Ashraf Ahmed Eisa Hussein

Prevalence, Life Cycle of the Eggplant Fruit Borer (Sceliodes laisalis Walk) and its Infestation on Three Eggplant Cultivars under some Cultural Practices in the Gezira Scheme, Sudan

B.Sc. (Honors) in Agricultural Sciences (Crop Protection) Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Gezira (2004) M.Sc. in Crop Protection, University of Gezira, (2009)

A Thesis Submitted to the University of Gezira in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in Crop Protection (Entomology) Department of Crop Protection Faculty of Agricultural Sciences

April, 2014

Prevalence, Life Cycle of the Eggplant Fruit Borer (Sceliodes laisalis Walk) and its Infestation on Three Eggplant Cultivars under some Cultural Practices in the Gezira Scheme, Sudan

Ashraf Ahmed Eisa Hussein

Supervision Committee:

Name Position Signature

Dr. Mohammed Hamza Zein Elabdeen Main Supervisor ……………..

Dr. Ahmed Adam Eisa Omer Co-supervisor ………………..

Prof. Ali Elbadawi Ali Saad Co-supervisor ……………….

Date : April/ 2014

Prevalence, Life Cycle of the Eggplant Fruit Borer (Sceliodes laisalis Walk) and its Infestation on Three Eggplant Cultivars under some Cultural Practices in the Gezira Scheme, Sudan

Ashraf Ahmed Eisa Hussein

Examination Committee: Name Position Signature

Dr. Ahmed Adam Eisa Omer Chairperson ……………………….

Prof. Elamin Mohamed Elamin External Examiner ………………………

Dr. Faiza Elgaili Elhassan Salah Internal Examiner ……………………..

Date of Examination: 24/4/2014

Dedication

To my beloved family; father, mother, brothers and sister, and a special dedications to my friends. To my sweet heart Samar and to those who are rendering survival sorrows meaningless attaching to my soul Methage have all my deep affection

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praise be to Alla, the Almighty, who gave me health, strength and patience to conduct this work. Great appreciation is due to my supervisor Dr. Mohammed Hamza Zein Elabdeen, God blessing upon him for suggesting the problem and for his invaluable advice, continuous help and encouragement. Thanks are also extended to Dr. Ahmed Adam Eisa Omer and Prof. Ali Elbadawi Ali Saad my co-advisors for their guide and help. Special thanks are due to my family for encouragement and patience. I would, also, like to thank my friends and colleagues in the U. of G. and Crop Protection Department for their help. Special thanks are due Dr. Awadalla Belal Dafalla for his valuable help in data analysis. Sincere and true appreciation to my Sponsor DAAD Organization for financing this project and to their vital role in developing research in my beloved country, the Sudan. Last, but, not least I would like to thank Miss Ayda Yousif for typing the manuscript.

Prevalence , Life Cycle of the Eggplant Fruit Borer (Sceliodes laisalis Walk) and its Infestation on Three Eggplant Cultivars under some Cultural Practices in the Gezira Scheme, Sudan

Ashraf Ahmed Eisa Hussein

Abstract The eggplant fruit borer (Sceliodes laisalis Walk) is known to attack eggplant in Sudan. Information about this pest is scarce. This study was conducted to investigate its prevalence, life cycle and effect of some cultural practices on infestation of some eggplant cultivars. A survey to investigate the infestation of the insect on eggplant was conducted in three locations within the Gezira scheme during the period January to March in 2012 .Response of three cultivars of eggplant to the infestation of the insect was studied in the field during the summer season of 2010 / 11 and the winter seasons of 2011/12 and 2013/14. In the field experiments, the eggplant cultivars Wizzo, Black Beauty and Long Purple were planted at Elmanagil location, two planting dates (early and late) and two planting spaces (30 cm and 50 cm) in summer and winter. The treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replicates. The life cycle of the insect was studied in the laboratory. Chromatographic analysis of wet and dry eggplant fruit rind was carried out to determine the cause of resistance of the eggplant cultivars to infestation by the insect. The survey revealed infestation rate of 21% at Wadelnur, 24% at Shasha and 43% at Daw irrigation areas. Field studies showed that the two cultivars Wizzo and Black Beauty recorded high infestation by the insect during the summer compared to Long Purple . With respect to the season effect, less infestation in the three cultivars was recorded in summer early planting compared to late planting. The 30 cm spacing resulted in less infestation on the three cultivars compared to the 50 cm planting spacing recorded in both seasons. Laboratory studies showed equal incubation, larval and pupal periods of the insect on the three cultivars; these were 4.5, 14 and 9.5 days, respectively. The sex ratio (female: male) was found to be (1:0.8) in all cultivars. The life cycle was completed in 28 days irrespective of the eggplant cultivar. The chromatographic analysis revealed different coloured bands against normal light in Long Purple cultivar. This study recommends planting Long Purple cultivar during the summer at 30 cm spacing in the Gezira Scheme to reduce eggplant fruit borer infestation.

وجود ودورة حياة ثاقبة ثمار الباذنجان (Sceliodes laisalis Walk) واصابتها لثالثة أصناف من الباذنجان تحت بعض العمليات الفالحية في مشروع الجزيرة، السودان

أشرف أحمد عيسي حسين

ملخص الدراسة

ثاقبة ثمار الباذنجان (Sceliodes laisalis Walk) توجد عموماً في السودان وتهاجم نبات الباذنجان والمعلومات المتوفرة عن هذه اآلفة قليلة. أجريت هذه الدراسة بهدف معرفة تواجد ودورة حياة ثاقبة ثمار الباذنجان واصابتها لثالثة أصناف من الباذنجان تحت بعض العمليات الفالحية. تم إجراء المسح الحقلي لمعرفة إصابة ثاقبة ثمار الباذنجان في ثالثة مواقع في مشروع الجزيرة في الفترة من يناير إلى مارس 2012م. لمعرفة استجابة ثالثة أصناف من الباذنجان لإلصابة بالحشرة بواسطة الدراسة الحقلية في الموسم الشتوي 2010/11 وموسمين شتويين 2011/12 و 2013/14. في التجارب الحقلية تمت زراعة ثالثة أصناف من الباذنجان Long Purple, Wizzo و Black Beauty في منطقة المناقل، باستخدام طريقتين لمواعيد الزراعة )مبكرة ومتأخرة( واستخدمت مسافتين بين النباتات )30 سم و50 سم(. تم توزيع المعامالت بنظام القطع العشوائية الكاملة في ثالث مكررات. تمت دراسة دورة حياة الحشرة. تمت دراسة التحليل الطيفي لأللوان على ثمار الباذنجان )جافة ومبللة( لتحديد مقاومة الطرز الجينية لإلصابة بالحشرة. أظهر المسح أن معدل اإلصابة بالحشرة في المناطق المروية كان 21% في ود النور ، 24% في شاشة و43% في ضوء. بالرغم من أخذ تأثيرات الموسم في االعتبار أظهرت نتائج الدراسات الحقلية أن الصنفين Wizzo و Black Beauty أعلى إصابة بالحشرة خالل الشتاء مقارنة بالصنف Long Purple . سجلت أقل إصابة على األصناف في الزراعة المبكرة في الصيف. كانت نتائج الزراعة على مسافة 30 سم أقل إصابة على األصناف الثالثة مقارنة بالزراعة على مسافة 50 سم في الموسمين . نتائج التجربة المعملية أظهرت تساوي في فترة حضانة البيض ، اليرقة والعذراء للحشرة على ثالثة أصناف هذه كانت 4.5 ، 14 و 9.5 يوم على التوالي. وجدت النسبة الجنسية )اإلناث إلى الذكور( متساوية )0.8 : 1( في جميع األصناف. أكملت الحشرة دورة حياتها في 28 يوم بغض النظر عن أصناف الباذنجان. أظهر التحليل الطيفي لأللوان حزمتين ذات لونين مختلفين في الضوء العادي في الصنف Long Purple. توصي هذه الدراسة بزراعة الصنف Long Purple خالل موسم الصيف في مسافة 30 سم في مشروع الجزيرة لتقليل اإلصابة بثاقبة ثمار الباذنجان.

LIST OF CONTENTS Page Dedication ……………………….………………………………... iii Acknowledgements ………………….……………………………... iv Abstract ……………………………………………………………. v Arabic Abstract …………………………………………..……….. vi List of Contents …………………………………………………….. vii List of Tables ……………………………………………..………. xii List of Figures…………………………………………….………… xiv List of Plates ………………………………………………………. xv List of Appendices ………………………………………………… xvi CHAPTER ONE: . INTRODUCTION ……………….…………… 1 CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………. 2 2.1 Eggplant ……………………………..…………………………. 2 2.1.1 Uses of eggplants …………………………………………… 2 2.1.2 Economic importance ………………………………………. 3 2.1.3 Cultivars …………………………………………………..... 3 2.1.4 Sowing ……………………………………………………… 4 2.1.5 Transplanting ………………………………………………. 4 2.2 Insect pests …………………………………………………….. 5 2.2.1 The Eggplant fruit borer ………..………………………….. 5 2.2.1.1Classification ………………………………………….…… 5 2.2.1.2 Distribution ………………..………………………………. 6 2.2.1.3 Morphology and biology ……………………………….. 6 2.2.1.3.1 The egg …………………………………………………. 6 2.2.1.3.2. The larva ………………………………………………. 6

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Page 2.2.1.3.3. The pupa ………………………………….………….…... 7 2.2.1.3.4 The adult ………………………………………………….. 7 2.2.2 Host plants …………………………………………..…….. 7 2.2.3 Infestation intensity ………………………………..………… 7 2.2.4 Nature of damage …………………………………….………. 8 2.2.5 Control measures …………………………………………….. 8 2.2.5.1 Cultural practices ………………………………….………. 8 2.2.5.2 Mechanical control …………………………………………. 8 2.2.5.3 Host plant resistance …………………………………..……. 9 2.2.5.4 Biological control ………………………………………….. 10 2.2.5.5 Pheromones ……………………………………………….. 10 2.2.5.6 Chemical control …………………………………………. 11 CHAPTER THREE :MATERIALS AND METHODS ………… 12 3.1 Field studies …………………………………………………… 12 3.1.1 The experimental site ……………………………………... 12 3.1.2 Survey for infestation by fruit borer in the Gezira and Elmanagil ……………………………………………………. 12 3.1.3 The effect of eggplant cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer ……………………………….. 12 3.2 Laboratory studies……………………………………………… 13 3.2.1 Identification of different symptoms of damage between the eggplant fruit worms ……………………………………….. 13 3.2.2 Life cycle ……………………………………………………. 13 3.2.2.1 The larvae ………………………………………………… 14 3.2.2.2 The pupae …………………………………………………. 14 3.2.2.3 The adult ………………………………………………….. 14

