We are a diverse group in our backgrounds, job would be to identify 2 or 3 major issues in The Jewish Community As A Force For Jewish Continuity: professional skills and our Jewish knowledge. Jewish life where the inputs of a professional We can, however, join together to act An Historical Perspective organization would have a maximum impact. coordinately from the context of our own After the issues were agreed upon 2 or 3 Joshua Prawer perspectives if we do not despair. Educator sub-units would be formed. It would be the Professor of Medieval History, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel and case worker, community worker and task of each to then explore the issue, develop baC rounder r Center worker, field staff and line staff: all of Jlnf0"^"^^ ^ ^ f° Hussion groups at the Jerusalem meeting of resource materials, suggested action responses, us have much more which binds than separates theInternaUo nal Conference of Jewish Communal Service, August 13-17, 1978. It is an unusua, and consultative and advocacy roles as a survey of Jewish community organization through the ages. us. Shall we lament with the poet: professional body to the groups, associations, historian, the Kehila was first of all an institutions, organizations or government(s) The world that now . . . General Characteristics instrument of dealing with the outside world, involved. The $100,000 would be allocated by 1 go about in, Few are the institutions in the human the overall task force as it saw fit to provide Is not the world 1 was born into for the Jews, on the contrary, it was the basic history which could be compared to the Jewish the fiscal wherewithal for the accomplishment Or in which I grew up, It is a world structure of life, regulated by the precepts of Kehila. Rooted in notions of almost legendary of the tasks at hand. Changed like the sea in another light, Jewish existence, the framework in which a antiquity, the Jewish community organization I have suggested a number of issues. Others A storm light. A world man led his life, brought up his family and saw proved its vitality and endurance by its perma­ could develop many as more worthy of Of raging waves and sudden terror, his children grow and prosper. Anger . . . and fright. nence, its uninterrupted existence for more consideration. The Conference may become Despite the changes which off-and-on Legends are lost here, lost and forgotten. than two thousand years of history and its an association of professionals rather than a transformed the Kehila in the course of There is no magic here, no ardor — almost fabulous flexibility and faculty of conference of associations. Whether or not it history, some features were ever present and The full heart, the spirit uplifted — adaptation. Adaptation, however, was not an does, the task force approach could engage all recurrent. One has the impression that a gene­ Its songs are harsh, the sound is deafening. aim in itself. The aim was and remained that of us as professionals into responding where tic imprint of highest aritiquity featured its The young die quickly, without love, of safeguarding the existence of a nation, its and when appropriate as a corporate entity. characteristics. Historically, the Kehila is a Thrown to the sharks. legacy and its values, a nation scattered over Resolutions could become more than in­ We were few, but there were lions among us, descendant of one of the basic notions of continents, in ever changing surroundings and tentions for vehicles for action and reaction And singing birds. Judaism, namely that of Adath Adonai (the circumstances. A nation which existed for would be available. If the assessment approach This is a new world, without beauty, Community of God). Whatever the original more than two thousand years without a state, worked a permanent budget for the ongoing Without music, without rules. meaning of the expression, the religious and which today, after the creation of the process would be part of the Conference. As And everyone is writing, ingredient of the notion transmitted to all its State of Israel, exists in a particular way, when more complex functions arise so will the need Telling it like it is, making remarks, progenies in the ages to come a transcendental more than three-fourths of its sons and for fiscal support grow. The membership of And their books are read by millions dimension which made it different from other In the drug stores, in the libraries, in the daughters live outside its boundaries, found in the conference will find the wherewithal to and often similar institutions which existed schools. the Kehila a mechanism of self-preservation, respond if the need for greater funding in other cultures and religions. The Kehila But there is no pride of Lions in this world, an instrument to perpetuate patterns of life becomes manifest. Kedosha or Kahal Kadosh (Holy Community) No exultation of larks.24 and ideals of behaviour, accepted or recog­ As a Conference — we are like the Jewish carried with it the belief that the cohesion of I say we need not lament. There are still nized as incumbent and normative. people — in the process of becoming. We are the members was not only earthly bound and among us people who will be lions among us, Two thousand years of history etched in the doing so in a harsh and painful world. We are earthly aimed to fulfill specific tasks of