Radon Potential of the City of North-Central

Report in Brief: Introduction, Summary, Recommendations & References

January 2016

Report prepared by Radon Environmental Management Corp.

Technical Review Committee Alan Whitehead, CEO Daniel Innes, Chairman

Principal Technical Writer/Researcher Dr. Frederick W. Breaks, PhD, PGeo, C-NRPP

GIS Lorraine Dupuis, Hon BSc Geology

Graphic Design Alana McFarlane, C-NRPP

Production Kristen Craiggs

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016

Copyright © 2017, 2016 Radon Environmental Management Corp.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

First published 2016 in by Radon Environmental Management Corp., 450-1040 West Georgia Street, Vancouver, BC V6E 4H1; www.radoncorp.com

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016

Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 2 Summary ...... 5 Recommendations ...... 7 References ...... 11

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 i

Introduction

Radon Environmental Management Corp. (“Radon Environmental”) is a private environmental health and building sciences company founded in 2007, and is focused on reducing public exposure to radon gas. Radon gas enters buildings and comes into contact with people as a result of the way homes, schools and workplaces are designed, constructed and maintained. You cannot see, smell or taste radon gas. It is the leading environmental cause of lung cancer and has the highest mortality rate of all environmental exposures. Recent international studies are also showing possible links with other cancers, specifically leukemia in children and other immune system disorders such as M.S.

Our Company is a recognized leader in raising radon awareness and education in Canada. Radon Environmental is the only integrated provider in North America of branded radon mapping products and services, together with radon measurement devices and innovative mitigation solutions. Radon Environmental has spent 7 years and more than $7 million developing the tools to alleviate the risk of radon induced cancer.

Around the world, countries with active radon programs utilize radon risk maps in their planning and communications. Natural hazards like radon have a strong geospatial component, which plays a decisive role in communicating risk information. Health Canada also supports the use of geoscience data to more effectively focus limited resources.

In 2010, Radon Environmental engaged a team of geoscientists to produce a geology-based Radon Potential Map of Canada, the first of its kind in the country. The Radon Atlas of Canada was also produced to illustrate how the map was generated and the consequences of radon in our environment. Since publishing the Map and Atlas in 2011, the Company has produced the first integrated Canada-USA Radon Potential Map, Provincial maps for public health authorities and is developing Regional and Municipal maps for direct use in community planning applications. Approximately 80% of the most densely populated areas of Canada fall within areas of elevated radon potential. The City of Greater Sudbury (CGS) falls within one of those areas of radon concern.

Using the data gathered from published information sources, field surveys and independent and experimental analytical work on radon in Sault St. Marie-Sudbury area, a program to examine the radon potential of the CGS was initiated. This study, the first of its kind, was targeted on the Sudbury Region in part because of the quality of REM’s data for this area and the knowledge that high-risk radon potential is prevalent in the CGS.

The objective of the Sudbury radon study was to establish a radon related database that would allow city planners to make informed decisions with respect to past, present and future guidelines for the city’s growth and the health and well-being of its citizens. Understanding radon, where it comes from, and

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 2

establishing enough data to make an assessment of risk are the first and necessary steps in designing solutions to this ever-present problem.

Who is at risk, building codes and new policy: Health Canada’s (HC) policy is that all Canadian homes should be tested for radon and mitigated if above the HC guideline of 200 Bq/m3. The 2010 National Building Code incorporates radon resistant recommendations for new construction, which most provinces and territories have adopted and these measures will be strengthened when the 2010 code is revised later this year. In 2012, Ontario strengthened its code to require radon prevention measures in new construction where radon is known to be a problem. Some municipalities like Guelph and Thunder Bay have already adopted such prevention measures and others will soon follow.

There are many sectors in Canada where radon testing and mitigation is necessary and should be mandated as a health and safety requirement. Exposure to radon in schools and daycare facilities presents one of the single largest dangers for our children. In 2012, recognizing the significance of this environmental health risk, the Quebec Ministry of Health mandated that all public schools in the province be tested for radon and the release of results is still pending. In December 2015, Quebec announced that it requires all daycares to be tested as a condition of permit. Radon is a Class A carcinogen and a potential occupational health hazard, which could have legal liabilities as workers may be exposed to radiation levels well beyond the current Canadian guideline. In 2017 the Canadian Labor Code will be revised and will address radon exposure in the workplace.

Ontario is reviewing the radon prevention measures in its building code for new construction in 2017, and these measures are likely to be significantly strengthened. In June 2014, Tarion, Ontario’s largest independent new home warranty provider, announced it is now warranting all new homes in its 7 year warranty program against high levels of radon gas.

The Canadian Environmental Law Association (CELA) recently published a report recommending that federal and provincial governments implement legislative action on radon. The report also highlights potential legal liabilities that may exist for government authorities under civil law and for builders and landlords under contract law with regard to preventing exposure to radon.