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Page 3.2.2.4 Effect of cultivars on the eggplant fruit borer development 15 3.3 Chromatography procedure …………………………………… 15 3.3.1 Chromatographica analysis of eggplant cultivar …………….. 15 3.3.2 Equipments …………………………………………………… 15 3.3.3 Extraction procedures ………………………………………… 15 3.3.4 Preparation of plates …..……………………………………. 15 3.3.5 Preparation of thin layer chromatographic separations……. 16 3.4 Statistical analysis …………………………………………….. 16 CHAPTER FOUR : RESULTS …………………………………… 17 4.1Field studies …………………………………………………… 17 4.1.1. Survey for infestation by the eggplant fruit borer in the Gezira and Elmanagil ………….…………………………. 17 4.1.2 The survey of infestation by eggplant fruit borer, potato tuber moth and tomato leaf miner in the Gezira area ……… 17 4.1.3 The main effect of eggplant cultivars on percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer ……………………………… 17 4.1.3.1 Summer season, 2010-2011 ……………………..………… 17 4.1.3.2 Winter season, 2011-2012 ……………………………….…. 20 4.1.3.3 The second winter season, 2013-2014 ………………….. 20 4.1.3.4 The effect of planting date on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis…………………………………………...... 22 4.1.3.4.1 Summer season, 2010-2011 ………………………..…… 22 4.1.3.4.2 Winter season, 2011-2012 ……………………………… 24 4.1.3.4.3 The second winter season, 2013-2014 …………………… 27

Page 4.1.3.5 The effect of spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer ..…… 28 4.1.3.5.1 Summer season, 2010-2011 ……………………………….. 28 4.1.3.5.2 The effect of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer during the summer season, 2010-2011 ………….. 28 4.1.3.5.3 Winter season, 2011-2012 …………………………………… 31 4.1.3.6 The effect of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation of eggplant cultivars by fruit borer during the winter season, 2011-2012 …………………………………………… 31 4.1.3.7 The second winter season, 2013-2014 …………………………… 35 4.1.3.7.1 The effect of spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, second winter season, 2013-2014 ……………………..……………….. 35 4.1.3.7.2 The effect of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer during the second winter season, 2013-2014 ……. 35 4.1.3.7.3. The effect of spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer during the second winter season, 2013-2014 ………………………. 35 4.1.4 The symptoms of damage by different fruit worms ……………. 38 4.1.5 Biological studies ………………………………………………… 41 4.1.5.1 The eggs …………………………………………………….… 41 4.1.5.1.1 The incubation period ………………………………………… 41 4.1.5.2 The larva ………………………………………………………… 44 4.1.5.3 The pupa ……………………..………………………………….. 44 4.1.5.4 The adult ………………………………………………….……… 44

Page 4.1.5.4.1 Oviposition and fecundity ……………………………..……… 47 4.1.6 Chromatographica analysis of the eggplant cultivars …………… 47 CHAPTER FIVE : DISCUSSION …………………………………….. 51 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS ……………………………… 55 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………… 56 APPENDICES …………………………………………………………… 63

LIST OF TABLES

Table number Page

1 Incidence of different eggplant fruit worms in the Gezira and Elmanagil areas during October, 2013………………………. 18 2 The effect of different cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis , in Elmanagil area during the Summer season, 2010-2011 ………….……... 19 3 The effects of different eggplant cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis , in Elmanagil area during the winter season, 2011-2012 ……… 21 4 Effects of different eggplant cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis , in Elmanagil area, during the second winter season, 2013-2014 21 5 Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis , in Elmanagil area during the summer season, 2010- 2011 ………………………………………………………… 23 6 Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the summer season, 2010-2011 …. 23 7 Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of

eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area during the winter season, 2011- 2012 ………………………………………………………… 25 8 Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the winter season, 2011-2012 …… 25

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Table number Page 9 Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the second winter season, 2013-2014 ……. 27 10 Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the second winter season, 2013- 2014 …………………………………………………………. 27 11 Effects of spacing on the percentage infestation of eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area during the summer season, 2010-2011 ….…. 29 12 Effect of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the summer season 2010- 2011 …………………………………….…………………… 30 13 Effects of spacing on the percentage infestation of the eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area during the winter season, 2011- 2012 ……………………………………………………..…. 32 14 Effect of spacing on the percentage infestation of the eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer in Elmanagil area during the second winter season, 2013-2014 ………… 35 15 Mean incubation, developmental stages, and oviposition periods of Sceliodes laisalis on three cultivars …………… 43 16 Percentage mean hatching, fecundity, longevity of adult reared on three cultivars ……………………………………. 48

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure number Page

1 Effects of spacing on the infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in three eggplant cultivars during the summer season 2010- 2011 …………………………………………….… 29 2 Effects of spacing on the infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in three eggplant cultivars during the winter season 2011- 2012 …………………………………………….. 32 3 The effects of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer during the winter season 2011-2012 ………………………………………………………. 33 4 The effects of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the second winter season 2011-2012 ………………………… 35 5 Effect of spacing on the cultivar's percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the second winter season 2013-2014 ……………………………………………. 36 6 TLC profiles under day light of compounds extracted from the rind of dry fruits of three cultivars of eggplants …………….. 49 7 TLC profiles under day light of compounds extracted from the rind of wet fruits of three eggplant cultivars ……………….… 50

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LIST OF PLATES

Plate number Page

1a Calyx with larval holes……………………………….. 37

1b Fruit with larval hole ……………………………… 37

1 c Internal fruit symptom of damage …………………….. 37

2 a The damage regular holes …………………………….. 38

2 b The larva of eggplant fruit borer ……………………… 38

3 a The damage irregular holes ………………………….. 39

3 b The larva of potato tuber moth ………………………. 39

4 a The damage lesion like shape ……………………….. 40

4 b The larva of tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta ……….. 40

5 The Egg of eggplant fruit borer ………………………. 42

6 a The pupa (Female) of eggplant fruit borer …………… 45

6 b The pupa (Male) of eggplant fruit borer ……………….. 45

7 a The adult (Female) of eggplant fruit borer …………… 46

7 b The adult (Male)of eggplant fruit borer …………….... 46

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix number Page 1 Incidence of eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in

different areas of the irrigated Gezira during 14/1-17/3/2012 62

2 Incidence of eggplant fruit worms on different areas of the

irrigated Gezira area during October, 2013 ……………….… 63

3 Percentage mean infestation by eggplant fruit borer during summer season, 2010- 2011.…………………………………. 64

4 Percentage mean infestation by eggplant fruit borer during winter season 2011 – 2012 …………………………………. 65

5 Percentage mean infestation by eggplant fruit borer during the second winter season 2013 – 2014 …….…………….…. 66 6 Percentage mean egg hatching and incubation period of

Sceliodes laisalis on Long Purple cultivar at 27C and RH.

62% ……………………………………………………….….. 67

7 Percentage mean egg hatching and incubation period of

Sceliodes laisalis on Wizzo cultivar at 28C and RH. 65% … 68

8 Percentage mean egg hatching and incubation period of

Sceliodes laisalis on Black Beauty cultivar at 29C and RH

64% ...... … 69

9 The larval period of Sceliodes laisalis reared on Long Purple

cultivar of eggplant at 30C and RH 59% …………………. 70

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Appendix number Page

10 The larval period of Sceliodes laisalis reared on Wizzo

cultivar of eggplant at 29C and RH 64% ………………….. 71

11 The larval period of Sceliodes laisalis reared on Black Beauty

cultivar of eggplant at 27C and RH 62% …………….. 72

12 The pupal period of Sceliodes laisalis on Long Purple cultivar

at 31C and RH 62% …………………………………… 73

13 The pupal period of Sceliodes laisalis on Wizzo cultivar at

29C and RH 65% ………………………………………… 74

14 The pupal period of Sceliodes laisalis on Black Beauty

cultivar at 29C and RH 64% …………………………… 75

15 The fecundity and longevity in days of females and males of the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, reared on Long 76 Purple cultivar at 29C and RH 59% ……………………… 16 The fecundity and longevity in days of females and males of

the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, reared on Wizzo

cultivar at 29C and RH 60% …………………………….. 77

17 The fecundity and longevity in days of females and males of

the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, reared on Black

Beauty cultivar at 28C and RH 60% ……………………… 78

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Eggplant, Solanum melongena (L.), is one of the most important vegetable crops. It has been known for its nutritive value as a source of carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, fibers and plant proteins in human diet (FAO, 1995). Eggplant is a native of the Tropical old world and South East Asia (Atwal, 1976). It is a delicate perennial often cultivated as an annual. The production of vegetables is assuming an increasing importance in the life and economy of the Sudanese because of their increasing awareness of their food value (Hassan, 1983). Due to the availability of vast arable land, reasonable supply of irrigation water, varied and suitable climatic conditions, a wide range of vegetables and crops were grown in the Sudan, (Abdalla, 1966, Khattab and Kidir, 1973). Eggplant was introduced to the Sudan through Egypt (Mohamed, 1984). Eggplant production in Sudan is fraught by many hazards that contribute to low yields. Of these, insect pests play a significant role. Throughout the Tropics in Asia and Africa, insect pests can reduce yield by as much as 70%. Hence, the farmers in the region rely exclusively on the application of chemical insecticides to control eggplant insect pests. Amongst the insect pests attacking eggplant is the fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis (Walk). The insect is commonly found in the Northern, Eastern and Central regions of the Sudan (Schumetterer, 1969). However, baseline information about the eggplant fruit borer is scarce. Hence, this study aimed to avail information through: 1) Assessing damage of the fruit borer to eggplant in the irrigated Gezira; 2) Determination of the cultural practices affecting the infestation levels of eggplant fruit borer; 3) Investigation of the resistance of three eggplant cultivars against the fruit borer; 4) Studying the life cycle of eggplant fruit borer on different cultivars; 5) Chromatographica analysis of eggplant cultivar to investigate the chemical source of resistance.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Eggplant The eggplant or brinjal, Solanum melongena (L.) is an important solanaceous crop of sub–Tropics and Tropics. The name brinjal is popular in Asian subcontinents and is derived from Arabic and Sanskrit, whereas the name eggplant is derived from the shape of the fruit of some varieties, which are white and resemble chicken eggs in shape. It is also called aubergine "French word" "garden egg", brinjal and locally known as Bazangan or Aswad (also known as the nightshades) in Europe. However, two wild species are also known, as, Solanum incanum (L.). It belongs to the family Solanaceae and Solanum isanum (Rox.), (Bailey, 1947, Bell and Coursey, 1974). These wild species were known in Kenya, (Matu, 2008), Eastern Australia (Bean, 2005) and Southern India (Richard et al., 1990). The success of vegetable production depends on suitable variety or cultivar, required environment, optimum cultural practices, pest and disease management and efficient marketing channels, (Hamittu, 2001). Eggplant production is highly localized, with 85 percent of output coming from three countries with China as the main producer (56% of world output), India is the second (26%) whereas Egypt, Turkey and Indonesia amongst the top producing countries. More than 4 million acres (2,043,788 hectares) are devoted to the cultivation of eggplant in the world (FAO, 2008). In Sudan, eggplant is one of the most important vegetables, ranking 7th in the country in term of area (12000 ha), the estimated production is 230000 tonnes per area (FAO, 2007).

2.1.1. Uses of Eggplants With such a long culinary evolution, eggplant uses are many and include, grilling, frying, baking or stewing and dips. The practice of "breading" keeps the spongy fruit from absorbing too much oil when fried. Eggplants make a very good meat substitute for vegetarian cooking. If you are ever in San Francisco in the North Beach you have to try the eggplant sandwich at Mario's Cigar Store (Mario's is small restaurant in North Beach landmark). The dried shoots of eggplant are used as fuel in rural areas. Eggplant is low in calories and fats, contains mostly water, some protein, fiber and carbohydrates. It is a good source of minerals, vitamins and is rich in total 2 water soluble sugars, free reducing sugars, amide proteins among other nutrients. The popularity of eggplant in the Sudan is mainly due to it is low price, the diversity of ways in which it can be cooked and because it is an easy grown crop (El Khaliefa, 1999). Eggplant has been used in traditional medicine for example; fruits and leaves are effective in lowering blood cholesterol (Grubben, 1977).