who will who will try to change and Kehila organizational features created in a members of an idealistic profession serving a profess, existence, but that this particlar bond was help change for the better the things and given set of circumstances and then transmitted people whose ideals are wavering. The imbued with a sense of holiness, impregnated, people about us. I echo the words of Stephen from place to place and from generation to Eightieth birthday is known as Gevurah — so to say, with an everlasting presence of S. Wise in his challenge to this Conference generation. In that process, however, it shed strength. I believe this Conference has great Providence. This perception of the transcen­ when he exhorted: "Let us dare ..." Dare we characteristics no longer in tune with new strength. That includes the ability to return to dental created a particularity of bonds between do less in our own day? I think not. demands and circumstances, transforming the some of its early functions as a Conference. It the members of the Kehila; it added a spiritual obsolete and adding others conditioned by the was a forum for great debates, but most dimension to its raison d'etre. There was no exigencies of Jewish autonomous evolution importantly, it was a forum which led to 24 Robert Nathan, "The World That Now," need to take an oath of allegiance to the reprinted in Los A ngeles Times, November 11, 1977. and pressures of the external world. However, action. The action was, at times, in reaction to Kehila; one, being a Jew, was born into it, as the changes were far more marked in structure the needed and, at times, surprisingly in one was born into a faith or a nation. The and outward trappings than in the basic anticipation of that which was yet to be. Kehila as a collective and corporate body, and essence of the Kehila organization. Although those who served it as its leaders and officers, for the alien and for the more recent secular took on a responsibility not only to the living

22 23 Israel, especially since the late Roman Empire, members of the community, but also a respon­ entities isolated from each other. This ever a community. If there was no external inter­ when the last traces of official Jewish author­ sibility to Providence; a responsibility to present urge to find a larger framework of ference, like that by the ruling power, to ity lapsed into abeyance. And yet the bonds follow a given way of life, a pattern of existence drew its inspiration from the practi­ coerce a more uniform organization, the syna­ and links with the Holy Land did not entirely behaviour which made life not only possible, cal needs of the moment as well as from the gogues, which we may call "ethnic syna­ disappear. There were periods in history in but gave it a meaning, beyond the obvious desire to satisfy the feeling of belonging, of gogues," continued to thrive, perpetuating the which Palestinian Jewry claimed precedence, necessities of existence. It was not necessarily not being merely a small island surrounded by existence of particular groups. The recent even actual hegemony, over the mighty Jewish and not always the positive precepts of faith an enemy sea. Brothers reached out a hand to versions of landsmanschaften, whose outlook Diaspora in Babylon, a claim which was often which gave a religious dimension to the Kehila. find the warmth of kindred others. This ever at given periods was secularized, are historical expressed practically by a demand for terri­ It was rather the consciousness of responsi­ recurring phenomenon to create larger organi­ descendants of those kenista of Babylonian torial rights, as for example the claim to bility beyond space and time of every age zations took on a more particular form when and Palestinian Jews in medieval Egypt, or appoint Dayanim in far away Egypt. More which guarded its specific character. historical evolution created situations of small Spanish and Portuguese Jews in early modern and widely scattered settlements, sometimes often it took a different, non-formal character Holland. Another characteristic of the Kehila which simply few or even single families, in the of responsibility for the Jews in the Holy bore the sign of its inception was the almost But this type of pluralism was not always the vicinity of larger Jewish communities. The Land. An officially decreed collection of instinctive impulse to seek and find common result of external events, but often the result of larger, well established communities regarded money, material help or political intervention bonds with other Kehilot. Although the Kehila explosive intellectual or emotional stirrings it as a self-evident duty to care for the smaller in times of need, all, were expression of a can be traced back to Palestinian Jewry when inside the communities. Such typical cases communities and take care of the village Jews, transmuted legacy of antiquity to keep alive it still enjoyed its statehood, its importance were the great historical clashes between the who only on a few days a year could come to the bonds which united the dispersed Jewry and the major role it played in our history were Hassidim and Misnagdim of Eastern Europe, observe the great Feasts in the Jewish climate with the historical cradle of the nation. created in the Diaspora. The earliest Dias- which rent the great centers of Judaism in a of a larger community. The