognitiveon level. a diversity cultural -v world other concerning evidence as possibleas a contextfor communication by learning, in as mayways possible,as to thingssee as wideparticipating in a the community, This livingmeans them. within see informants their as avoiding it, in embedded the concepts and language the learning possible, as activities of range well as ‘give’ to willing being and judgemental being not time the all while on, so and taboos, PoS(sps5)029

CliveRuggles knowledge than than knowledge heinexperienced digenous should not, and does not not does and not, should digenous

, elders frequently it made plain that they ware of the critical distinction of the ware critical between the

9 id the sacred truth, which cannot be communicated, toor communicated, be cannot which truth, sacred the id widely criticised despite one of the authors beingvery a well

moulded by a process of cultural consensus [14], then itis always

iscussed,important new insights can be imparted byindigenous scholars where the informant, if they do not know the answer to a question, must always always must question, a to answer the know not do they if informant, the where

The various basic techniques that can be employed include continual efforts (without (without efforts continual include employed be can that techniques basic various The alreadyAs d Thereare, ofcourse, all mannerof potential pitfalls awaiting t have thought cosmological of frameworks some while that realise to important also is It Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous as ‘take’. Atthe same time itis essential to be a on. so And it”. to stick and spot the on answer an up “make ‘emic’perspective of the insider/participant/actor and ‘etic’the perspective of the be can fieldwork ethnoastronomical doing of process the it, puts Aveni As outsider/observer. religious native contemporary in characterised rooted evidence by theemic need“to reconcile belief systems regarding their ancestors with that acquired in the field by the etic approach of the outside investigator” [29]. offending)reinforce to stories in order to so see if they are repeated [27]. At the same time, one may have to counter the tendency toseek more widespread frameworks of steeped in the their own cultural tradition. An excellent example, which encompasses a living scholar Hindu the of work the is archaeology even and history, ethnohistory, tradition, religious India of landscapes and cities sacred the in embodied symbolism cosmic on the Singh P.B. Rana the On one. indigenous an alongside work to scholar Western a for is approach Another [33]. other hand, the mere fact that a scholar is himself/herself in ethnographeron a basic level. For example, it is critical to ask things that make sense in ‘their’ framework so that the answer received at least partially fits the intended question. It is important to be aware that the informant may avo try to please the outsider by giving the them answersthey are perceived to want. It is important in author current by the (encountered syndrome ‘warrior’ the call one might what beware to Polynesia) actually exist. Traditional knowledge of the skies can be very localised, and even personal, as to specific degrees, varying “in is phenomena celestial of knowledge whom for Inuit, the among When… information imparting families communities, were speaking for themselves, that their opinions were not necessarily correct in any absolute If [30]. views” different have did, probability and in might, elders other that and sense, are cosmologies indigenous necessarily, place their ideas above criticism from other scholars, including Western ones. An example is the ‘astronomical and directional register’ explanation of a heiau (temple enclosure) in Hawaii [34], which has been respected Native Hawaiian scholar with considerable knowledge of indigenous astronomy. This predicament may seem more conceivable in archaeoastronomy,where an indigenous scholar (an obvious case being imperial China [31]), [31]), China persisted for generations, imperial being and case even obvious millennia (an -views (especially world indigenous among smaller, less socially complex human societies) are new of light in the immemorial time since adapted continually been have and dynamic generally Young Jane anthropologist the thus experience. views: This modern with include contact s ‘1054 popular) still but discredited (thoroughly the ‘adopted’ informants Zuni how recounts [21]. Mexico New Canyon, Chaco in pictographs of collection a of explanation supernova’ possible thatvery little consensus actually exists. PoS(sps5)029

-

CliveRuggles

-evident feature of the ‘lifeworld’. It is Consider the following example. The most most The example. following the Consider

-Saharan celestial divination” [39]? It must at rhaps not out of the question that a practicing practicing a that question the of out not rhaps