Radon is a naturally occurring element in our environment and radon-induced lung cancer is totally preventable. It is clear that large areas of the Canadian landmass, and importantly many centers of high population density and land use, reside in high or elevated geologic radon potential zones. Fortunately government and NGO initiatives to raise radon awareness and implement radon prevention measures across the country continue to increase and, with a growing media interest and public awareness, are sustainable.

Green and Healthy Building Standards, such as LEED, are now recognizing radon as an indoor air quality risk that needs to be addressed through design and building measures for new construction. REM is an active member of the Canada Green Building Council (CaGBC) and Canadian Home Builders’ Association

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 3

(CHBA) whose membership is made up of the leading homebuilders and construction companies across Canada.

The radon study that follows includes a technical review of data acquired by Radon Environmental over more than 4 years and is integrated with relevant published data. A series of 24 maps and overlays folio is included to illustrate the database and is presented in a planning-friendly format. The full report also includes a number of appendices to accompany the technical data.

The Sudbury Radon Mapping Study is the first study of its kind in Canada and will lead the way and set the standard for other communities and municipalities across the Country. This project is a socio-economic investment for the City of Greater Sudbury to prevent lung cancer and save lives.

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 4

Summary

This study is the first documentation of radon variation over the main population core of the CGS and importantly within a terrain that is dominantly influenced by emissions from bedrock sources. Field based work by Radon Environmental examined radon variation in bedrock units that underlie the main population core and also for various other rock units that lie within the region (e.g., Cartier Batholith). Much of the bedrock in the CGS is overlain by a thin veneer of glacial till, typically <1m thick, and geochemistry of this material closely reflects underlying bedrock sources (Barnett and Bajc 2002).

This work encompassed geological characterization, gamma ray spectrometry analysis, commercial geochemical laboratory analyses of representative bedrock units, and 55 radon measurements taken on bedrock and soil samples in the Sudbury laboratory of Radon Environmental. The geological examination mainly focused upon bedrock classification, structures, petrography and mineralogy, as these are the major factors influencing degree of radon mobility in a bedrock-dominant terrain.

The database is enhanced by 1,392 lake sediment analyses for uranium and thorium from a government survey (Dyer et al. 2004) and an airborne radiometric survey for K (%), eU and eTh that comprises about 3,500 flight line kms spaced at 1 km over the CGS (OGS 1978a, b and c).

Significant variation in radon activities, from 48 to 4,588 Bq/kg, was found in the most common rock formations. A provisional division of radon zones (guarded, elevated and high) is based upon radionuclide content (uranium and thorium) coupled with direct radon measurements on a varied range of rock units:

GUARDED <100 Bq/kg

ELEVATED 100-300 Bq/kg

HIGH >300 Bq/kg

Bedrock with uranium contents similar to the average Upper Continental Crust (2.7 ±0.6 ppm) were particularly viewed with importance as corresponding radon concentrations could ultimately provide an estimate of most common levels encountered in Canadian Shield terrain. Bedrock with a mean UCC value for uranium has a radon activity of about 100 Bq/kg in limited test results.

Guarded radon concentrations are generally emitted from mafic bedrock units of which the Nipissing Gabbro is the most abundant in the CGS. Shearing and hydrothermal deposition of secondary uranium minerals could be associated with two Proterozoic alkalic magmatic events at 1.7 and 1.2 billion years and may contribute to elevated radon levels. Regional sodium alteration occurred at 1700 ± 2 million years and contains rare earth element minerals such as monazite with up to 3.5 wt.% ThO2 (Schandl et al. 1994). At 1196 ±11 million years, the Kusk Lake and Nemag Lake alkalic intrusions and related fenite alteration,

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 5

which occur on Whitefish land, were documented by Siemiatkowska and Martin (1975) and could also be a potential source of radon.

Alkalic felsic and ultramafic dykes with iron-potassium-rich metasomatic halos were observed in the current study to crosscut the Nipissing Gabbro, Mississagi Formation and the Creighton Granite at several localities in the CGS as well along Highway 144 and most notably near Muldrew Lake. Such rocks could be a source of radon as there is a strong tendency for elevated uranium and thorium in carbonatite-alkalic silicate rock complexes (Woolley and Kempe 1989).

Variable radon potential (guarded to high) characterizes the Mississagi Formation. In general, low mean uranium and thorium values occur in the sandstones of this formation; however, unpredictable anomalous radionuclide concentrations up to 375 ppm uranium and >1000 ppm thorium were found in brittle shear zones related to the Murray Fault. The highest radon activity measured in this study (4588 Bq/kg) is associated with mudstones of this formation situated near the Murray Fault. High radon levels were also found in sheared mudstones and iron-metasomatized arenite that occur elsewhere within this fault system.