2.1.2. Economic importance Eggplants encompass several species of Solanum that are grown as gastronomically interesting and nutritionally valuable vegetables. Also, as desert fruits and have medicinal properties and is good for diabetic patients. It has, also, been recommended as an excellent remedy for those suffering from liver complaints (Shukla and Naik, 1993(. The eggplants were originated from three continents, Asia, Africa and South America. The best known eggplant species is Solanum melongena (brinjal, eggplant or aubergine), widely cultivated in Asia (78 % of world production) and to a lesser extent but still important in the Mediterranean basin, including Turkey (about 19 % of world production). Incidentally Turkey, an EU economic partner, produces more eggplant than all of Europe. Eggplants are of considerable economic importance as vegetables, but, they also, had, led interests of breeders, seed companies, growers, consumers and phytochemists, who are concerned with better use of the genetic resources of eggplants (Eggplant Genetic Resources Network, 2005).

2.1.3. Cultivars The varieties of eggplant display a wide range of fruit shapes and colours, ranging from oval or egg-shaped to long club-shaped; and from white, yellow, green through degrees of purple pigmentation to almost black. Most of the commercially important varieties have been selected from the long established types of tropical India and China. The suitable market varieties have the characteristics of high productivity, resistance to diseases, early maturity, vigorous growth and heat tolerance. The important cultivars grown in the Sudan are: Black Beauty, Long Purple, Wizzo and Baladi (local). Panda (1999) early fruiting varieties are more liable to fruit attacked by L.orbonalis. Mardelyn and Caasi (2001) showed that 14% of planted material was infested by the insect pests, (fruit and shoot borers and leaf

3 hoppers). In cultivated farms cultivars like Dumaguete, Long Purple, Liamado Black Ninja (hybrid), long purple was found to be the least infested (Mardelyn and Caasi, 2001 ). Eisa (2009) showed that Wizzo and Black beauty are early maturing than other cultivars. Sawsan (1999) showed that medium-white and Black beauty were the most preferred while Long purple was least preferred. CAB (2012) attributed resistance in long- fruited varieties to thick fruit skin and closely packed vascular bundles in the pulp.

2.1.4. Sowing Fresh seeds can be sown in sterilized soil without seed treatment, but, normally seeds are prepared by soaking in warm water (50C) for 30 min, rinsed in cold water, and dried. Before sowing, seeds may be treated with Thiram 1 gm/kg seeds to control seedling root diseases (Chen and Kalb, 2001). The optimum temperature for germination is 24 to 29C. At this temperature, seedlings emerge in 6– 8 days. In the Sudan the best time for planting eggplant is the beginning of the rainy season or early in November (Anon, 1998). Patel et al. (1998), reported that a significant difference in the incidence of L. orbonalis was observed in plants transplanted at different periods.CAB (2012) reported a positive correlation between the degree of infestation and maximum temperature. No correlation was observed with lower temperature. Singh (2007) further reported, 10th January planted plots recorded the lowest pest incidence compared to the plots planted on other dates. CAB, (2012), reported that fruit and shoot borer insects are active in summer months, especially during the rainy season, and less active during the winter. Their populations were reported to increase with temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. Field experiments in Orissa, India, for example, showed that an eggplant crop planted in June was least affected by fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis). Maximum fruit damage was recorded on crops planted in October (38.2%) followed by November-planted crops (36.6%) (Tripathi et al., 1996).

2.1.5. Transplanting The eggplant is usually planted in the field as seedlings. Seedlings are purchased from nurseries and need to be ordered at least 8 weeks before planting. The 4 ideal transplanting of seedlings is at the 6 – 7 true leaves stage, a height of 10-12 cm, healthy and without flower buds. The seedlings are hardened for 6 – 9 days by removing the shelter or netting. Transplanting should be done in the late afternoon or on a cloudy weather in order to minimize transplanting shock. It can be done manually or by machine. Raised beds are recommended in egg plant production. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC,1990), uses 1.5 m wide beds (furrow to furrow) and 20 – 25 cm high. A single row of plants is planted in the middle of the bed. Plants are spaced 50 cm apart for a plant population density of 13,333 plant/ha. Agro ecosystem analysis during farmers field school in Negros occidental, the Philippines (1998 – 1999) showed that more insect pests and more mechanical damage from field operation were observed in the high density eggplant fields.

2.2. Insect pests Numerous insect pests attack eggplant. The most important insect pests are the cotton jassid, Jacobiasca lybica (Berg. & Zanon), the eggplant lace bug or tinged bugs, Urentius hystricellus (Richt), the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Golv), the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.), the eggplant stem borer, Euzophera sp. The eggplant bud worm (Tabacco stem borer), Scrobipalpa heliopa (Low), potato tuber moth, Phthorimeae operculella (Zeller) and eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis (Walk), (Schumtterer, 1969) , and most recently tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoulta (Meyricky) and red spider mite, Tetranychus urticae (Koch) (Ali Elbadawi Ali, 2012, personal communication ). 2.2.1. The Eggplant fruit borer, (Sceliodes laisalis.Walk),(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). 2.2.1.1. Classification Eggplant fruit borer, Daraba Laisalis (Walk) formerly called S. laisalis ,was originally described by Walk in. 1859 .It was classified as follows: Order: Lepidoptera Family: Pyralidae Genus: Sceliodes Specie name: laisalis Scientific name :Sceliodes laisalis Walk.1859

Author: Walker 2.2.1.2. Distribution Sceliodes laisalis is cosmopolitan in distribution; it had been reported on eggplant in Africa and Asia, in the following countries: South Africa (Taylor, 1951), Uganda, Kenya (Pelley, 1959) and Sudan (Venkatarman et al., 1967; Schmutterer, 1969 and Siddig, 1978). It is a native of the Tropical Old World and South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Srilanka). In the Sudan, the insect is found wherever eggplant is grown, from the Northern region to the Central and Eastern regions (Venkatraman et al., 1967, Schumtterer, 1969).

2.2.1.3. Morphology and biology Little work has been done on the biology and morphology of Sceliodes laisalis., (Hassan, 1983).

2.2.1.3.1. The egg Adult females lay eggs on young buds and fruits. The number of eggs laid varies from 80 - 253 per female. Oviposition takes place during the night and eggs are laid singly on the lower surface of the young leaves, green stems, flowers, buds, or calyces of the fruits. Eggs are flattened, elliptical, 0.5 mm in diameter (Metho, 1983). They are creamy-white soon after being laid, but change to red before hatching. Talker (2002) reported that the incubation period varied between 3 to 6 days. Eggs hatch in 4 - 5 days, depending on temperature (Aina, 1984).

2.2.1.3.2. The larva Soon after hatching young larva enters the fruit within 30 minutes of hatching (Aina, 1984). As it grows, the larva passes through at least five instars (Atwal, 1976). There were reports of six larval instars (Metho, 1983). The larval period is 12 - 15 days during summer and up to 22 days during winter. Sandanayake and Edinsingle (1992) studied the larval distribution on fruiting eggplant. They found first instars in flower buds and flowers, and second to fifth instars mostly inside the fruit. A full grown larva measures 18 – 23 mm in length.

2.2.1.3.3. The pupa Mature larvae come out of their feeding tunnels and pupate in tough silken cocoons among the fallen leaves and other plant debris on the soil surface. Some studies indicated the presence of cocoons at soil depth of 1 – 3 cm. The pupal period is 6 – 17 days depending on temperature. The pupa is dark brown in colour, the pupa measures about 13 mm (Metho, 1983).

2.2.1.3.4. The adult The adult emerges out of pupal cocoon at night. Young adults are generally found on the lower leaf surface following emergence. Sceloides laisalis females are slightly bigger than males. The abdomen of the female moth often tends to be pointed and curl. The moth is white but has pale brown or black spot on the dorsum of the thorax and abdomen. Wings are white with a pinkish or bluish tinge and fringed with small hairs along the apical and anal margins. The forewings are ornamented with a number of black, pale, and light brown spots. The moth wing span measures 20– 22mm. Longevity of the adult is 1.5 - 2.4 days for males and 2.0 - 3.9 days for females. The pre-oviposition and oviposition periods were 1.2 - 2.1 and 1.4 - 2.9 days, respectively (Metho, 1983).

2.2.2. Host plants Eggplant fruit borer host plants mainly belong to the genus Solanum (Solanaceae), where the cultivated eggplant species Solanum melongena constitutes the main host plant. A number of wild Solanum spp. are also attacked. The insect was observed on Bitter Apple (Solanum sodomeeum) in South Africa (Taylor, 1951). A closely related species, Sceliodes cordalis was reported from Australia to attack tomato, pepper, potato, Datura metal and Datura stramonium (Davis, 1964).The pest is also, observed on "Gubbein" Solanum dobium which is common in the Gezira (Anderowes, 1956). Kisha (1985) reported that S.dobium was the only alternative host plant among several Solanaceous species examined under Sudan conditions. 2.2.3. Infestation intensity Sceliodes spp. inflicted serious damage to eggplant fruits in the most of the grown areas. The newly hatched larvae wandered about for some time, searching for a

7 suitable site of infestation where ever it finds a young fruit. The larvae immediately tunnel into the fruit under the calyx. The entrance holes which are usually made by the first instar larvae, were so small to be seen by the naked eye. Many larvae may tunnel in a single fruit until they were fully grown. The characteristic symptoms appear as external hole, caused by fully grown larvae on the surface of the fruit. Internal symptoms are caused by larvae boring inside the fruit. They consume most of the fruit content filling the tunnels with excreta and encouraged the growth of microorganisms, and the fruit become unsuitable for consumption.

2.2.4. Nature of damage The insect confines its feeding activities to the fruit, where the damage is caused by the larvae. The larva burrows deep in the fruit resulting in round holes, plugged with excreta. The penetration of the fruit leads to fungal and bacterial contamination and thus reduces their marketable value and renders them unfit for consumption (Schumtterer, 1969, Barsum, 1976). Larval feeding inside the fruit results in destruction of fruit tissue. Damage to the fruit in India, particularly in autumn is very severe and the whole crop can be destroyed (Atwal, 1976).

2.2.5. Control measures 2.2.5.1. Cultural practices As stated by Schmutterer (1969) the cultural practices can minimize infestation by eggplant fruit borer include, removal of previous season crop residues, weed destruction, especially "Gubbein" S .dobium in and around the field and proper rotation. The larvae of the insect spend their developmental period inside the fruit, collection and burning of the infested fruits, is a very essential measure for crop hygiene which is intended to prevent the build-up of the insect pest population (Barsum, 1976).

2.2.5.2. Mechanical control Some measures of mechanical or physical control of Sceliodes laisalis moth can be used. The moth was observed to fly at low levels when disturbed, and therefore they can be prevented from flying too high enough to infest fields, by erection of

8 suitable barriers. Carry over of this pest from season to another was observed through emerging moths from pupa in the soil or plant debris and from neighboring infested plants, so deep ploughing and clean up campaign can reduce infestation. Other source of infestation was the eggplant stalks stored by farmer as fuel for cooking. Destruction of such stalks reduces the number of emerging pest.