10

ould probably not dare express the same sentiments sentiments same the express dare not probably ould

thepower ofconscience to influence it;yet anyone, igion giving it equal status to major world religions such such religions world to major status equal it giving igion g the astrological interpretation of the configuration of the sky the of configuration the of interpretation astrological g the -ageism illustrates the challenge

as the current author is fond of saying, “modern Druids have as much to do to much as have Druids “modern saying, of fond is author current the as

at the best people to explore (say) the Hindu historical tradition are likely to be to likely are tradition historical Hindu the (say) explore to best people the at as an outsider) is striving to interpretarchaeological an record well separated from

ker who suddenly revealed himself to be share share be to We mentioned himself earlier the conference revealed suddenly spea who ker The first issue tobe addressed in thisregard is contemporary re ligious Religion belief. recognised been just has example, for Druidry, religions? ‘alternative’ of though, What, practicing Can astrology. on to move we when greater becomes of contention degree The Drawing the line: new line: the Drawing 3.3 3.3 Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous (justas much any living tradition, but could arise equally within ethnoastronomy. within equally arise could but tradition, living any

indigenous beliefs, and the need to these treat views with scholarly respect rather than scientific drawn? be line the should where But disdain. with ancient Druids as ancient Druids have to do with Stonehenge, which is nothing”. The key key The nothing”. is which Stonehenge, do with to have Druids ancient as Druids ancient with issue here, however, is whether (modern) Druids could also be ‘scientists’ (in the broa d sense): in so far as Druidry is based on the belief that nature is sacred, and one aspect of its popularityis as be not night issue this environment, the for respect with to live people encourages it that contentious it pe as mightis otherwise seem. It Druid could conceivably a respected become professional archaeologist. does nothave to be incompatible with science, as a number of prominent scientists have argued (e.g. [35, 36]). A major issue, of course, is to reconcile the scientific premise of an objective universeand the religious premise of under UK charitylaw as a bona fide rel astrologers be taken seriously as modern academics? whatever their own beliefs, can easily acknowledge that this is not an issue for other world views where human agency and intervention is a self as Christianity, Islam and Judaism [37]. Of course, this has overtones in relation to solstice, summer the at on Stonehenge converge famously Druids that in archaeoastronomy, despite the fact that, regarding, say, Native American cosmologyor sub least be acknowledged, inthe lightof the foregoingdiscussions, that this isnot closed a issue. practising Hindus steeped in the tradition. the in steeped Hindus practising easy to argue th literal for looking the by achieved not were Bethlehem’ of ‘Star the of explanations plausible of history a adopting by but 6 BC around skies night the in objects bright of conjunctions astrology approach, analysin withinthe mindset oftheMagi, astrologers the from east [38]. This workactuallywas done by practising a by out carried been had it if reaction our been have would what but astronomer, an astrologer, many of whom have a very active interest in the history of their subject? The answer the seriously take possibly could we how question to be would astronomers Western most from academic credentials of someone who seriously believes that the positions relative of the heavenly bodies as seen the from surface of the earth directly influence individual human lives. Yet is it right that, as Nick Campion has observed, “a western astronomer who may be angry at, w astrology, western of, contemptuous or PoS(sps5)029

chieved -Western CliveRuggles -way but as a

lysis of non minded’ science, it led -

ly as possible, as sociological -scientific methods, often in

line’ phenomenon that a that phenomenon -line’ e of evidence from modern science and make and make science modern from evidence of e

-inclusive activity rather than just a Western one 11 fferent cultural viewpoints. her the ‘indigenous’ label is being cynically exploited. exploited. cynically being is label ‘indigenous’ the her mindedness andtolerance, but in practice how far can and must be understood from the outset not as a one as not outset the from be understood must -age’belief systems (that are fullycognisant of, but choose to

. Even contemporary ideas that seem open to ridicule (astrology,-ageism, new reason for mentioning this example here is that similar ‘new age’ ideas have begun in -centuryor so.An early example is the ‘ley -views(that do havenot accessto ranga The final stepThe final in this progression through increasingly unpalatable‘alternatives’ is surely - open for argued have We In an ideal world, we might seek to make a clear distinction between ‘genuine’ cultural The The preceding discussionhas posed a series of questions andno easyanswers. It is clear Campion [39] has discussed a number of issues related to those discussed here and has has and here discussed those to related issues of number a discussed has [39] Campion Neutrality Ways forward hand discoveries while feeling left behind by ‘real’ by science, behind for left which they feeling were while discoveries -hand