Elevated radon activities (100-300 Bq/kg) are found in the McKim (95 to 154 Bq/kg) and Ramsay Lake (207 to 266 Bq/kg) formations that underlie a significant part of the main population area of the CGS.

High radon levels characterize the potassium-rich granitic rocks that include the Cartier Batholith (74 to 3700 Bq/kg), Creighton Granite (1,340 to 2,488 Bq/kg), Chief Lake Igneous Complex (703 Bq/kg) and the Murray Granite (344 Bq/kg). This bedrock class also includes felsic volcanic rocks in the Copper Cliff Formation (555 to 1,429 Bq/kg) that are the extrusive equivalent of the potassium-rich granites. The Copper Cliff Formation and the Creighton Granite underlie parts of the main population core. The Cartier Batholith, Murray Granite and Chief Lake Igneous Complex are mostly situated in isolated, sparsely populated wilderness areas and are not of any immediate threat in regards to high radon levels.

Bedrock or building materials rich in thorium should be given close scrutiny for potential elevated thoron concentrations. Thorium values, up to 250 ppm or 24 times the average Upper Continental Crust (UCC) value, were found in two geological units: the Cartier Batholith and the Creighton Granite. The maximum thorium value of 2,012 ppm was documented for mineralization from the former Agnew Lake uranium mine in Hyman Township.

Only a few health risk studies have been undertaken on thoron relative to 222Rn. In a study of Pennsylvania homes with elevated 220Rn, Stewart and Steck have indicated that the main danger is due to radioactive decay products such as 212Pb (half life = 10.6 hours) that contribute to potential alpha energy concentrations (PAEC).

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 6

Recommendations

It is hoped that the CGS will consider the findings of this study a useful tool in providing a better safer environment for its citizens and that it provides a framework to build from going forward. It is also hoped that the adoption of this report will initiate a dialogue with Radon Environmental and others such that meaningful and achievable recommendations result from this work.

A number of initial recommendations follow from the current radon study over the CGS:

1. A systematic indoor radon survey is needed as the CGS has few indoor radon data. It is recommended that a representative radon sample size be collected and this should include public buildings such as schools, daycare centres, private sector workplaces, government and university buildings. The recommended survey would investigate indoor radon as a function of bedrock type. Where glacial till is the predominant soil parent material, uranium, thorium and radon activities should broadly correlate with adjacent bedrock. Barnet and Bajc (2002) stated that geochemistry of basal till in the CGS closely compares with that of local bedrock compositions.

The CGS permits daycare centres. Many of these may be established in basements where radon levels do concentrate. The northern winter climate is often kept at bay by sealing in as much warm air as possible. Newly built homes are “air-tight.” Both conditions enhance the potential for radon build up in basement rec rooms, ground floor on bedrock structures, private daycares, etc. It is recommended that every daycare and school in the CGS be tested for radon and that strict levels of radon be monitored as a condition of the permit.

2. Homes built on top of sand and gravel outwash deposits should be viewed with potential elevated radon levels due to high permeability (Smedhurst et al. 2008). These materials commonly contain pink to reddish clasts of the Cartier Batholith, eroded from this granite mass situated to the north of . Radon problems could also emerge if such gravels were used as sub-slab infill in housing developments and also for homes built over areas of abundant sand and gravel (e.g., Capreol-Hanmer area). Gravel terraces formed directly on the Cartier Batholith from glacial melt water have elevated radon from measurements taken by Radon Environmental.

3. Radon testing of aggregate from gravel and sand pits and bedrock quarries should be considered as part of the permitting process. This includes testing and monitoring surficial and bedrock materials used in making concrete and other building materials. Bedrock is often quarried, crushed and used in a number of building materials such as concrete for building foundations, walls and floor slabs in multi-story condos and office towers. It is seldom if ever tested for radon. If the source aggregate for concrete is elevated with respect to radon, so will be the concrete.

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 7

A good example of this was reported by an Atlanta Georgia news team (May 6, 2015) where an entire 300-unit condo building in Metro Atlanta was built using radioactive concrete. The high radon levels in the building were discovered by a simple radon test request from a 5th floor tenant. The concrete floors and walls were found to be 2.5 times higher than the EPA action level guideline. Basement measurements taken between a plastic barrier and the concrete wall in the condo complex recorded levels to 578 pCi/L, a thousand times the amount of radon you would find outside the building. See story http://www.11alive.com/story/news/local/investigations/2015/05/04/radon-georgia- homes/26905539/.