2.2.5.3. Host plant resistance The resistance of a host plant to insect attack is based on plant injury or symptoms of insect attack or reaction of insect to the plant. Plant resistance to insects has been defined by Painter (1951) as the relative amount of heritable qualities possessed by the plant which influence the ultimate degree of damage done by the insect. Snelling (1941) included in his definition of plant resistance those characteristics that enable a plant to avoid, tolerate, or recover from insect attack under conditions that would more severely injure other plants of the same species. The resistance exhibited by plants to insect attack has been attributed to one or a combination of three mechanisms; antibiosis, non-preference, and tolerance. These mechanisms have been defined by Teetes and Johnson (1978) as follows: Antibiosis : Resistance which adversely affects the biology of the insect when the plant is used for food. Non-preference: Resistance which adversely affects the behavior of an insect in its attempt to use a plant for food, oviposition and shelter. Tolerance: Resistance in which a plant is able to withstand damage or recover from damage caused by an insect density approximately equal to that damaging a susceptible plant. The identification of the sources of resistance is the first step in a plant breeding program for insect resistance. It can be accomplished through screening within a population of established cultivars, and among lines in a variety or germplasm collection (Kogan, 1975). The screening should be carried out under adequate infestation levels of the pest under consideration, with known susceptible and resistant checks as standards for comparisons. The mechanism of the eggplant resistance to shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis, was found to be attributed to tightness of the fruit calyx, hindering the initial borer penetration into the fruit. The hard rind and the arrangement of the seeds

9 compaction in the mesocarp provide a barrier against the borer damage (Panda et al., 1971, Lai et al., 1976). Kisha (1985) reported that the cultivar Long Purple supported lower population with less damage compared with cultivar Black beauty. This may be due to oviposition preference, successful penetration of fruits. She further reported that the wild species S .dobium which is closely related to S. melongena supported very low levels of infestation.

2.2.5.4. Biological control In Srilanka, Sandanayake and Edirisinghe (1992) reported a high level of parasitism on Sceliodes laisalis larvae by the parasitoid Trathala flavor orbitalis (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumoridae). This parasitoid had been reported in India (Nersh et al., 1986) and Bangladesh (Alam and Sana, 1964). However, its contribution to pest control was rarely documented and did not appear to be significant. When Trichogramma chilonis was released at fortnightly intervals in a study in Tamil Nadu, India, it significantly reduced pest damage and produced fruit yield 20.30 tons, compared with the control yield of 13.06 tons (Raja et al., 1998). Trichogramma japonicum was released in eggplant fields in a study in Andhra Pradesh, India, and resulted in very good control of shoot and fruit borer as compared to control (Sasikala et al,. 1999).

2.2.5.5. Pheromones To trap male moth to prevent mating, sex pheromones can be used (Praveen and Sundara ,1997). The pheromone of the pest is now available from chemical suppliers. It consists of a mixture of (E) –H–hexadecenyls acetate and E–II– hexadecen–1–01, in mixture of 10: 1 to 100: 1, 2 to 3 mg pheromone sample contained in porous plastic tube. When baited in suitable trap and placed in the field, can attract male moths continuously for up to 6 weeks. Various traps are available in the market in India or can be prepared locally, such as weighed, and delta traps commonly used for trapping other insects. The pheromone lure is attached under the top of the trap, which protects the lure from sun and rain (Praveen and Sundara, 1997).

2.2.5.6. Chemical control The eggplant fruit borer is difficult to control, once it enters the fruits and remains there until it reaches the pupation stage (Pollard, 1955 and Schmutterer, 1969). In the Sudan chemical measures are used against the insect (Hassan, 1983). Barsum (1976) recommended the use of Carbaryl, (Sevin) at rate of 1 kg per fadden, sprayed at interval of 10 days. In India, a similar egg plant fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis Guen, was controlled by carbaryl, endosulfan and malathion. Results showed that carbaryl proved to be the best insecticide (Jotwani and Saurpe, 1963). Teotia and Sinha (1971) studied the relative toxicity of some insecticides to larva of eggplant shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis. Their findings indicated that, the order of toxicity against the eggplant fruit borer could be, Carbaryl, Endrin, Heptachlor, Lindane, Chlordone, and Malathion. It was reported that the synthetic pyrethroids showed an ovicidal effect against eggplant budworm (Anon, 1980). Kisha (1985) studied the efficacy of some insecticides for the control of eggplant budworm, synthetic pyrethroids such as Fenvalerate, Cypermethrin and Cyfluthrin were found to be highly effective. Deo (2004) reported that an integrated pest management (IPM) module with cultural, biological and application of insecticides was developed and evaluated in comparison with chemical control and unprotected plots against tobacco pests. The results showed less infestation by caterpillar of budworm and aphids compared to unprotected as well as chemical control treatment. Moreover, IPM module proved effective in reduction of pest damage in tobacco, enhanced natural enemies and improved the yields.

CHAPTER THREE 3. MATERIAL AND METHODS 3.1. Field studies 3.1.1 The experimental site The experiments were carried out in three seasons from 2010-2013 at Elmakashfi group, Elmanagil locality (latitude 140 24 N and longitude 330 29 E), Gezira scheme. The area is traditionally an irrigated part of Gezira scheme and is characterized by heavy soil (clay 60%), with PH 8-8.5, low organic matter and nitrogen, adequate potassium and low available phosphorous. The average annual rains do not exceed 400/mm( Elnour, 2011).

3.1.2. Survey for infestation by fruit borer in the Gezira and Elmanagil The field surveys were conducted monthly in Gezira area, (Wadelnour) and Elmanagil area, (Daw and Shasha), during the period 14/1/2011 to 17/3 / 2011. Fifteen square meters were taken randomly and all aerial plant parts were examined for infestation by the fruit borer. Monthly percentage infestation of plants and fruits was recorded. A further survey was also conducted in the Gezira, Hantoub, Wadelnour and Baika; Elmanagil area, Daw, during October, 2013 for infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, potato tuber moth, and leaf miner, to distinguish symptoms different of damage caused by fruit worms.

3.1.3 The effect of eggplant cultivar on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer Experiments were conducted in Elmanagil area (Elmakashfi group). During the summer season of 15/4/2011 to 30/10/2011, winter season 15/12/2011 to 30/5/2012 and second winter seasons 15/8/ 2013 to 10/3/2014. The cultivars used were Black Beauty, Long Purple and Wizzo (Baladi). The experimental area was prepared and divided into three blocks each block was divided into three sub plots (6.0 m x 7.0 m). The sub plot was divided in “mustabs” 6 meters long, 1.7 meters wide and the distance between “mustabs” was 0.5 meters. Weeding and other cultural practices were carried out timely. Eggplants seeds company

POPVERN 12/2010, were purchased from Wad Maddani market. Eggplant seeds were sown in the nursery six weeks before being transplanted to the field. Seedlings were transplanted on the mustabas, one plant per hole at 30 cm and 50 cm distances. Transplanting dates, of the three eggplant cultivars were 1.6.2011 and 1.7.2011 in Elmakashfi group. The treatments were arranged in randomized complete block design (R.C.B.D) with three replications. The date and level of infestation by the fruit borer on the three cultivars were recorded every two weeks from fruit formation. The second winter seasons seedlings were transplanted on the mustabas, one plant per hole at 30 cm and at 50 cm distances. Transplanting dates of the three eggplant cultivars were on 15/12/2011 to 30/5/2012 in the first winter season, and on the second winter season on 15/8/2013 to 10/3/2014, in Elmakashfi group. The treatments were arranged in randomized complete block design (R.C.B.D) with three replications. The date and level of infestation by the fruit borer on the three cultivars were recorded every two weeks from fruit formation.

3.2. Laboratory studies The insect was identified by Abdelgider Mohomed from Agricultural Research Corporation Insect museum Wad Medani Sudan. The studies were carried out in the biology laboratory of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Gezira and Entomology laboratory of the Agricultural Research Corporation, Wad Medani, Sudan.

3.2.1. Identifications of the different symptoms of damage of the eggplant fruit worms Infested fruits of eggplant were collected from the farms (Gezira area). The fruits were sliced to remove the larvae and to identify the different fruit worms, by the shape of tunnel, faeces place and colour of larvae.

3.2.2. Life cycle Infested fruits of eggplants were collected from the farm (Elmanagil area). The fruits were dissected to remove the larvae. The larvae were placed in Petri-dishes (9.0 cm in diameter), fed on eggplant fruits slices till pupation.

The emerged adults were paired after being sexed and each pair was kept in an oviposition cage (25.0 x 25.0 x 35.0 cm) made of wood frame and covered with muslin. Each cultivar (Black Beauty, Wizzo and Long Purple) was introduced into a cage with the sexed adult moths of the eggplant fruit borer for egg laying. Sexing procedure, depends on insect size, where the females is slightly bigger than males and the abdomen of the male moth tends to be pointed where as the abdomen of the female moth is blunt. Cotton lint soaked in 10% sugar solution was provided in the cages as food for adults. The eggplant genotype seedlings in each cage were examined daily. The leaves with newly laid eggs were transferred to Petri-dishes lined with moist filter papers. The number of eggs in each Petri-dish and the date of egg laying were recorded. The daily inspection of the eggs was continued until hatching.

3.2.2.1. The Larvae After hatching, the newly emerged larvae were transferred by using a fine brush to Petri-dishes (10 larvae in each Petri-dish). The larvae were fed on thin slices of eggplant cultivar fruits. The food was changed daily to prevent contamination. The duration of the larvae from hatching until pupation was recorded.

3.2.2.2. The Pupae Larvae preparing for pupation were transferred to separate Petri-dishes. The duration from date when larva entered pupation until it emerged from pupal case to adult was recorded.

3.2.2.3. The Adult Fifteen pairs of newly emerged adults were placed together, each five pairs in one cultivar in as oviposition cage. Females were fed on 10% sugar soluation in cotton lint. The pre- oviposition, oviposition period, fecundity and life span of different sexes were obtained. Room temperature and relative humidity were recorded using wet and dry bulb thermometer.

3.2.2.4. Effect of cultivars on eggplant fruit borer development Mass reared first instars larvae of eggplant fruit borer were fed on fresh slices of each of the three cultivars in cups (4.0 x 2.0 cm). Each cup was supplied with one larva and the cultivar slices were replaced daily till pupation. The number of instars and the larval period for each cultivar were recorded.

3.3. Chromatography procedure 3.3.1. Chromatographic analysis of eggplant cultivars These studies were carried out in the food science laboratory in the University of Gezira during October, 2012. The solutions of eggplant cultivars extracts under study were analyzed using chromatographic procedures to investigate factors of resistance present in the rind that may be the cause of repellency or tolerance of the cultivars to the eggplant fruit borer.

3.3.2. Equipments i) Standard laboratory equipments were used for weighing (analytical balance), micro-volumetric (micro-syringe), thin layer chromatographic plate (20…20), sprayer (manual spraying SPU-1), seed grinding (laboratory mill) and drying (Oven BS-size 1). ii) Glass wares used in all studies were cleaned with chromic acid and nitric acid followed by distilled water before oven drying.

3.3.3. Extraction procedures Fruits were collected from different cultivars, dried under shade. Three grams of the dried fruits were ground in mortar and extracted in mixture of ethanol + n. hexane and dichloromethane (equal volumes), added to 15 ml absolute ethanol, n.hexane and dichloromethane using shaker for 72 hours at room temperature. The solvent was evaporated using rotary evaporator and the filtrate was concentrated and used later for chromatographic analysis.