last characteristic, though it appears to poras, nearer to home in the Near East, bitter, almost fratricidal, confrontation. Com­ This particular characteristic which time and be a very modern one, can actually be detected especially in Hellenistic Syria and Egypt, had munities were split and nuclei of opposing again recurs in Jewish history was often stren­ in the highest antiquity. In modern terms we before their eyes similar groupings of non- forces around their leaders, prayer places and gthened by the secular powers, rulers or states, could describe it as pluralism in the confined Jews, whether organized in the Hellenistic Batei-Midrash, became the radiation points of for purposes of their own. In the loosely space of the community organization. From polis or of smaller groupings of people in a the opposing forces. In such cases the structured states of medieval and early modern time to time, following the rhythm of external foreign land, who found cohesion in a communal institutions became the target of Europe, with their inadequate administrative events, the homogeneity of a given community communal bond. This did not prompt the power politics of the opposing forces. At the infrastructures, the powers-that-be found it was broken by the influx of immigrants, creation of any other links than those on the beginning of our century, when the traditional suiting their purposes, almost always financial whether refugees fleeing persecutions, or local level. Not so the Jewish community. community which arose on the debris of the difficulties, to have some kind of an overall immigrants attracted by privileged, legal and Almost at every stage of its history, the Jewish medieval community was losing its grip, new organization of the Jewish communities. Thus economic, conditions of the particular com­ communities endeavoured to find links and factors in the form of political parties needs felt from within and external pressure munity. If the waves of immigration were connections with other Jewish communities. supplanted the traditional forces. Their first tended in the same direction. Yet, despite considerable, the newcomers were not easily Sometimes it was a formal organization of a target was the communities, often regarded as appearances, formal overall organizations integrated into the existing community. There number of neighboring Kehilot, more often, a stepping stone in the struggle for domination were rather exceptions in the varied history of was not only a clash of interests, the autoch­ less formal supra-community organizations of larger segments of Jewish population. the Jewish communities. thonous Jews trying to safeguard their sprang up in the different Diasporas. Such Elsewhere it was religious ideologies which dis­ standing—very often the most essential sources encompassing organizations influenced and A third characteristic of the Kehila was as rupted the once theoretically homogeneous of livelihood, but there was often a clash of strengthened the position of the Jewry vis-a-vis much a legacy of history as of the basic beliefs community, but by then the general frame­ backgrounds and cultures, different customs, the surrounding, more often than not, alien of Judaism. As far back as the Roman work of Jewish existence was so different that different spoken languages and differences in and enemy world. The supra-organizations Empire, the ruling power acknowledged a the notions of community were transmuted liturgy. The new immigrants instinctively only rarely intervened in the life of single particular relation of the Jewish communities into entirely different frame organizations. clung to their mores, which were often communities; they rarely legislated in the sense with their Fatherland. Thus, permission was One looks back with a feeling of awe and elevated to sacrosanct precepts precisely in which a particular community legislated, given to the communities to pay taxes to admiration at the grandiose historical spectacle because they represented the old established though such cases are not unknown. Their aim Jerusalem. This legitimized the rule of paying of the single institution, whose permanence order, the memories of an allegedly perfectly was a combination of solicitude for a Jewish the shekel to the Temple in Jerusalem, and is rivalled only by the continued existence ordered society, which was destroyed. The way of life to be assured by gaining the favor after its destruction, to the Nasi in the Land of of the Jewish people themselves. Each age prayer place, a particular prayer place, the of the powers-that-be, but at the same time they the Forefathers. Obviously the changing and each Diaspora, hundreds of years and most obvious meeting center, became the hub were moved by the profound feeling of Klal historical situation and the permanence of the a thousand miles separated from others, yet of the uprooted, creating a community within Israel, destined by history to live in split-up Diaspora weakened the formal links with Eretz saw an ever recurrent institution live, not