-way process. Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous thevarious ‘new age’ ideas that have beenperpetrated within Western societyitself during the last half challenge and dismiss, Western science). In the real world it is not that easy. extraordinary popularity in Britain during the 1960s and 1970s [40]. This popularity derived, at derived, popularity This [40]. 1970s and 1960s the during Britain in popularity extraordinary least in part, thefrom fact that ‘leyhunting’ satisfied people’s desire to be involved in making first unqualified.result,As a although presented as an alternative to ‘closed sense of what is observed and experienced in a logical way, albeit using a logic different from Western logic) ‘new from should that tolerance be pushed? Once thismore establishes education and communication as the central issue that one —but two 3.4 3.4 world ironically to attempts to emulate science by adopting pseudo by adopting science to emulate attempts to ironically [41]. detail extraordinary more recentyears to presented be as indigenous beliefs. In the 1970s, archaeological excavations of prehistoric megaliths in Britain were sometimes disrupted by people concerned a to happened as when, react we should how but force’, of ‘lines to disturbance the about challenged is America North in site mound prehistoric a of survey a author’s, of the colleague by Native Americans on similar grounds? The issue, of course, is to decide whether we are preparedto accept that a ‘new age’ concept such as ‘lines of force’ has ‘genuinely’ been -view that world may well have indigenous an included into incorporated a concept broadly akin to ‘earthforce’ in the firstplace, or whet There is no clear dividing line between these two possibilities. that ethnoastronomers need to move on from Western description and ana and description Western from on move to need ethnoastronomers that concepts. If ‘cultural astronomy’ is an to be all of basis on a shared is one that be to has field the in scholarship of process whole the then di between respect and cooperation mutual proposed radical some answers, which he has started to try to implement in the context of ersity Univ the of at Wales, Lampeter. taught being To paraphrase, courses astronomy cultural following. the are approach his of components main the of some creationism, UFOs, etc) shouldbe examined and understood as ful -views. This world ‘other’ understand and examine to attempts one’s with along phenomena, PoS(sps5)029

y to y to -view so of the big big the of enological enological

—for whom CliveRuggles view, on-view, the ecedented level

ances of ances the past 400years and

view underwent fundamental change. In In change. fundamental underwent -view

on was whether people will look back on the the on back look will people whether on was following an observation appears to demolish the the demolish to appears observation an following 12 olitically highly charged; buthighly olitically it is charged; the only to way