3.3.4. Preparation of plates TLC plates prepared with 0.5 mm layer thickness using equipment from Shandon Scientific Instruments ltd. Weighed amount of silica gel (Kiesslgel DG and 15

G6 F254, BDF,) containing 13% CaSO4 was shaken vigorously for about one minute with a volume of distilled water equivalent to twice the weight of the gel and applied to 20 x20 cm glass–plate set to the required thickness. The plates were heated in an oven for half an hour at 110C before cooling in a desiccator. The samples were applied to the plates and equilibrated with the development solvent. After chromatographic development, residual solvent was removed from the plate at room temperature, separated spots or bands were sprayed with antimony trichloride.

3.3.5. Preparation of thin layer chromatographic separations About 5 ml of the extract were dissolved in a small volume of n-hexane, the solution was applied as a band, using a micro syringe on a TLC plate coated with silica gel (0.5 mm thickness). The plate was developed in a tank containing the solvent mixture, n-hexane: acetone (4:1) TLC solvent system for separation of the compounds took about 45 minutes.

3.4. Statistical analysis Field experiments data were subjected to transformation when needed before being analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) for significance differences and Duncan's' Multiple Range Test (DMRT) for means separation.

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.1. Field studies 4.1.1. Survey for infestation by eggplant fruit borer in the Gezira and Elmanagil The eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis (Walk), had been encountered in the most of the surveyed eggplant fields in the Gezira and Elmanagil areas. The mean infestation levels in the Gezira (Wadelnour) and Elmanagil (Shasha, Daw) were 21%, 24% and 43%, respectively, (Appendix 1). Gezira (Wadelnour) was less infested (21%) due to better husbandry, whereas Elmanagil (Daw) was more infested (43%) (Appendix 1). In the most areas surveyed, an alternative host plant (Solanium dobium) was observed attacked by the insect.

4.1.2. The survey of infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, potato tuber moth and tomato leaf miner in the Gezira area Elmanagil area (Daw) results showed that the Elmanagil was most infested by eggplant fruit borer, mean infestation (67%), potato tuber moth ranked the second (62%) and least infestation was found by tomato leaf miner(Tuta absoluta) (24%). Percentage mean infestation levels in the Gezira (Hantoub, Wadelnour and Baika); Hantoub was least infested (79%) by the fruit borer, potato tuber moth (30%) and tomato leaf miner (0%) compared to other locations in the Gezira. Some fruits had complex infestation by the different fruit worms (Table 1, Appendix 2).

4.1.3. The effect of eggplant cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer 4.1.3.1. Summer season 2010-2011 The summer season results showed that Wizzo was the most susceptible to the infestation by Sceliodes laisalis (30%). Black Beauty ranked second with 29% infestation level. On the other hand, Long Purple was found to be the least infested by Sceliodes laisalis cultivar (28%) (Table 2, Appendix 3).

Table (1): Incidence of different eggplant fruit worms in the Gezira and Elmanagil areas during October, 2013. Mean infestation percentage Locations Pests Eggplant fruit borer Potato tuber moth Tomato leaf miner Daw 67 62 24 Hantoub 79 30 0 Wadelnur 86 32 2 Baika 82 38 3

Table (2): The effect of different cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area during summer season, 2010-2011. Cultivars Mean infestation percentage Wizzo 30 a Black Beauty 29 b Long Purple 28 c SE  0.2984 CV% 36%

Means followed by the different letters are significantly different at 5% level.

4.1.3.2. Winter season, 2011-2012 The winter season results showed that Black Beauty cultivar was the most infested among the three eggplant cultivars tested (5.4%) followed by Wizzo with mean value of 4.1% and Long Purple (1.6%) which was found to be the least infested cultivars (Table 3, Appendix 4).

4.1.3.3. The second winter seasons, 2013-2014 The second winter season results showed that Wizzo and Black Beauty were more infested by the eggplant fruit borer, with mean values (8%), (7.9%), respectively and Long Purple was found to be the least infested cultivar (3.2%) (Table 4 and Appendix 5).

Table (3): The effects of different eggplant cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis in Elmanagil area during the winter season, 2011-2012 Cultivars Mean infestation percentage Wizzo (10) 4.1 b Black Beauty (11.6) 5.4 a Long Purple (5.9) 1.6 c SE  0.1840 CV% 43.4

Data between parentheses are transformed data aresine Means followed by different letters are significantly different at 5% level.

Table (4): Effects of different eggplant cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area, during the winter season, 2013-2014. Cultivars Mean infestation percentage Wizzo 8 a Black Beauty 7.9 a Long Purple 3.2 b SE  0.1241 CV% 28.1%

Means followed by the different letters are significantly different at 5% level.

4.1.3.4. The effect of planting date on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis 4.1.3.4.1. Summer season, 2010-2011. The eggplant cultivars were grown with two planting dates, early planting 15/4/2011 in Elmanagil area and late planting one month after. The results showed that early planting recorded the least infestation in all cultivars (28.4%), whereas late planting showed high infestation levels in all cultivars (29.8%), (Table 5 and Appendix 3). However, Long Purple cultivar showed the least infestation (26.9%) with early planting. No significant difference in the infestation level was observed between Wizzo and Black Beauty in early planting (Table 6, and Appendix 3). The late planting results revealed that Long Purple and Black Beauty were the relatively least infested, whereas, Wizzo cultivar was the most infested (30.8%) (Table 6). Significant differences between planting dates were observed between Long Purple and Wizzo cultivars in early and late planting during the summer season. On the other hand, Black Beauty showed no significant difference in the infestation between the planting dates mentioned above (Table 6).

Table (5): Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area during the summer season, 2010-2011. Planting dates Mean infestation percentage Early planting 28.4 b Late planting 29.8 a SE  0.354 CV% 36

Means followed by the different letters are significantly different at 5% level.

Table (6): Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the summer season, 2010-2011. Planting dates Mean infestation percentage Wizzo Black Beauty Long Purple Early planting 29.2 b 29.1 b 26.9 c Late planting 30.8 a 29.3 b 29.2 b SE  0.5019 CV% 36%

4.1.3.4.2. Winter season, 2011--2012 Two planting dates were used in the winter season, early planting 15/12/2011 and late planting after one month. Early planted cultivars exhibited high infestation level (3.9%). While, late planting cultivars were the least infested (3.5%) with no significant difference, (Table 7 and Appendix 4). The results of planting date (early planting) on incidence of eggplant fruit borer infestation on eggplant cultivars are shown in (Table 8 and Appendix 4). Long Purple cultivar was found to be the least infested (2.5%), followed by Wizzo (4.2%). On the other hand, Black Beauty exhibited high infestation level (4.9%). Significant differences were observed between early and late planting, in Long Purple cultivar. However, the differences between Wizzo and Black Beauty were not significant, (Table 8).

Table (7): Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of the eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area during the winter season, 2011-2012 . Planting dates Mean infestation percentage Early planting (9.8) 3.9 Late planting (8.5) 3.5 SE  0.22 CV% 43.4

Data between parentheses are transformed data aresine.

Table (8): Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the winter season, 2011-2012. Planting date Mean infestation percentage Wizzo Black Beauty Long Purple Early planting (10.2) 4.2 b (11.4) 4.9 a (7.9) 2.5 c Late planting (9.9) 4.0 b (11.8) 5.8 a (3.9) 0.6 d SE  0.3094 CV% 43.4

Data between parentheses are transformed data arsine Means followed by the different letters are significantly different at 5% level.

4.1.3.4.3. The second winter season, 2013-2014 Two planting dates were used in the second winter season, early planting and late planting one month after. Early planted cultivars exhibited high infestation level (6.8%). While, late planting cultivars were the least infested (5.9%), (Table 9 and Appendix 5). The results of planting date (early planting) on the incidence of the eggplant fruit borer infestation on the eggplant cultivars are shown in (Table 10, and Appendix 5). Long Purple cultivar was found to be the least infested (2%), followed by Wizzo (8%). On the other hand, Black Beauty exhibited high infestation level (11%). Significant differences were observed between early and late planting, in Long Purple, Black beauty cultivars. However, no significant differences in Wizzo cultivar, (Table 10 Appendix 5).

Table (9): Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the second winter season, 2013-2014. Planting dates Mean infestation percentage Early planting 6.8 a Late planting 5.9 b SE  0.3017 CV% 28.1

Means followed by the different letters are significantly different at 5% level.

Table (10): Effects of planting date on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the second winter season, 2013-2014. Planting date Mean infestation percentage Wizzo Black Beauty Long Purple Early planting 8 b 11 a 2 d Late planting 8 b 5 c 5 c SE  0.2087 CV% 28.1

Means followed by the different letters are significantly different at 5% level.

4.1.3.5. The effect of spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer 4.1.3.5.1. Summer season, 2010-2011 The eggplant cultivars were grown in two spacing’s, at 30 cm and 50 cm between the plants. The results indicated that 30 cm spacing recorded the least infestation in all cultivars (27.1%), whereas, 50 cm spacing recorded high infestation level in all cultivars (31%), (Table 11 and Appendix 3). The Long Purple cultivar showed the least infestation (24.8%) at 30 cm spacing, followed by Black Beauty (27.2 %). On the other hand, Wizzo exhibited high infestation level (29.4%), during the summer season. The spacing 50cm between plants results revealed that Long Purple and Black Beauty were more infested, whereas, Wizzo cultivar was the least infested, (30.6%) during the summer season (Fig.1 and Appendix 3).

4.1.3.5.2. The effect of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer during the summer season, 2010-2011 Cultivars early planted during summer season at 30 cm spacing were the least infested (26.7%), compared to, early planted cultivars at 50 cm spacing which were more infested (30.1%). Late planted cultivars at 30 cm spacing were the least infested (27.6%). Likewise, late planted cultivars at 50 cm spacing were more infested (31.9%) (Table 12).

Table (11): Effects of spacing on the percentage infestation of the eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area during the summer season, 2010-2011 . Spacing(cm) Mean infestation percentage 30 27.1 b 50 31a SE  0.354 CV% 36%

Means followed by different letter(s) are significantly different at 5% level.

cm 30 cm 50 35 30 25 20 15 10

5 Percentage infestation Percentage 0 Wizzo Black beauty Long purple

Cultivars Fig. (1): Effects of spacing on the infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in three eggplant cultivars during the summer season 2010 - 2011.

Table (12): Effect of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the summer season 2010-2011. Planting date Spacing(cm) Mean infestation percentage 30 26.7 c Early planting 50 30.1 b 30 27.6 c Late planting 50 31.9 a SE  0.3703 CV% 36%

Means followed by the different letters are significantly different at 5% level.

4.1.3.5.3. Winter season, 2011-2012 The infestation on the cultivars was not significantly different with the spacing used. Although 30cm spacing recorded lower infestation percentage (3.5%) (Table 13 and Appendix 4). The results of infestation by the eggplant fruit borer at (30 cm and 50 cm) on cultivars are shown in (Fig.2 and Appendix 4).Long Purple cultivar, showed the least infestation (2.2%) at 30 cm space between the plants, followed by Wizzo (3.7%). On the other hand, Black Beauty exhibited high infestation level (4.6%) (Fig. 2 and Appendix 3). The Long Purple cultivar showed the least infestation (0.93%), at 50 cm spacing between the plants, followed by Wizzo (4.5%). On the other hand, Black Beauty exhibited high infestation level (6.1%) (Fig. 2 and Appendix 4). Significant differences between spacing (30cm and 50cm) (plant density) were observed between Long Purple and Black Beauty cultivars during the winter season. However, Wizzo showed no significant difference in infestation between the spacing mentioned.