4. Radon concentrations in buildings located on the Mississagi Formation, which has the greatest areal extent under the population core, be given scrutiny due to the wide range in uranium content coupled with numerous known mineralized localities (e.g., McLennan Township). This geologic unit generally has fairly low uranium values (mean U = 3.64±0.45ppm), however, there are broadly delineated zones of elevated uranium (up to 375 ppm) that occur in mudstone units or in hydrothermally altered rocks within the Murray Fault zone. The highest radon value analyzed to date (4700 Bq/kg) was found in mudstone beds within this Formation.

5. A study by Hemson Consulting Ltd. in May 2013 for the CGS Planning Committee dealt with population growth outlook for the CGS to 2036. The conclusions from that study are summarized on Map 16 and Table 3. Population growth is predicted to continue along the two current growth corridors: Highway 17 corridor from Coniston to Walden, and the Valley to Onaping corridor. The highest growth potential is focused on the Walden area. Being aware of radon hazards/potential is important in the City’s planning for this growth.

6. Radon testing in mines should be undertaken. Some mines such as the Creighton Deep are partly hosted in rock types such as Creighton Granite that could contribute to elevated radon within mine developments. Major fault structures associated with the Sudbury Nickel Irruptive and South Range Proterozoic rocks are good conduits for radon and other soil gas. Mining activity has triggered local reactivation of some of these structures, especially in the South Range Mines. Comprehensive required monitoring of Radon Gas in Uranium Mines confirm that despite even the best designed underground ventilation systems, radon can pose a health problem. The pocket build up of radon gas and prolonged exposure to low levels coupled with vapour rich air can be a serious occupational health risk. 7. Well water testing for uranium, radium, radon and polonium-210 should considered for gravel aquifers that potentially may contain clasts from the radioactive Cartier Batholith. Dyck (1969) found high radon in surface water (629 to 16,576 Bq/L) in the Capreol area and such values may relate to the presence of radioactive granite in gravels derived from the Cartier Batholith. Aeration systems are available to deal with radon levels in water wells.

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 8

Elevated polonium-210 can occur in well water as exemplified by work of the US Geological Survey in Fallon, Nevada. A cluster of childhood leukemia (Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia - ALL) is evident in this town but exhaustive environment studies to date have not verified a single cause and no direct association with radon and daughter progeny such as polonium-210 has been found (Seiler 2007, Seiler and Weimels 2012, Sinks and Smith 2015). Nevertheless further research is recommended by Seiler and Weimels (2012) as there are very sparse data on distribution of polonium-210 in well water of the USA and Canada. The Canadian Maximum Acceptable Concentration (MAC) for polonium-210 is 0.2 Bq/L (Seiler 2012). Other studies (Raaschou – Niekeu, O et al, 2008) studied childhood cancers (particularly leukemia) in regions in Denmark with elevated radon levels. This study concluded that cumulative domestic radon exposure increases the risk for ALL leukemia during childhood, but not for other cancers. Kendall G. et al (2011) also studied leukemia in children and adults induced by radiation of natural origin. Dewar, D. (2013) reported studies of increased incidence of Down Syndrome and autosomal dominant congenital anomalies, cancer, fertility changes and viability of offspring. US based research has also linked stomach cancers to radon in water. Based on a report by the National Academy of Science on radon in drinking water, the EPA estimates that radon in drinking water causes about 168 cancer deaths per year: 89% from lung cancer caused by breathing radon released from water, and 11% from stomach cancer caused by drinking radon-containing water. The EPA guideline for radon in water in the US is 148 Bq/L while some individual states have adopted even lower guidelines (e.g. 78 Bq/L for New Hampshire). This study could not find any data on a systematic/regular protocol for testing for radon in the CGS water supply. It is recommended that a program of regular water supply testing (including individual water wells) be carried out in the CGS. 8. Apart from influencing the planning process in the CGS’s growth going forward, there are a number of good radon mitigation solutions for existing structures and also for stopping the intrusion of radon in new buildings. Considering these available technologies when reviewing/considering changes to permit application requirements can literally be life saving.

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 9

Table 3. Projected Population Growth in the CGS to 2036

REGION 2006 2011 2016 2021 2025 2031 2036 % diff * Sudbury 92,070 91,570 92,940 94,840 96,760 98,580 99,970 7.03