sarypart of this project is for contemporary astronomers to reflect on

. This not only covers ‘genuinely experiencing’ alien beliefs and practices in in practices and beliefs alien experiencing’ ‘genuinely covers only not This . . This involves examining one’s one concepts and beliefs, soto as be able to -shadow hierophanies at key archaeoastronomical sites. (Campion also raises the If cultural astronomy succeeds in achieving some of the goals identified in the preceding preceding the in identified goals the of some achieving in succeeds astronomy cultural If Participation Reflexivity One question asked atSpecial the Sessi However, to pursue any of these lines of argument in isolation is to ignore the social social the ignore to is isolation in argument of lines these any of to pursue However, view modern cosmology in similar terms to the indigenous cosmologies we have been been have we cosmologies indigenous the to terms similar in cosmology modern view discussing so far? We will briefly consider this issue in the following section. discussion, then we may be on the way to developing a truly global ‘anthropology of of ‘anthropology global truly a developing to way on the be may we then discussion, neces A [42]. astronomy’ cultural whether of the question way answering to go some also may this and beliefs, own their tr we if then, happens, What astronomy. in modern progress to any relevance has astronomy ‘deconstruct’ some aspects of one’s own conceptual framework in order better to understand understand to better order in framework conceptual own one’s of aspects some ‘deconstruct’ less judgmentally and clearly more when ‘listen’ to one help also should It others’. divide’. the ‘across communicating Indigenous cosmologies and modern cosmology modern and cosmologies 4. Indigenous Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous means(for a Westernparticipant, as well as for others) lookingdispassionately one’s at own culture and tackling issues that may p be assure methodological neutrality. the sense of an ethnographer doing fieldwork, but also encompasses the phenom the encompasses also but fieldwork, doing ethnographer an of sense the and sky, night dark truly a as such phenomena sky hand first at ‘experiencing’ of objective light-and astrologers.) practising with working to extend should it whether of question twentieth centuryas a time when the Western world the light of the IYA 2009 being the 400th anniversary of the astronomical use of the telescope, telescope, the of use astronomical the of anniversary 400th the being 2009 IYA the of light the draw to possible is it While centuries. four previous the cover to ded exten be could question the attention tomajor ‘scientific revolutions’ such as those that successively removed the earth, the solar system, and our galaxy a from special place in the Universe,or to thediscovery the upon built all are they that argue also could one expansion, Hubble the and bang fundamental tenets of Western scientific rationality and that these have defined a world successful that ithas sustained all the huge cosmological adv quantum identify might argument of line different A indefinitely. do so to set is and more mechanics as theone development that has fundamentally changed our world function wave the of collapse the that grounds Cartesian duality between subject (the observer) and object (the ‘external’ universe). dimension that is inherent inl is al indigenousdimension that cosmologies. In this sense, Primack and Adams [43] ‘big the have history human in no time at that observe they when the mark nearer be may and people everyday from removed so been universe the of nature the about questions’ of level unprecedented quite a in resulted has separation this everyday out, point lives. As they ‘cultural indifference’ to the unimaginable wonders about the universe that science is revealing. Put another way, we can saythat withinmodern Western culture there is an unpr of indifference to modern cosmology compared with what was true in past cultures past in true was what with compared cosmology to modern indifference of PoS(sps5)029

- - - -view, we -views that CliveRuggles views. Directlyviews. - -view—that sustains both. this All -view as ‘the’ Western world o strive better to understand, and hence hence and understand, to better o strive achieving it may be a good deal more more deal good a be may it —achieving

-face with contemporary ‘alternative’ world

-to 13

ibed by modern astronomy. The aim is to restore people’s people’s restore to is aim The astronomy. modern ibed by he inconsistencies identified by Campion. However, in doing doing in However, Campion. by identified inconsistencies he conclude that many of today’s population have no cosmology at at no cosmology have population today’s of many that conclude works’, references to ‘pre-scientific cultures’, and so on. Open

ons of §§2 andraise 3 a set of issues that are equally relevant in

modern Western society, and within this melee dwell manyof the political ‘progressing’ our cosmology in a sense a in cosmology our —‘progressing’

-exist. This has the advantage of laying the way fora coherent approach towards to however, wrong, is It In fact, the discussi Primack and Adams’ solution is to formulate a ‘new cosmology’ to fill the ‘vacuum’ that that ‘vacuum’ the fill to cosmology’ ‘new a formulate to is solution Adams’ and Primack ded) would find quite unacceptable. quite find would ded) ous ‘alterative’ beliefs such as astrology and-ageism. new In many senses, these can be -exist with it. Indeed, this may be the only way to reach effectively into the conceptual melee ade back in §2.1: when one is dealing face dealing is one when in §2.1: back ade views, any attempt (explicit or implicit) to place modern science on a pedestal will almost patronising. and condescending as taken be inevitably Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous the skiesimpacted much more prominently on their everyday existence—or indeed compared to today. populations indigenous many all. Modern scientific cosmology may have become irrelevant for people at large, but ‘universal concerns’ continue to feature prominentlyin world religions and cult beliefs, as well as in vari Western in living people many great a of cosmologies’ ‘indigenous the in elements as regarded societiestoday. Then again, science andbut religious belief incompa many, may seem to tible (as we have seen) even in today’s world many people find a way to construct a complexmore —in a sense, their underpinning own world philosophical they perceive. It is one human where life can still be seen as central in variousways against the descr as universe the of backdrop approaching the various ‘divides’ within Western society itself. Attempts such as Primack and Abrams’ to seek reconciliation may be crucial, yet their own arguments are full of phrases suc h as ‘this is how it really suggests that instead of envisagingscientific the world should actually entertain a complexmore picture of Western society where a variety of world views co ‘alternative’beliefs that resolvest so it could also be taken to suggest a level of tolerance towards ‘alternative’ philosophies, author (this people many that beliefs, indigenous ‘genuine’ of level the raising to ‘new-ageism’ inclu engagement with cosmic problems (and, at the same time, global problems). Laudable as this be may goal challenging is them surely the wrongapproach. fact, In we can paraphrase a remark that we m mindedness and tolerance can be extremely difficult to achieve when the superiorityofthe scientific method pre seems -evident,and it of can almost be impossible sort the to avoid terminology that betrays this implicit assumption. Yet if we wish to engender a more universal -wayprocess two a is involved that mind as for in bearing cosmology, modern for ‘respect’ t be may way only the cosmologies, indigenous ‘other’ difficult even than Primack than even and Adamsdifficult envisage, since (as we have argued) there is really no ‘vacuum’ in the first place, but rather a confusion of ‘alternative’ world better to respect, on some level, at least some of the most prevalent alternative world co that characterises be would science modern in developments whom without sponsors and supporters private and impossible. PoS(sps5)029