4.1.3.6. The effect of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation of the eggplant cultivars by the fruit borer during the winter season, 2011-2012 The winter season results indicated that cultivars early planted at 30 cm and 50 cm space were not significantly different in infestation levels. Late planted cultivars at 30 cm spacing were found to be the least infested (3.1%), in comparison with late planted cultivars at 50 cm spacing which were more infested (3.8%) (Fig. 3).

Table (13): Effects of spacing on the percentage infestation of eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in Elmanagil area during the winter season, 2011-2012. Spacing(cm) Mean infestation percentage 30 (3.5) 8.9 50 (3.9) 9.5 SE  0.354 CV% 36

Data between parentheses are transformed data aresine

7 cm 30 6 cm 50 5

1 Percentage infestation Percentage 0 Wizzo Black beauty Long purple

Cultivars Fig. (2): Effects of spacing on the infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in three eggplant cultivars during the winter season 2011 - 2012

4.5

4 30 cm 3.5 50 cm

2.5

2 Infestation(%) 1.5

0.5

0 Early planting Late planting

Fig. (3): The effects of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer during the winter season 2011- 2012.

4.1.3.7. The second winter season, 2013-2014 4.1.3.7.1. The effect of spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer during the second winter season, 2013-2014 The results indicated that 30 cm spacing recorded the least infestation in all cultivars (5.6%), whereas, 50 cm spacing recorded high infestation in all cultivars (7.3%), (Table 14 and Appendix 5).

4.1.3.7.2. The effect of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation of different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer during the second winter season, 2013-2014 Cultivars early planted during the second winter season at 50 cm and 30cm spacing recorded low infestation (6.2%) and (7.6), respectively. Late planted cultivars at 30 cm spacing were least infested (3.6%). Likewise, late planted cultivars at 50 cm spacing were more infested (8.4%) (Fig. 4 and Appendix 5).

4.1.3.7.3. The effect of spacing on the percentage infestation of the different eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer during the second winter season, 2013-2014. The Long Purple cultivar showed the least infestation (1.9%) with at 30 cm spacing, followed by Black Beauty (6.8%). On the other hand, Wizzo exhibited high infestation level (8%), during the second winter season. The 50 cm spacing result revealed that Black Beauty and Wizzo were more infested, whereas, Long Purple cultivar was least infested, (4.6%) (Fig. 5 and Appendix 5).

Table (14): Effect of spacing on the percentage infestation of the eggplant cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer in Elmanagil area during the second winter season, 2013-2014. Spacing(cm) Mean infestation percentage 30 5.6 b 50 7.3 a SE  0.3017 CV% 28.1

7 30 cm 50 cm 6

4 Infestation(%) 3

0 Early planting Late planting

Fig. (4): The effects of planting date and spacing on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, during the winter season, 2011-2012.

6 30 cm

5 50 cm

4 Infestation(%) 3

0 Wizzo Black beauty Long purple

Cultivars Fig. (5): Effect of spacing on the cultivars on the percentage infestation by the eggplant fruit borer during the second winter season, 2013-2014.

4.1.4. The symptoms of damage by the different fruit worms A. Eggplant fruit borer. Larvae make regular holes, faeces inside fruit, larvae have pinkish colour and make feeding tunnel, inside the fruit.

Plate 1a: Calyx with larval holes

Plate 1b: Fruit with larval holes

Plate 1c: Internal fruit symptom of damage

Plate (2 a): The damage regular holes

Plate (2 b): The larva of eggplant fruit borer

B. Potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) The larvae make irregular holes have cream colour and faeces outside the fruit.

Plate (3 a): The damage irregular holes

Plate (3 b): The larva of potato tuber moth

C. Tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoulta (Meyricky) The larvae damage has irregular shape lesion like shapes white coloured soft faeces inside the fruit.

Plate (4 a): The damage lesion like shape

Plate (4 b): The larva of tomato leaf miner, (Tuta absoulta)

4.1.5 Biological Studies of eggplant fruit borer 4.1.5.1. The eggs Eggs were laid singly or in batches at night. They were deposited on different parts of the plant shoots, on the side of filter paper and Petri-dish, glued to the surface by a sticky substance. The newly laid egg is creamy white, but changed to brown before hatching, (Plate 5).

4.1.5.1.1. Incubation period The incubation period was 3 – 6 days in all cultivars, with an average 4.5  0.35 days in Long Purple and Wizzo cultivars. The average incubation period for Black Beauty was 4.4  0.22 days (Table 15). Hatching occurred early in the morning. The percentage mean hatching was 78.8%  7.9 on Long Purple cultivar ( Appendix 6). The percentage mean hatching was 85.2  3.4, 86.3  5.4 on Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively ( Appendix 7, 8).

Plate (5): The Egg of eggplant fruit borer

Table (15): Mean incubation, developmental stages, and oviposition periods of Sceliodes laisalis, on the three eggplant cultivars. Duration ( days) Stage Eggplant cultivars Long Purple Wizzo Black Beauty Incubation 4.5 ± 0.35 4.5 ± 0.35 4.4 ± 0.22 Larva 14.2 ± 0.57 13.8 ± 0.57 14.5 ± 1.2 Pupa 9.4 ± 0.74 9.1 ± 0.82 9.6 ± 0.89 Pre oviposition 2.4 ± 0.55 2.4 ± 0.55 2.4 ± 0.54 Oviposition 2.6 ± 0.55 2.8 ± 0.45 2.8 ± 0.84 Post oviposition 0.6 ± 0.55 0.4 ± 0.54 0.4 ± 0.54 Total life cycle 28.1 27.4 28.5

4.1.5.2. The larva The newly hatched larva was dirty white, but turned to pale pinkish. The fully grown larva was cylindrical, white to pink in colour with small dark brown head capsule. The larva wandered about for sometime before starting to feed on the eggplant slices. Under laboratory conditions, the larval stage was completed in a period ranging from 11 to 18 days, with an average of 14.2  0.57 days on Long Purple cultivar (Table 15 and Appendix 9). The mean larval period averaged 13.8  0.57 days on Wizzo cultivar and 14.2  1.2 days on Black Beauty cultivar (Table 15, Appendix 10,11, and Plate 6).

4.1.5.3. The pupa In the laboratory, pupation took place in the cups, but under field conditions, the larva pupates inside the eggplant fruit or in the plant debris near the host plant. No pupation was observed in the soil. The findings revealed different type of pupae, female have silken cocoon pupae compared to males without silk. The pupal period ranged from 7 – 13 days. The average pupal period was 9.4  0.74 , 9.1  0.82 and 9.6  0.89 days on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively, (Table 15and Appendices 12, 13, 14 and Plate 7).

4.1.5.4. The adult Adults emerged at night. Females are slightly bigger than males. The abdomen of the female tended to be pointed and curled up words. The moth is whitish, but has pale brown or black spots on the dorsal side . Wings are white with pinkish or bluish ting, (Plate 8). The total life cycle of the female ranged from 27.4 – 28.5days. The longevity of females on Long Purple cultivar ranged from 5 – 6 days with an average 5.6  0.55 days (Table 16 and Appendix 15). The same mean longevity of female was observed on Wizzo cultivar (Table 16 and Appendix 16). The longevity of female on Black Beauty cultivar averaged 5.6  1.1 days (Table 16 and Appendix 15).

Plate (6a):The pupa (Female) of eggplant fruit borer

Plate (6 b): The pupa (Male) of eggplant fruit borer

Plate (7 a) :The Adult (Female) of eggplant fruit borer

Plate (7 b):The Adult (Male) of eggplant fruit borer

Males caged with female for mating generally died earlier. The longevity of the adult males ranged from 3 to 6 days. The average longevity was 4.8  0.84, . 4.4  0.89 and 4.4  1.1 days on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively (Table 16).The female to male sex ratio was 1 : 0.8 on Long Purple (Appendix 12), 1 : 0.7 on Wizzo cultivar (Appendix 13) and 1 : 0.78 on Black Beauty cultivars (Appendix 14). 4.1.5.5. Oviposition and fecundity The pre- oviposition period ranged between 2-3 days. The average pre- oviposition period was 2.4  0.55, 2.4  0.55, 2.4  0.54 days on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively (Table 15 and Appendices 15,16 and 17). The oviposition period varied between 2 to 4 days in all cultivars, on Long Purple cultivar was found to be 2.6  0.55 days, (Table 15 and Appendix15). The average oviposition period was 2.8  0.45 days on Wizzo cultivar (Table 15, Appendix16). The oviposition period on Black Beauty cultivar was found to be 2.8  0.84 days (Table 15 and Appendix 17). The adult died in the same day of their eggs laying completion or in the next day i.e. (0–1) day. In all cultivars, the average post oviposition period was 0.6  0.55 day. However, post oviposition period on Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars was the same, 0.4  0.54 days (Table 5). The maximum number of eggs laid by a single female was 96 eggs in all cultivars. Most females laid their maximum number of eggs in the second day of oviposition. The average number of eggs was 81  11.8, 82  7.2 and 83  7.4 eggs, on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively, (Table 16 and Appendices 15, 16 and 17). 4.1.6. Chromatographica analysis of eggplant cultivars This was the first study in the Sudan. The eggplant cultivars under study were analyzed using thin layer chromatography, to investigate the possibile resistance factors present in the rind of fruits (dry and wet) that might have deterrent or tolerance to the eggplant fruit borer. Figures 6 and 7, showed that when the plate was visualized on day light, there was development of 6 major bands. The colors of the bands ranged from grey to yellow. The range of colors was indicative of presence of different bands with different polarities. Further studies were needed to reveal the nature of the active ingredients by using chemical methods of chromatography and spectroscopy.

Table (16): Percentage mean hatching and fecundity, longevity of adults reared on three cultivars.

Stage Long Purple Wizzo Black Beauty Percentage mean hatching 78.8  7.9 85.2  3.4 86.3  5.4 Fecundity 81  11.8 82  7.2 83  7.4 Female longevity (days ) 5.6  0.55 5.6  0.55 5.6  1.1 Male longevity (days ) 4.8  0.84 4.4  0.89 4.4  1.1

Long Purple Wizzo Black Beauty

3 4

5 →

Figure (6): TLC profiles under day light of compounds extracted from rind of dry fruits of three eggplant cultivars

Long Purple Wizzo Black Beauty

5→

Figure (7): TLC profiles under day light of compounds extracted from rind of wet fruits the three eggplant cultivars.

CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION

In the Gezira State, eggplant (Solanum melongena), which is extensively grown, was found to be severely injured by major insect pests including the eggplant fruit borer Sceliodes laisalis Wallk. A part from the information provided by Venkatrman and El Khider (1967), Schumtterer (1969), Barsum (1976), Siddig (1978) on the eggplant fruit borer in the Sudan, other published work on Sceliodes laisalis, is very scanty. Field studies conducted during this study had shown that the pest was encountered on eggplant in most of the fields. In the Gezira, crop damage was about 21%, in Elmanagil. The crop damage varied between 24 – 43%. Eggplant cultivars (Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty) grown in summer season, had shown high infestation levels of the insect pest Sceliodes laisalis than when the same cultivars were grown in winter season. CAB (2012), reported that fruit and shoot borer insects are active in summer months, especially during the rainy season, and less active during winter. Their populations were reported to increase with temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. The total life cycle varied from 22 – 55 days, developmental periods of the different stages of the insect were compared with total developmental period that's longer during the winter months. In the three seasons, Wizzo and Black Beauty, were susceptible among the tested cultivars. Panda (1999) showed that early fruiting cultivars are more liable to fruit attacked by L. orbonalis, Eisa, (2009) showed that Wizzo and Black Beauty are early maturing than the other cultivars. Sawsan, (1999) showed that medium – white and Black Beauty were most preferred while Long Purple was least preferred. In this study Long Purple was found to be the least infested in the three seasons. Panda (1999) reported that the morphological characteristics such as tight calyx and long fruits, increased resistance of fruits to attack. CAB, (2012) attributed resistance in long – fruited cultivars to thick fruit skin and closely packed vascular bundles in the pulp. Mardelyn and Caasi (2001) showed that 14% of planted material was infested by the insect pests, (fruit and shoot borers and leaf hoppers) in cultivated farmers cultivars like Dumaguete Long Purple, Liamado Black Ninja (hybrid), Long Purple was found to be the least infested.

The effect of planting date on infestation of cultivars by eggplant fruit borer, in summer season showed that early planting was found to be the least infested in all cultivars, in comparison to the late sown. Patel et al. (1998), who reported that a significant difference in the incidence of L. orbonalis was observed in plants transplanted at different periods. The planting date on winter season, had shown that early sown cultivars recoded high infestation levels, compared to late sown cultivars. CAB (2012) reported that a positive correlation between the degree of infestation and maximum temperature; no correlation was observed with lower temperature. Singh (2007) further reported, 10th January planted plots recorded the lowest pest incidence compared to the plots planted on other dates. The effect of spacing (30 and 50cm) on infestation of cultivars by the eggplant fruit borer in the three seasons showed that the lowest infestation levels in all cultivars was at 30 cm spacing . On the other hand, at 50 cm spacing had high infestation levels in all cultivars. Agro ecosystem analysis during farmer’s field school in Negros occidental, the Philippines (1998 – 1999) showed that more insect pests and more mechanical damage from field operations were observed in the high density eggplant fields. FAO (2003) reported that the highest infestation of shoot and fruit borer was noticed in closer spacing as compared to the wider spacing. This might be due to the fact that in closer spacing the insect will be able to find refuge and escape from pesticide treatment and natural enemies. Also the microclimate inside the canopy of closer spaced plants would be encouraging to the insect development. Long Purple cultivar was found to be the least infested among the other cultivars in the three seasons, suggesting that due to the two different unidentified compounds found in Long Purple cultivar probably elicited odors deterrent to fruit borer. Laboratory studies on the different developmental stage of eggplant fruit borer on different eggplant cultivars under laboratory conditions, at 29C, R.H. 60% revealed that, egg incubation period varied from 3 to 6 days in all cultivars, (Mean 4.5  0.3 and 4.4  2.2) in Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively. The present study agreed with Talker (2002) who reported that the incubation period varied between 3 to 6 days. Talker (2002) might had worked, in cooler climate or temperature which affected the egg developmental period. Aina (1984) and Sawsan (1999) gave a range of 4 to 5 days, which agreed with the present study.

In the present study, Sceliodes laisalis was found to prefer the fruit calyx for egg laying. These protective areas from easily entering sites for the tunneling larvae, specially the calyx joints which were weak due to lack of fruit rind (Hassan, 1983). Larval period of Sceliodes laisalis varied from 11 to 18 days in all cultivars (mean 14.2  0.57, 13.8  0.57 and 14.2  1.2 days) on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively. Sawsan (1999) reported larval period of 13 – 15 days. Atwal (1976) gave a range of 12 to 15 days in the summer and up to 22 days in winter which agreed with the present study. Eisa (2009), reported a range of 11 – 18 days which agreed with the present study. The pupal stage duration varied between 7 – 13 days in all cultivars with 9.4  0.74, 9.1  0.82 and 9.6  0.89 days on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively. The present study agreed with Hassan (1983) who reported that the pupal duration varied between 8 – 12 days. Sawsan (1999) reported pupal duration of 9 days. Eisa (2009), reported pupal period of 7 – 13 days which agreed with the present study. For the adult of Sceliodes laisalis the total life cycle varied from 27.4 to 28.5 days in all cultivars. Hassan, (1983) reported total life cycle of 21 to 33 days which agreed with this study. The present study agreed with Eisa (2009), who reported that the total life cycle varied between 22.3 to 24.7 days. For the adult females reared under the laboratory conditions. The pre oviposition period varied from 2 to 3 days in all cultivars (mean 2.4  0.55, 2.4  0.55 and 2.4  0.54) days Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively. The present study agreed with Eisa (2009), who reported that the pre- oviposition period varied from 2 to 3 days mean (2.4  0.2). Oviposition period ranged between 2 to 4 days in all cultivars (mean 2.6  0.55, 2.8  0.45 and 2.8  84) days on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively, which agreed with (2.25  0.7 days) Hassan (1983) Metho (1983) who reported a range of 1.4 to 2.9 days. Eisa (2009) reported oviposition period varied between 2 to 4 days (mean 3  0.21) which agreed with the present study. The post oviposition period varied between 0 to 1 day in all cultivars with 0.6  0.55, 0.4  0.55 and 0.4  0.55 days on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty

53 cultivars, respectively, which agreed with Eisa (2009), who reported a range of 0 to 1 day (mean 0.4  0.16) days. The Longevity of the adult female ranged between 4 to 7 days in all cultivars with 5.6  0.55, 5.6  0.55 and 5.6  1.1 days on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively, which agreed with, 5.8 days of Sawsan (1999). Also the present study agreed with Eisa (2009) who reported that the longevity of the adult female ranged between 5 to 7 days (mean 5.8  0.24). While the longevity of the male ranged between 3 to 6 days in all cultivars with 4.8  0.84, 4.4  0.89 and 4.4  1.1 days on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively. Eisa (2009) reported longevity of the male of 2 to 6 days (mean 3.9  0.38). The number of eggs laid by a single female varied from 67 to 96 eggs in all cultivars with 81 11.8, 82  7.2 and 83  7.4 eggs on Long Purple, Wizzo and Black Beauty cultivars, respectively. Hassan (1983) reported a range 96 – 360 eggs per female with an average of 191.5  13.5 which was slightly higher fecundity. Sawsan (1999) reported the number of eggs laid by, a single female 82 eggs, which agreed with this study. Also the present study agreed with Eisa (2009) who reported that the number of eggs laid by a single female varied from 83 to 178 eggs (mean 137.7  9.3) eggs. In the chromatographic study, the colors of the bands in all profiles were the same except for the band 5 in Long Purple cultivar of the profiles which appeared with yellow color while it was not found in other profiles as visualized with day light. This difference in color is an evidence for the difference in the chemical constituent of the bands. Therefore Long Purple cultivar has an unidentified compound of possible resistance to eggplant fruit borer.

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

From the study conducted it can be concluded that : . The eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, is an important insect pest on egg plant in the Gezira Scheme and Elmanagil extension. . Considerable different infestation levels were observed in the tested cultivars with the spacing and planting dates in the three seasons. . Long Purple cultivar was least susceptible to infestation by eggplant fruit borer and is suggested to be sown in the Gezira Scheme. . The total life cycle of female ranged from 27.4 – 28.5 days. . Infestation level of eggplant fruit borer was higher in summer season. . Results of the chromatography suggested the possibility of the presence of an active compound to confer resistance of the cultivar against the eggplant fruit borer. This compound should further be identified and studied.

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APPENDICES

Appendix (1): Incidence of eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, in different areas of the irrigated Gezira during 14/1 – 17/3/2012.

Date of survey Name of area Percentage % Mean surveyed infestation/ 15m infestation 14/1/2012 10% 15/2/2012 Shasha 25% 24 15/3/2012 37% 14/1/2012 34% 15/2/2012 Daw 40% 43 15/3/2012 56% 15/1/2012 15% 16/2/2012 Wadelnour 22% 21 17/3/2012 26%

Appendix (2): Incidence of eggplant fruit worms on different areas of the Gezira during October 2013. Date of Location No. of plant Eggplant Potato tuber Tomato leaf survey surveyed fruit borer moth miner 1/10/2013 Hantoub 20 plants 34 13 0 3/10/2013 Wadelnour " 38 14 1 5/10/2013 Baika " 32 15 1 7/10/2013 Daw " 14 13 5

Appendix (3): Percentage mean infestation by eggplant fruit borer during summer season, 2010- 2011. Cultivars Planting Spacing Date of survey date 15/8 30/8 15/9 30/9 15/10 30/10 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 Early 30cm 31.0 a 24.0 cde 15.0 efg 43.0 cd 43.0 bc 32.0 cd Wizzo Planting (34.0) (29.0) (23.0) (41.0) (41.0) (34.0) 50cm 16.0 cd 13.0 g 28.0 bc 33.0 ef 62.0 a 10.0 f (20.0) (21.0) (30.0) (34.0) (56.0) (13.0) Late 30cm 14.0 e 21.0 d 18.0 def 26.0 f 36.0 cd 50.0 a Planting (16.0) (27.0) (25.0) (29.0) (36.0) (49.0) 50cm 15.0 de 25.0 cd 27.0 bc 36.0 ef 61.0 a 41.0 b (17.0) (30.0) (31.0) (33.0) (51.0) (39.0) Early 30cm 17.0 cd 28.0 bc 22.0 cd 25.0 f 30.0 d 36.0 bc Black Planting (20.0) (32.0) (27.0) (30.0) (33.0) (37.0) Beauty 50cm 17.0 c 19.0 f 14.0 g 66.0 a 44.0 f 31.0 dc (21.0) (25.0) (19.0) (63.0) (45.0) (30.0) Late 30cm 31.0 a 20.0 ef 14.0 fg 45.0 bc 27.0 e 31.0 c Planting (33.0) (26.0) (22.0) (46.0) (28.0) (33.0) 50cm 13.0 e 37.0 a 18.0 def 41.0 d 50.0 b 25.0 c (15.0) (40.0) (25.0) (40.0) (45.0) (26.0) Early 30cm 6.0 f 18.0 f 20.0 de 39.0 cd 22.0 f 29.0 c Long Planting (10.0) (25.0) (26.0) (41.0) (21.0) (33.0) Purple 50cm 25.0 b 32.0 b 21.0 cd 48.0 b 42.0 c 21.0 (29.0) (34.0) (27.0) (48.0) (40.0) (27.0) Late 30cm 23.0 b 29.0 bc 28.0 b 48.0 cd 22.0 cf 19.0 c Planting (29.0) (32.0) (32.0) (41.0) (24.0) (25.0) 50cm 4.0 g 24.0 cde 41.0 a 36.0 de 57.0 a 24.0 e (6.0) (30.0) (43.0) (37.0) (53.0) (25.0) SE + 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.7 1.6 1.5 CV% 70.8 39.0 45.5 59.7 50.7 60.0