24 25 regarded the community as an instrument to later called a communal school necessarily linked to, not necessarily a physical Beit Midrash, Jewish genius that these early institutions not execute its own orders, to see in it a kind of for children and, according to the particular descendant of its predecessor, but having more only survived the state but became the physical prolongation of its own powers by delegation, Jewish pattern of life, a place of study for the nature of an inner permanent force which forms of existence of future generations after but the community often took a different every willing member of the community. expressed itself everywhere. Flexible and the disappearance of the state. It was a view. With inadequate bureaucratic infra­ This type of communal center was created adaptable to the rhythm of historical evolu­ fortuitous but lucky coincidence that the structures, the normal attitude of the central not only in the Diaspora or in Eretz Israel after tion, to the ever-changing form of society, it Hellenistic Near-East, with its mingling of government was to assure its rule by a system the destruction of the Temple. It originated absorbed, if need arose, alien elements in its races, religions and languages, offered condi­ of nominations radiating from the center to possibly during the Babylonian Exile, and functions and made them its own. For almost tions propitious for hammering out basic the periphery. This, obviously, created local possibly became a feature of Palestinian life a hundred generations Jews were born into organization forms and functions of Jewish opposition, which only extremely authori­ with the Return from the Exile, under Ezra communities and did not need to take an oath communities. In the Hellenistic cities on the tarian governments could disregard. The and Nehemia. The New Covenant of the of allegiance, such as the European burgher coast of Israel as well as in far away Alexan­ compromise was reached empirically when ingathered exiles and the efforts to diffuse the took to his city or commune. The "oath of dria a problem emerged, rare until then or members of the local aristocracy or notables of knowledge of the Torah probably prompted allegiance" was that of the oath taken and the perhaps even non-existent in the earlier period. townships, regarded as loyal by the central the establishment of in which covenant concluded on Mount Sinai, in the Batei Knesset, The notions of city and community no longer government, were nominated to head the local the Holy Scrolls were preserved, read and mystical origins of the nation. The engendered corresponded or coincided. There had emerged community. This was simply a de jure sanction studied. Such institutions existed even in Jeru­ spark of sanctity remained forever alive as a a new type of city, a city which had a legally of a situation which existed de facto. The salem, some on the Temple Esplanade, others mighty bond for those who belonged, a life- defined standing in public law, and within biblical "Great men of the city," or the in the different quarters of the city. giving power which imbued the community whose perimeter there was a plurality of "Elders of the city," represent this type of These were early precursors which began with a spontaneous vitality and the power of heterogeneous communities. The Hellenistic local government which functioned at the with the traumatic catastrophe, the destruction endurance. Near-East furthered the co-existence of the "Gates of the city," where litigations were of the Temple. It is in the centuries following From the politeuma of Alexandria, the diverse communities in the same inhabited resolved and local ordinances, often religious the destruction of the Jewish State, that we get kharat al-Yahud of the Near East, the area and consequently recognized their di­ in character (like fasts), were pronounced and glimpses of what may be called the ideal city or Judearia of medieval Europe, the Judenstadt versity, their distinctiveness, which could promulgated. This communal autonomy limi­ the ideal community, as imagined by contem­ of Central Europe, the landsmanschaften and not be preserved but by the grant of a ted as it was in scope and territory was an porary sages of the nation. In a sense they pre­ Federations of the New World, and the modicum of self-government to the indi­ important cog in the State machinery, con­ figured an ideal type of a city conceived as a Vaadim and Kollim of the Holy Land, the Jew vidual communities. This was a novelty in sidering the technical difficulties in attempts to community. The sage, the clung to his community as long as he felt that Talmid Hakham, Jewish life and it antedated the loss of State­ rule from the center numerous, very small and we are told, should not settle in a community Judaism, its heritage and his way of life have a hood. In these cities with their mixed almost entirely rural communities. unless some conditions are assured, namely the meaning beyond the material existence. populations, the institution of the Kehila An important milestone in the development existence of a court which judges and executes experienced the apprenticeship which prepared Antiquity of the community organization was the its judgements, a charity chest, a doctor, a the nation for the long journey in the future. emergence of the local prayer place, the Beit scribe and a teacher of small children (San. The famous Talmudic saying, Dor dor Drawing on Greek vocabulary for its native Knesset, during the period of the Second 18b). Over the ages this ideal type of a settle­ vedorshav, dor dor vehakhamav (Each age functions, the Kehila of the Mishnaic and Temple. Without