strong sense CliveRuggles tronomy. This inferior, but by by but inferior, ndigenous peoples but but peoples ndigenous

. based optical observatories [45]. - nferior to modern scientific astronomy) astronomy) scientific to modern nferior

whichencouraged community colleges to teach 14 ) rn cultural identities and esteem. One does not have to see see to have not does One esteem. and identities cultural rn esteem [44]. By contributing to a general sense of indifference, indifference, of sense general a to By contributing [44]. -esteem

or indigenous astronomies alongside modern science can science modern alongside astronomies indigenous with traditional or

http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/tops/ (

local developments that are important on a global level in demonstrating the richness richness the demonstrating in level on global a important are that developments local s see (or even get the opportunity to see) a truly dark night sky; light pollution has has pollution light sky; night dark truly a see) to opportunity the get even (or s see A ratherdifferent situationis evident in some ‘Westernised’ societies where a Astronomical heritage is also of considerable relevance in this context. The focus here is sion without mentioning another type of heritage, which is is which heritage, of type another We cannot conclude mentioning this without discussion These rather diverse arguments can perhaps be best summed up by saying that an approach approach an that up by saying summed best be perhaps can arguments diverse rather These of indigenous cultural identity still persists. In Japan, for example, the perception that Japanese Japanese that perception the example, for Japan, In persists. still identity cultural indigenous of native beliefs andpractices are somehowinferior tothose of imported cultures (and,by i somehow are astronomies indigenous that implication, reducing indifference to cultural progress it may also be a key factor supporting in the coexistence of the view that progress in global science is also to be supported and encouraged. It the about concerns Hawaiian indigenous as such conflicts potential resolving in relevant be can the by enhanced further be and encourage both can it Additionally, Observatory. Kea Mauna the of one as such ends, cultural for science modern ‘use’ that projects of development the in Hawaii in Astronomy for Institute by the organised workshops TOPS the of outcomes 2000s early has led to a lack of cultural self a lack of cultural esteem not only tofails act in the interests of scientific and technological ly hinders arguab but it. Culturalprogress esteem relates to cultural identity, which operates at a variety of levels and is an important issue inall human societies. A high level of cultural esteem is clearly predicated on the view thatlocal indigenous perspectives are not local students the techniques and methods of archaeoastronomy Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous is perhaps best summarised in the title of the concluding section of Renshaw and Ihara’s built future the for “Hopes [44]: mythology and lore star Japanese in developments of overview past”. hidden but rich on a such sites as icons of a Westernised view of global developments in astronomy (e.g. Stonehenge Stonehenge (e.g. astronomy in developments global of view Westernised a of icons as sites such or Plains Indian ‘medicine wheels’ viewed as ‘observatories’) in order to accept that they represent sky, the interpreted and understood have communities human which in ways in diversity and as modern in progress for support and enthusiasm generate to serve can hence and not upon historical observatories but upon sites that, through their layout and astronomical astronomical and layout their through that, upon sites but observatories historical upon not or bear witness to cosmologies more ancient concerning insights valuable provide alignments, and levels, local and national regional, at operate identities Cultural ones. indigenous recent histories cultural taken to reflect) (or is reflects intangible, bothtangible and in general, heritage mode reinforce to helps hence and also contributes to the feeling that modern astronomy has no relevance for them. The The them. for no relevance has astronomy modern that feeling the to contributes also preservation of of some the world’s darkest nightskies is a common cause that unites many e skies, pristin and own professional their astronomers preserve to wish who peoples, indigenous who are concerned to preserve the world’s largest ground of fundamental relevance: the natural heritage of the dark night sky. A substantial proportion of proportion substantial A sky. night dark the of heritage natural the relevance: fundamental of the world’s population (especially in Western industrialised countries) may never in their lifetime served to remove fromthem ‘their’ skyas a source of inspiration.This not only itmakes more i world’s the to is sky the important how appreciate to them for difficult thatdeals integrally PoS(sps5)029