Capreol 3,530 3,390 3,420 3,470 3,520 3,570 3,610 5.26

Nickel Centre 10,500 10,970 11,390 11,890 12,360 12,780 13,090 12.99

Onaping Falls 3,810 3,880 4,010 4,150 4,280 4,400 4,490 10.69

Rayside Balfour 11,840 11,860 12,330 12,860 13,360 13,810 14,140 12.80

Walden 7,580 7,670 8,320 9,030 9,650 10,200 10,610 21.58

Valley East 20,050 21,150 21,900 22,830 23,680 24,470 25,050 12.57

Rural 14,460 15,800 16,260 16,600 16,950 17,300 17,550 7.35

Greater Sudbury 163,840 166,290 170,570 175,460 180,560 185,110 188,500 9.51

* Percent difference between 2016 and 2036 population growth

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 10

References

Akerblom, G. 1987. Investigations and Mapping of Radon Risk Areas, p.96-106 in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Geological Mapping, Trondheim 1986. In the Service of Environmental Planning, Oslo. Norges Geologiske Undersoekelse. Akerblom, G. 1995. The Use of Airborne Radiometric and Exploration Survey Data and Techniques in Radon Risk Mapping in Sweden, p. 159-180 in Application of Uranium Exploration Data and Techniques in Environmental Studies, International Energy Agency Technical Document 827. Ames, D.E., Davidson, A.E., Buckle, J.L., and Card, K.D. 2005. Geology, Sudbury Bedrock Compilation, Ontario. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 4570, scale 1:50 000. Ames, D., Davison, A., and Wodnicka, N. 2008. Geology of the Giant Sudbury Polymetallic Mining Camp, Ontario, Canada. Economic Geology, v. 103, pp. 1057–1077. Appleton, J.D. 2005. Radon in Air and Water, p. 227-262 in Essentials of Medical Geology: Essentials of Medical Geology: Impacts of the Natural Environment on Public Health. O. Selinus, (eds.). Elsevier Amsterdam. Appleton, J.D. 2007. Radon: Sources, Health Risks and Hazard Mapping. Ambio, volume 36, No.1, 85-89; http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/1466/1/Appleton_JD_2007_Radon_sources_health_risks_and_hazard_mapping_AMBIO_36_1_85- 89.pdf Bailey, J., LaFrance, B., McDonald, A.M., Fedorowich, J.S., Kamo, S. and Archibald, D.A. 2004. Mazatzal-Labradorian Age (1.7-1.6 Ga) Ductile Deformation of the South Range Sudbury Impact Structure at the Thayer Lindsay Mine, Ontario. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, volume 41, 1491-1505. Barnett, P.J. and Bajc, A. 1999. Surficial Geology of the of Sudbury. Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P.3399 (in colour on digital elevation model), scale 1:100,000. Barnett, P.J. and Bajc, A. 2002. Quaternary Geology p. 56-85 in The Physical Environment of the City of Greater Sudbury, Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 6, 228p. Bennett, G., Dressler, B.O. and Robertson, J.A. 1991. The Huronian Supergroup and Associated Intrusive Rocks; in Geology of Ontario, Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 4, Part 1, p.549-591. Bennett, G. 2006. The Huronian Supergroup Between Sault Ste. Marie and Elliot Lake. Institute on Lake Superior Geology, Field Trip Guidebook, Volume 52, Part 4, 65p. Burwasser, G.J. 1979. Quaternary Geology of the Area, District of Sudbury. Ontario Geological Survey, Report 181, 103 p. Bleeker, W., Kamo, S., and Ames, D. 2013. New Field Observations and U-Pb Age Data for Footwall (Target) Rocks at Sudbury: Towards a Detailed Cross-Section Through the Sudbury Structure. Abstract in Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution Conference, Houston. Breaks, F.W. 1991. Geology of the Rocky Island Lake-Lac Aux Sables Area. Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 157, Summary of Field Work and Other Activities, p.40-45. Canu, I.G., Laurent, O., Pires, N., Laurier, D. and Dublineau, I. 2011. Health Effects of Naturally Radioactive Water Ingestion: The Need for Enhanced Studies. Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 119, number 12, December 2011. Card, K.D. 1965. Hyman and Drury Townships, Sudbury District. Ontario Geological Survey, Map M.2055, scale 1:31,680. Card, K.D. and Innes, D.G. 1981: Geology of the Benny Area District of Sudbury. Ontario Geological Survey Report 206; 117p. Accompanied by Maps 2434 and 2435, scale 1:31,680 (1 inch to 1/2 mile) and 4 charts. Card, K.D. and Lumbers, S.B. 1977. Sudbury-Cobalt. Ontario Geological Survey, Geological Compilation Series, Map 2361, scale 1:253 440. Carson, J.M., Holman, P.B., Ford, K.L., Grant, J.A. and Shives, R.B.K. 2002. Equivalent Uranium - Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometry Compilation Series, Sudbury-Lake Superior, Ontario-Quebec. Geological Survey of Canada Open File 4363, Sheet 3 of 8, scale 1:1 000 000.