severing links with the ment would be the aim of every Jewish com­ and its sages: Sanhedrin 35) can be justly para­ Talmudic period, that is the period of Roman central Temple in Jerusalem, the local munity. Conversely such sayings, as "any city phrased, "Each generation and its com­ and Byzantine domination, formulated the prayer-place became a central institution of whose roofs are higher than those of the munity." The foregoing introduction has major features of its tasks, and its organiza­ the local community. Its history might be even synagogue will ultimately be destroyed" sketched what seem to be the permanent tion gained in clarity. Despite its outspoken more ancient and already at the moment of its (Shab. 11a) or "any city where there are no features of the institution. But within this aristocratic or plutocratic character, traces of documented appearance it had the particular school children, should be destroyed" (ibid., frame, once they left their native soil, Jews earlier, more popular foundations survived, character of a sacral community center. It is 119b), expressed some dimly formulated ideas formed types of associations by merging basic although their efficaciousness may be doubted. quite possible that its earliest name was Bei as to the relation between the sacred place and notions derived from the times of statehood Theoretically its major constitutive element Kenishta, Kenishta being the Aramaic equiva­ the palaces of the city aristocracy. The sayings with social structures and social ideologies was the General Assembly of the members of lent of the Hebrew Knesset, meaning the were explicit of the Jewish attitude to prevalent in the different Diasporas and their the community. In local matters, all power was "House of the Community" or the "Gath­ education and upbringings of children. local exigencies. in theory vested and delegated by this Assem­ ering place of the Community." As a place of Jewish community life was well rooted in Jewish statehood and community govern­ bly, which chose its own institutions and prayer, it was also the meeting place of the the soil of Israel even at the time when the ment co-existed for centuries in a dialectical officers. But in Antiquity as in the Middle community and of its elders when dealing with Jewish State formed the outer frame of situation of complementary and competing Ages, among Jews and non-Jews alike, votes community affairs. Often it became what was existence. And it was the particularity of the notions. The central power could have were weighed and not counted. Rov minyan

26 27 (majority of votes) and Rov binyan (decisive what time and circumstances prescribed. In The Babylonian Diaspora The Rosh Golah stood for the secular factor) did not correspond, which meant prac­ this context, a propitious intervention of In the meantime, on the eastern frontiers of authority of the Jewry. But until most recent tically that the elected leadership was chosen foreign rule was a milestone of paramount the Roman Empire, in ancient Mesopotamia importance for the future. Already in the first times secular authority only rarely, if ever, from among a rather very limited circle of and more to the east, deep into Persia and century B.C.E. the Roman rule legalized the imposed its authority on Jewry. It was in the notable families. In larger communities, side north into Armenia, one of the greatest and standing of the Jewish communities in the spirit of the nation, that the authority of the by side with the officers and leaders, there most permanent Diasporas was created. This Diaspora by acknowledging their members' Rosh Golah was flanked by institutions unique might have functioned a Council composed of was the Diaspora of Babylon (Galut Bavel), right to be judged by their own courts and in human history, the great Yeshivot, the the heads of the great families momentarily which for contemporary Jewry was the their own laws. Thus were laid the foundations Academies of Bavel, Sura, Pumpadita, Nahar- not in office. For all practical purposes, the Diaspora par excellence. If not referred to of Jewish legal autonomy, expressed in the dea. The Head of the Academy, the Rosh effective rule of the community was that of its specifically as Bavel, it was simply The Golah. existence of particular courts, judges and men Yeshiva, though he did not claim sacred royal notables, those whose voice was heard in Here patterns of an organized community learned in the law—all the salient features of descent, claimed sovereignty as the highest communal affairs. were created which functioned for almost a any substantial Jewish community in the authority by ordinating Jewish life according The official leadership, by whatever name it thousand years. It will not be exaggerating to Diaspora, for the next millenium. This type of to the Halacha in making decisions obligatory was known, Archonts, Bouleutai, the Elders, say that here Jewry and its local as well as on Jewish collectives and individuals. This, in recognition, however, did riot create immunity the Great Men of the City, the Seven Good general patterns of organization came as near addition to the standing of the Academies as enclaves, not even in litigations between Men of the City, very often the Parnassim (lit. as possible to statehood without the actual the greatest centers of Jewish learning and members of the community. They