CliveRuggles

y that) (and all from that follows in

15 are to make sense of the cosmos within which we live. learly helpful, the necessary level of reconciliation can — patronising, detrimental, and even colonial. In order to to order In colonial. even and detrimental, —patronising, views within-views Western society should be treated in similara -western frameworks of thought that give rise to other cultural —worse

-headed and knowledge for the posterity of humankind, it is also arguable that this is is this that arguable also is it humankind, of posterity the for knowledge -views within Western society and in that order to engender wider appreciation

m am ‘Western’ perspective, may be a genuine desire to communicate and share

so implies so doing in that the implicit be would that condescension the —indeed, —as well as the heritage associated with them. genuine’ indigenous cosmologies will continue to generate debate and contention, but but and contention, debate generate to continue will cosmologies indigenous genuine’ introducing ideas of modern science in indigenous indigenous in science of modern ideas Some might worry, that introducing conversely, What, fro In a modern world where widespread public perceptions includemany that are unscientific 5. Conclusion and support for progress in modern astronomy and cosmology we have to understand, achieve a a achieve understand, to have we cosmology and astronomy modern in progress for support and of some least at of the proponents with communications serious develop and for, respect of level the major ones. consequent a with of thought, systems indigenous destroying even or distorting risks contexts negative effect upon human culturaldiversity. it While surely imperative to try to record aspects indigenous of essentially a heritage issue and should not standin the way of progress (in the sense of that recalling worth is It knowledge). of systems indigenous into ideas modern introducing veryopposite is in fact the case—and a corollary thisof is thatwe need feel no guilt about of mutual framework and spirit a in undertaken is this provided science, ‘our’ outreaching respect. and understanding wayto ‘ of a multitude, possibly and several, of existence the to acknowledge have least at do we disparate world -views are dynamic world and haveindigenous been continually adapted since time immemorial to trying mean not does thought of systems indigenous Valuing evidence. new of light the in ‘freeze’ them Indigenous Astronomies Indigenous the progress. at while Thesame facilitating identities time cultural scientific help strengthen extentto which ‘alternative’ world overcome this problem weneed firstly to realise that itis reallythere: that a barrierexists. The first step in approaching it, as we have indigenous suggested, of negative is to counter try to (either assumption the recognise to particular in and astronomy, ‘Western’ of perceptions that ratherthanviewpointsuperior, justasorimplicit) our explicit is scientific different, not potentially but offensive. counterproductive only -views whose world goals—in cultural ‘genuine’ respecting and acknowledging, recognizing, science modern of those with common our knowledge and excitement about the universe and to open the way for a wider range the of range a wider way for the open and to universe the about excitement and knowledge our world’spopulation to become actively involved may be perceived outside the ‘Western’ world as innately wrong in thebroadest sense of the term, there are actually a rangeof positive benefits in terms of astronom scientific in progress for support public While mutual contact and education is c is education and contact mutual While only be achieved through more fundamental attempts by modern astronomers to understand, and to understand, astronomers by modern attempts fundamental more through achieved be only ultimately respect, to thenon perspectives PoS(sps5)029

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