Appendix (4): Percentage mean infestation during winter season 2011 – 2012. Cultivar Planting Spacing Date of survey date 15/8 30/8 15/9 30/9 15/10 30/10 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 Early 30cm 0 d 1.2 b 4.2 bc 6.7 bc 8.83 ab 9.98 bc Planting (0.00) (4.4) (11.45) (15.07) (16.7) (17.8) Black 50cm 0 d 1.6 b 4.9 ab 5.6 c 6.1 b 6.83 d Beauty (0.00) (5.04) (12.22) (13.6) (14.3) (15.13) Late 30cm 0 d 1.4 b 3.4 bcd 15.9 c 5.4 c 10.2 b Planting (0.00) (4.67) (10.49) (13.9) (11.6) (18.5) 50cm 0 d 0 c 5.4 a 6.5 bc 7.4 b 7.98 bcd (0.00) (0.00) (13.43) (14.7) (15.6) (16.3) Early 30cm 0 d 0.4 c 2.93 cd 6.9 bc 8.53 b 10.4 bc Planting (0.00) (1.77) (9.86) (14.9) (14.6) (18.2) 50cm 0.4 c 1.4 b 2.8 d 10.5 a 11.4 a 9.7 cd Wizzo (1.83) (4.75) 9.40 (18.4) (18.7) (15.8) Late 30cm 0 d 0 c 3.1 cd 5.3 c 8.7 b 14.6 a Planting (0.00) (0.00) 10.07 (13.3) (14.82) (22.2) 50cm2 0 d 5.1 a 3.4 bcd 7.9 b 8.5 b 10.5 bc (0.00) 10.93 10.56 (16.3) (15.9) (18.1) Early 30cm 0.96 b 0.43 c 0.93 d 1.4 d 1.08 d 1.1 e Planting (5.44) (1.88) (4.66) (5.70) (5.9) (5.95) 50cm 3.3 a 0.99 b 0.5 ef 0.72 d 0.8 d 0.76 e Long (7.5) (4.86) (2.88) (4.6) (4.9) (4.3) Purple Late 30cm 0 d 0.33 c 0.44 f 1.04 d 0.72 d 0.95 e Planting (0.00) (1.65) (2.65) (5.84) (4.11) (4.83) 50cm 0.43 c 0 c 0.6 ef 0.8 d 0.84 d 0.78 e (3.2) (0.00) (3.7) (4.9) (5.82) (5.013) SE + 0.57 0.76 0.60 0.57 0.84 0.80 CV% 167 138 33 22 48 38

Appendix (5): Percentage mean infestation during the second winter season 2013 – 2014. Cultivar Planting Spacing Date of survey date 1/12 15/12 30/12 15/1 30/1 14/2 Early 30cm 0.0 d 4.4 b 11.5 bc 15.7 bc 16.7 ab 17.7 bc planting 50cm 0.0 d 5.0 b 12.2 ab 13.6 c 14.3 b 15.1 d Wizzo Late 30cm 0.0 d 4.7 b 10.5 bcd 13.9 c 11.6 c 18.5 b planting 50cm 0.0 d 0.0 c 13.4 a 14.7 bbc 15.6 b 16.3 bcd Early 30cm 0.0 d 1.7 c 9.8 cd 14.9 bc 14.5 b 18.2 bc Black planting 50cm 1.8 c 4.7 b 9.4 d 18.4 a 18.7 a 15.8 cd Beauty Late 30cm 0.0 d 0.0 c 10.1 cd 13.3 c 14.8 b 22.2 a planting 50cm 0.0 d 10.9 a 10.6 bcd 16.3 b 15.9 b 18.1 bc Early 30cm 5.4 b 1.8 c 4.7 e 5.7 d 5.9 d 5.9 e Long planting 50cm 7.5 a 4.8 b 2.9 ef 4.6 d 4.9 d 4.3 e Purple Late 30cm 0.0 d 1.6 c 2.6 f 5.8 d 4.1 d 4.8 e planting 50cm 3.2 c 0.0 c 3.7 ef 4.9 d 5.1 d 5.0 e SE+ 0.61 0.87 0.59 0.69 0.84 0.81 CV% 28.2

Appendix (6): Percentage mean egg hatching and incubation period of Sceliodes laisalis on Long Purple cultivar at 27C and RH. 62%.

Serial No. No. of eggs No. of eggs Hatching Incubation periods of batch tested hatched percentage (days) Range Mean 1 20 15 75 4 – 5 4.5 2 35 30 85.7 4 – 5 4.5 3 46 38 82.6 4 – 5 4.5 4 19 16 84.2 4 – 6 5.0 5 12 8 66.6 3 – 5 4.0 Total 132 107 394.1 22.5 Mean 26.4 21.4 78.8 4.5

Appendix (7): Percentage mean egg hatching and incubation period of Sceliodes laisalis on Wizzo cultivar at 28C and RH. 65%.

Serial No. No. of eggs No. of eggs Hatching Incubation periods of batch tested hatched percentage (days) Range Mean 1 10 8 80 4 – 5 4.5 2 25 21 84 3 – 5 4.0 3 14 12 85.7 4 – 5 4.5 4 35 31 88.5 4 – 5 4.5 5 27 24 88 4 – 6 5.0 Total 111 96 426.2 22.5 Mean 22.2 19.2 85.2 4.5

Appendix (8): Percentage mean egg hatching and incubation period of Sceliodes laisalis on Black Beauty cultivar at 29C and RH 64%.

Serial No. No. of eggs No. of eggs Hatching Incubation periods of batch tested hatched percentage (days) Range Mean 1 24 21 27.5 4 – 5 4.5 2 30 24 80 3 – 5 4.0 3 16 13 81.3 4 – 5 4.5 4 40 37 92.5 4 – 5 4.5 5 10 9 90 3 – 6 4.5 Total 120 104 431.3 22 Mean 24 20.8 86.3 4.4

Appendix (9): The larval period of Sceliodes laisalis reared on Long Purple cultivar of eggplant at 30C and RH 59%.

Serial No. of No. of No. of pupae Larval period (days) batch larvae tested Range Mean 1 20 16 11 – 17 14 2 15 12 12 – 15 13.5 3 10 7 12 – 18 15 4 26 19 13 – 15 14 5 16 11 13 – 16 14.5 Total 87 65 71 Mean 17.4 13 14.2

Appendix (10): The larval period of Sceliodes laisalis reared on Wizzo cultivar of eggplant at 29C and RH 64%.

Serial No. of No. of No. of pupae Larval period ( days) batch larvae tested Range Mean 1 8 5 12 – 16 14 2 34 25 12 – 17 14.5 3 17 12 13 – 14 13.5 4 20 15 11 – 15 13 5 10 7 13 – 15 14 Total 89 64 69 Mean 178 12.8 13.8

Appendix (11): The larval period of Sceliodes laisalis reared on Black Beauty cultivar of eggplant at 27C and RH 62%.

Serial No. of No. of No. of pupae Larval period ( days) batch larvae tested Range Mean 1 17 15 11 – 15 13 2 25 21 14 – 17 15.5 3 12 10 12 – 16 14 4 30 24 14 – 18 16 5 8 6 11 – 17 14 Total 92 76 72.5 Mean 18.4 15.2 14.5

Appendix (12): The pupal period of Sceliodes laisalis on Long Purple cultivar at 31C and RH 62%.

Serial No. of No. of adults Pupation period No. of pupae emerged Range Mean Males Females Sex batch tested ratio 1 10 9 8 – 9 8.5 4 5 1:0.8 2 7 7 10 – 9 9.5 3 4 1:0.75 3 12 10 7 – 11 9 5 5 1:1 4 8 8 9 – 12 10.5 3 5 1.6:0.6 5 4 4 8 – 11 9.5 2 2 1:1 Total 41 38 47 17 21 Mean 8.2 7.6 9.4 3.4 4.2 1:0.8

Appendix (13): The pupal period of Sceliodes laisalis on Wizzo cultivar at 29C and RH 65%.

Serial No. of No. of adults Pupation period No. of pupae emerged Range Mean Males Females Sex batch tested ratio 1 5 5 8 – 9 8.5 3 2 0.7:1.5 2 10 9 7 – 11 9 5 5 1:1 3 8 8 10 – 11 10.5 3 5 1.7:0.6 4 12 11 7 – 10 8.5 4 7 1.75:0.57 5 6 6 8 – 10 9 2 4 0.5: 2.0 Total 41 39 45.5 17 23 Mean 8.2 7.8 9.1 3.4 4.6 1:0.7

Appendix (14): The pupal period of Sceliodes laisalis on Black Beauty cultivar at 29C and RH 64%.

Serial No. of No. of adults Pupation period No. of pupae emerged Range Mean Males Females Sex ratio batch tested 1 5 5 7 – 9 8.5 3 2 0.6:1.5 2 10 10 8 – 11 9.5 4 6 1.5:0.6 3 15 14 9 – 12 10.5 6 8 1.3: 0.75 4 6 5 8 – 10 9 2 3 1.5:0.6 5 7 7 8 – 13 10.5 3 4 1.3:0.75 Total 43 41 48 18 23 Mean 8.6 8.2 9.6 3.6 4.6 1:0.78

Appendix (15): The fecundity and longevity (days) of adults of the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, reared on Long Purple cultivar at 29C and RH 59%.

Serial Days after emergence and No. of eggs laid by Total Pre-ovi. Oviposition Post- Longevity Longevity No. of a single female No. of position period oviposition of female of male eggs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 eggs period period (days) (days) 1 0 0 0 25 42 0 D 67 3 2 1 6 5 2 0 0 23 41 22 D 86 2 3 0 5 4 3 0 0 0 20 53 12 D 85 3 3 0 6 6 4 0 0 33 28 35 0 D 96 2 3 1 6 5 5 0 0 26 45 0 D 71 2 2 1 5 4 Total 405 12 13 3 28 24 Mean 81 2.4 2.6 0.6 5.6 4.8

D = Dead.

Appendix (16): The fecundity and longevity (days) of adults of the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, reared on Wizzo cultivar at 29C and RH 60%.

Serial Days after emergence and No. of eggs laid by Total Pre-ovi. Oviposition Post- Longevity Longevity No. of a single female No. of position Period oviposition of female of male eggs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 eggs period period (days) (days) 1 0 0 24 35 28 D 87 2 3 0 5 6 2 0 0 0 26 40 18 D 84 3 3 0 6 5 3 0 0 41 23 12 0 D 76 2 3 1 6 4 4 0 0 0 28 45 0 D 73 3 2 1 6 4 5 0 0 29 38 23 D 90 2 3 0 5 4 Total 410 12 14 2 28 23 Mean 82 2.4 2.8 0.4 5.6 4.4

D = Dead.

Appendix (17): The fecundity and longevity (days) of adults of the eggplant fruit borer, Sceliodes laisalis, reared on Back Beauty cultivar at 28C and RH 60%.

Serial Days after emergence and No. of eggs laid by Total Pre-ovi. Oviposition Post - Longevity Longevity No. of a single female No. of position period oviposition of female of male eggs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 eggs period period (days) (days) 1 0 0 0 23 42 15 D 80 3 3 0 6 5 2 0 0 34 42 D 76 2 2 0 4 4 3 0 0 28 48 19 0 D 95 2 3 1 6 4 4 0 0 0 24 59 D 83 3 2 0 5 6 5 0 0 21 33 17 8 0 D 79 2 4 1 7 3 Total 413 12 14 2 28 22 Mean 82.6 2.4 2.8 0.4 5.6 4.4

D = Dead