could, at breadgivers), certainly commanded a lot of possession of sovereignty. Created in very intellectual life. Unable to claim a sacred their will, have recourse to the common courts power. Appointments to the courts of justice, particular and in most propitious circum­ position, they authenticated their preeminence of the State. Roman legislation only created the imposition and division of taxes, the stances this glorious chapter of creativity in on different grounds: aristocracy and intellect. the frame; the internal force of cohesion of the handling of the community chest and com­ our history was never repeated again. Neither Although the office was not formally heredi­ Jewry filled it. It was this strong cohesion munity property were certainly enviable were its organizational patterns. Its future tary, it was so in practice. If it did not which ostracized any appeal toArkacot Goyim, positions of responsibility. The collective or influences lay more in the Halachic decisions automatically descend from father to one of invoking the intervention of the State, an individual responsibility of the leadership for which regulated the lives of communities and his sons, it openly remained the prerogative of appeal to a non-Jewish court which could end collecting taxes from the community for the were invoked by later ages and in some a very limited number of families. The Roshei in its interference in the internal affairs of the government at the same time gave them features of infrastructures. The overall frame Yeshivot cannot be described solely in terms of community and undermine its precarious coercive power but must have been a mixed of existence remained a historical episode an intellectual aristocracy. Position was owed autonomy. blessing. TheMidrash described the Parnassey often an object of nostalgia not to be equalled a combination of aristocratic descent and Israel as men who give their life for Israel. The officially acknowledged privileged posi­ again. intellectual ability, newcomers and potential tion of the Jewish community, which also They were "the eyes of the community" says Whereas Palestinian Jewry after the de­ competitors from outside were shut out of recognized the special relation of the Jewish another source, those who navigated dan­ struction of the Second Temple found an ex­ their gilded and charmed circle. gerously overburdened boats in unpredictable Diaspora to Jerusalem by the payment of taxes pression and outlet for its longings for inde­ It was below this level of what one may call, waters. Even more was this the case in cities to its Jewish authorities, and later to the pendence in the Nessiim, Babylonian Jewry for lack of a better expression, central organs with a mixed population, where, in the nature hereditary Nasiim, who ruled the Jews in Eretz boasted the legendary origins of its leadership of government, that we see the functioning of of things communal interests clashed and Israel, also included: the right to appoint in the descendants of the sacred House of the local communities. They have their own where the city council, the boulei, was com­ officers and to create community institutions, David. The Rosh Hagola, the Head of the organs, courts, prayer houses, ritual baths, posed of representatives of the different com­ the right to own and acquire communal Diaspora, claimed his title and position by the charity institutions, schools. They have their munities, each fighting for position but also property, and, most important, the right to hereditary title of his family. First recognized own council, officers, judges, the Hazan, who safeguarding the interests of the members of impose communal taxes. Once these acknow­ as such by the Parthian authorities, his posi­ is often the factotum of the community. Yet his own community. ledged privileges were moulded into a harmo­ tion was confirmed by the succeeding Persian all this is supervised from the center, whether The time of Roman rule of the Hellenistic nious whole the different, often local, devel­ and then the Moslem rulers of the Eastern through officers appointed by the Rosh Golah Near-East was the period of apprenticeship. opments and expressions of Jewish autonomy Caliphate. His authoritarian, almost sacred, or by the Heads of Academies. Even if not The Jewish community had to cope with an all over the immense stretches of the Roman predominance, strengthened by the enormous directly appointed but locally elected, they alien government, with a city council and with Empire became more homogeneous. Recog­ wealth of his house, made him the undisputed were approved or confirmed in their office by other communities in the frame of the city. nized by the State and then confirmed again ruler of Jewry. His were the competences to the central authorities. The writ of the Rosh and again, it survived the conversion of the With time, the Kehilot of the Diaspora inte­ tax the Jewish subjects of the Empire, as well Golah was authoritative wherever Jewish Roman Empire, during the fourth century of grated different ingredients into a harmonious as the right to appoint officers and judges in communities were to be found in the immense the C.E., to Christianity. and elaborate whole, adopting and adapting all the scattered Jewish communities of the body of the Caliphate, which stretched from Empire. Egypt to the confines of India.