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 11

Charbonneau, B.W. 1982. Radiometric Study of Three Radioactive Granites in the Canadian Shield: Elliot Lake, Ontario, Fort Smith and Hecla and Fury, NWT, p. 91-100 in Y.T Maurice, editor, Uranium in Granites, Geological Survey of Canada Special Paper 81-23. Chen, J., Bergman, L. and Whyte, J. 2014. Results of Simulataneous Radon and Thoron Measurements in 33 Metropolitan Areas of Canada. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, volume 163, 1-7. Cochrane, L.B. 1991. Analysis of the Structural and Tectonic Environments Associated with Rock Mass Failures in the Mines of the Sudbury District. Ph.D. thesis, Queens University, Kingston. Corfu, F. and Andrews, A.J. 1986. A U-Pb Age for Mineralized Nipissing Diabase, Gowganda, Ontario; Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v.23, p.107-109. Culshaw, N.G., Corrigan, D., Ketchum, J.W.F., Wallace, P., Wodicka, N. and Easton, R.M. 2004. Georgian Bay Geological synthesis, Grenville Province: Explanatory notes for Preliminary Maps P.3548 to P.3552; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 6143, 28p. Davidson, A.E. 1997. New Information on the Grenville Front Near Sudbury. Institute on Lake Superior Geology, Field Trip Guidebook, volume 43, Part 3, 38p. Davidson, A. and van Breemen, O. 1994. U-Pb Ages of Granites Near the Grenville Front, Ontario; in Radiogenic Age and Isotopic Studies, Report 8, Geological Survey of Canada, Current Research 1994-F, p.107-114. D. Dewar. 2013. Canadian Family Physician, May, Vol 59, No-5, 469-471. Dressler, B.O. 1981. Massey Bay, Sudbury District. Ontario Geological Survey Map 2151, scale 1:31 680. Dressler, B.O. 1984a. Sudbury Geological Compilation, Ontario Geological Survey Map 2491, Precambrian Geology Series, scale 1: 150 000. Dressler, B.O. 1984b. General Geology of the Sudbury area; in the Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure, Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 1, p.57-82. Dressler, B.O., Gupta, V.K. and Muir, T.E. 1991. The Sudbury Structure, p.593-625 in Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 4, Part1. Dressler, B.O. 1981. Massey Bay, District of Sudbury. Ontario Geological Survey, Precambrian Geological Series, Map M2451, scale 1:31 680. Drolet, J-P., Martel, R., Poulin, P., Dessau, J-C, Lavoie, D., Parent, M. and Levesque, B. 2013. An Approach to Define Radon Potential Emission Level Maps Using Indoor Radon Concentration Measurements and Radiogeochemical Data Positive Proportions Relationships. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, volume 124, 57-67. Duval, J.S. 1989. Indoor Radon Prediction Using Gamma Ray Spectrometry. EOS Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, volume 70, p.496. Dyck, W. 1969. Development of Uranium Exploration Methods Using Radon. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 69-46, 26p. Dyer, R.S., Takats, P.A. and Felix, V.E. 2004. Sudbury Lake Sediment Geochemical Survey. Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 6126, 106p. Easton, R.M. 1992. The Grenville Province and the Proterozoic History of Central and Southern Ontario; p. 715-904 in Geology of Ontario, Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 4, Part 2. Easton, R.M., Davidson, A.E. and Murphy, E. 1999. Transects Across the Grenville Front Near Sudbury, Ontario. Geological Association of Canada, Mineralogical Association of Canada, Field Trip A2 Guidebook, volume 51. Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. Technical Report on Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials from Uranium Mining, Volume 1: Mining and Reclamation Background U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Radiation and Indoor Air Radiation Protection Division. Finch, R. and Murakami, T. 1999. Systematics and Paragenesis of Uranium Minerals, p. 91-180 in Uranium - Mineralogy, Geochemistry and the Environment (Editors P.C. Burns and R. Finch), Mineralogy Society of America, Reviews in Mineralogy, volume 38, 679p. Ford, K.L., Savard, M., Dessau, J.C. and Pellerin, E., Charbonneau, B.W. and Shives, R.K. 2001. The Role of Gamma Ray Spectrometry in Radon Risk Evaluation: A Case History from Oka, Quebec. Geoscience Canada, volume 28, 59-64. Goodarzi, A., 2015: Genome Instability is Breathtaking; Effects of Alpha Radiation Exposure on DNA at a Molecular Level and Consequences to Cell Health Presentation, 2015 CARST Annual Meeting.

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 12

Health Canada. 2011. Canadian Guidelines for the Management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM). Canadian NORM Working Group of the Federal Provincial Territorial Radiation Protection Committee, 62p. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh- semt/alt_formats/pdf/pubs/contaminants/norm-mrn/norm-mrn-eng.pdf Health Canada. 2012. Cross-Canada Survey of Radon Concentrations in Homes – Final Report. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh- semt/pubs/radiation/survey-sondage/index-eng.php Hess, C.T., Horton, T.R., Prichard, H.M. and Coniglio, W.A. 1985. The Occurrence of Radioactivity in Public Water Supplies in the United States. Health Physics, volume 48, 553-586. Imshum JE and Nicholas Eyles. 1998. Bedrock Structure Control on Soil-Gas Radon-222 Anomalies in the Toronto Area, Ontario, Canada. Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, December, v. IV, p. 445-454. Innes, D.G. 1978. McKim Township, District of Sudbury. Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P.1978, scale 1:15,840. International Atomic Energy Association. 2003. Guidelines for Radioelement Mapping Using Gamma Ray Spectrometry Data, IAEA Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials Section, Vienna, 2003, 173 p. Jackson, S.A. 1992. Estimating Radon Potential From an Aerial Radiometric Survey. Health Physics, volume 62, 450-452. Jackson, S.L. 2001. On the Structural Geology of the Southern Province Between Sault Ste. Marie and Espanola, Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5995, 55p. Jackson, S.L. 1994b. Penokean Fold Belt in Ontario: Evidence for Early Nappe Formation and Subsequent Large-Scale Folding (abstract); Geological Association of Canada–Mineralogical Association of Canada–Society of Economic Geologists, Program with Abstracts, v.19, p.A53. Kendall G., Little MP, Wakeford R. 2011. Numbers and Proportions of Leukemia in Young People and Adults Induced by Radiation of Natural Origin. Leuk. Res. 35: 1039-1043. Kilby, W.E. 2010. Radon Potential of Canada, Radon Environmental Corporation. Map available at http://radoncorp.com/mapping/canada-map.php Krogh, T.E. 1994. Precise U-Pb Ages for Grenvillian and Pre-Grenvillian thrusting of Proterozoic and Archean Metamorphic Assemblages in the Grenville Front Tectonic Zone, Canada; Tectonics, v.13, p.963-982. Krogh, T.E., Davis, D.W. and Corfu, F. 1984. Precise U-Pb Zircon and Baddeleyite Ages for the Sudbury Area; in the Geology and Ore Deposits of the Sudbury Structure, Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 1, p.431-447. Long, D.G.F. 2009. The Huronian Supergroup; in A Field Guide to the Geology of Sudbury, Ontario; Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 6243, p. 14-30. Lutro O, Nordgulen Ø. Oslofeltet, Berggrunnskart, 2004. Geological Survey of Norway. Scale 1:250.000. Trondheim: Norway. McGill, R., Tukey, J.W., Larsen, W. A. 1978. Variations of Box Plots. The American Statistician, volume 32 (1): 12–16. Meldrum, A., Abdel-Rahman A.-F.M., Martin, R.F. and Wodicka, N. 1997. The Nature, Age and Petrogenesis of the Cartier Batholith, Northern Flank of the Sudbury Structure, Ontario, Canada. Precambrian Research, volume 82, 265-285. Meyn, H.D.1971. Geology of Roberts, Creelman and Fraleck Townships, District of Sudbury. Ontario Geological Survey, Geological Report 91. Accompanied by Map M.2212, scale 1: 31 680. Miles, J.H.C. and Appleton, J.D. 2005. Mapping Variation in Radon Potential Both Between and Within Geological Units. Journal of Radiological Protection, volume 25, p.257 Miles, J.C.H., Appleton, J.D., Rees, D.M., Green, B.R.M., Adlam, K.A.M., and Myers, A.H. 2007. Indicative Atlas of Radon in England and Wales, Health Protection Agency and British Geological Survey, HPA- RPD-033. http://www.ukradon.org/cms/assets/gfx/content/resource_2686cs3a0844cee4.pdf Ontario Geological Survey. 1978a. Potassium (%), Sudbury, Ontario. Uranium Reconnaissance Program Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometer Survey, Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P.1611, scale 1:250,000. Ontario Geological Survey. 1978b. Equivalent Uranium (eU), Sudbury, Ontario. Uranium Reconnaissance Program Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometer Survey, Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P.1612, scale 1:250,000. Ontario Geological Survey. 1978c. Equivalent Uranium (eTh), Sudbury, Ontario. Uranium Reconnaissance Program Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometer Survey, Ontario Geological Survey, Preliminary Map P.1613, scale 1:250,000. Ontario Geological Survey. 1991. Bedrock Geology of Ontario, East-Central Sheet. Ontario Geological Survey, Map 2543, scale 1: 1,000,000.

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 13

Pinti, D.L., Retailleau, S., et al. 2014. 222Rn Activity in Groundwater of the St. Lawrence Lowlands, Quebec, Eastern Canada: Relation With Local Geology and Health Hazard. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, volume 136, 206-217. Plant, J., Simpson, P.R., Smith, B. and Windley, B.F. 1999. Uranium Ore Deposits: Products of a Radioactive Earth, p. 255-320 in Uranium - Mineralogy, Geochemistry and the Environment (Editors P.C. Burns and R. Finch), Mineralogy Society of America, Reviews in Mineralogy, volume 38, 679p. Raaschou-Nielson O et al. 2008. Domestic Radon and Childhood Cancer in Denmark. Epidemiology. Jul 19(4): 536-43. Rencz, A.N., Garrett, R.G., Adcock, W.A., Spirito, W.A., Bonham-Carter, G.F. 2006. Geochemical Background in Soil and Till. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File Report 5084, 92p. Richards, P.A. 2002. Hydrogeology of the Sudbury Area, p. 103-126 in The Physical Environment of the City of Greater Sudbury, Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 6, 225p. Robertson, J.A. and Gould, K.L. 1983. Uranium and Thorium Deposits of Northern Ontario. Ontario Geological Survey, Mineral Deposits Circular 25, 152p. Rowell, D.J. 1998. Aggregate Resources Inventory of the East Half of the Regional Municipality of Sudbury Ontario Geological Survey Aggregate Resources Inventory Paper 170 Rudnick, R.L. and Gao, S. 2003. Composition of the Continental Crust. Chapter 3.01 in Treatise On Geochemistry, p. 1-64. Sage, R.P. 1997. Alkalic Rocks of the Sudbury Region, Institute on Lake Superior Geology, Field Trip Guidebook, Volume 43: Part 6. Seiler, R.L. 2007. Methods and Data Used to Investigate Polonium-210 as a Source of Excess Gross Alpha Radioactivity in Ground Water, Churchill County, Nevada. US Geological Survey, Open File Report 2007-1231, 11p. Seiler, R.L. and Weimels, J.L. 2012. Occurrence of 210Po and Biological Effects of Low-Level Exposure: The Need for Research. Environmental Health Perspectives, volume 120, Issue 9, Sept 2012. Schandl, E.S., Gorton, M.P. and Davis, D.W. 1994. Albitization at 1700 ± 2 Ma in the Sudbury – Wanapitei Lake Area, Ontario: Implications for Deep-Seated Alkalic Magmatism in the Southern Province. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, volume 31(3), 597-607. Siemiatkowska, K.M. and Martin, R.F., 1975. Fenitization of the Mississagi Quartzite, Sudbury Area, Ontario; Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 86, p. 1109-1122. Sinks, T. and Smith, M.S. 2014. Final Report of the Expert Panel on Childhood Leukemia in Churchill County, Nevada: http://health.nv.gov/sho_leukemiaclusters.htm http://health.nv.gov/PDFs/Fallonexpanel022304.pdf Smedhurst, M.W., Strand, T., Sundal, A.V. and Rudjord, A.L. 2008. Large-Scale Radon Hazard Evaluation in the Oslofjord Region of Norway Utilizing Indoor Radon Concentrations, Airborne Gamma Ray Spectrometry and Geological Mapping. Science of the Total Environment, volume 407, 379-393. Snelling, P.E., Godin, L. and McKinnon, S.D. 2012. The Role of Geologic Structure and Stress in Triggering Remote Seismicity in Creighton Mine, Sudbury, Canada. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, volume 58, 166-179. Spray, J.G., Butler, H.R., and Thompson, L.M. 2004. Tectonic Influences on the Morphometry of the Sudbury Impact Structure: Implications for Terrestrial Cratering and Modeling: Meteoritics & Planetary Science, v. 39, p. 287–301 Stewart, H. and Steck, D.J. 2008. Radon, Thoron and Their Progeny in Lancaster, Pennyslvania Homes. Proceedings of the American Association of Radon Scientists and Technologists, 2008 International Symposium Las Vegas, NV Tukey, J.W. 1977. Exploratory Data Analysis. Addison-Wesley. US Geological Survey. 2004. Uranium http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1050/uranium.htm van Breemen, O. and Davidson, A. 1988. Northeast Extension of Proterozoic Terranes of Mid-Continental North America; Geological Society of America Bulletin, v.100, p.630–638. van Schmus, W.R. 1980. Chronology of Igneous Rocks Associated with the Penokean Orogeny in Wisconsin; in Selected Studies of Archean Gneisses and Lower Proterozoic Rocks, Southern Canadian Shield; Geological Society of America, Special Paper 182, p.159-168. Woolley, A.R. and Kempe, D.R.C. 1989. Carbonatites: Nomenclature, Average Chemical Compositions and Element Distribution, p.1-14 in Carbonatites: Genesis and Evolution, K.Bell (Editor). Unwin Hyman, London, UK. World Health Organization. 2009. WHO Handbook On Indoor Radon: A Public Health Perspective, 94p.

Radon Potential of the City of Greater Sudbury | Radon Environmental Management | January 2016 14