28 29 point of gravitation of our existence to other Yet, as said, it was not only the actual the Caliphate. if they are large and mighty, except for punish­ Third and finally, there was the autono­ centers of Europe. secular power wielded by the Rosh Golah and ment of Aveyroth .. . where the Sons of Israel mous, internal evolution of World Jewry. The The story of the community organization of his reliance on the powers-that-be, which as­ are mutually responsible for each other." authority of the Gaonate of Babylon, its legis­ Ashkenaz is incomprehensible if one does not sured Bavel its predominance in Jewish It is then the single community which was lation and intellectual legacy, made the study realize the major change in the character of history. The hegemony of Babylonian Jewry the basic cell of existence. Very often the com­ of the Jewish heritage almost universal. This Jewish leadership. Here more than anywhere was based on its supremacy in the realm of the munity was a city quarter, physically protected unequaled achievement, one of the most else the break with the past is deeply felt. spirit. As the greatest center of intellectual by walls within whose perimeter Jewish life important in Jewish life, had surprising but Neither riches, position, nor Yihus Avot, creativity, coupled with the prosperity of the thrived, regulated by the Halacha, which logical and inevitable results on the level of aristocratic descent, were compelling in this Jewish communities, Bavel was the undisputed sanctified its existence. The community is Jewish organization. Men trained in the great new era of leadership. It was sheer intellectual center of Judaism. Even Palestinian Jewry Kahal Kadosh, the Holy Community. Its academies of Babylon moved from the Near ability, the mastery of Jewish law and the which could claim particular prerogatives (the inner bonds are in the voluntary association to East and settled in North Africa, Spain, Italy faculties of leadership which were decisive. fixing of the calendar and announcing of Feast pursue together, as a community, a way of life and in the north across the Alps, bringing with The new type of leader stressed his filiation days), and at a given moment (seventh which is sanctified by the observation of the them the accumulated knowledge of the with a great master or an Academy, but essen­ century) saw a Nassi who claimed Davidic Sacred Law. It safeguarded the physical Babylonian academies. Hesitatingly at first tially he was evaluated on the basis of his own descent, could not stand up to Babylonian existence and the prosperity of its members; its achievements, by an extremely critical public but then openly not only new centers of Jewish inner cohesion was based on the mutual Jewry. of scholars and a not too obedient Kahal. life and intellectual activity were established, responsibility of its members, and, in no meta­ Early Medieval Period but the hegemony of Babylon was renounced This in itself explains the spirit of indepen­ physical terms, was based on the bond of and broken. dence of the Ashkenzai leadership, but also of Three major converging factors created new mutual help. Almost everywhere the Kahal AH three summarily sketched factors opened its community. Even the smallest of com­ realities of Jewish life in the Diaspora. One created the same type of institutions, which a new period in the history of our nation and munities was not willing to accept the su­ was the expanding Diaspora. Although there may have differed in scope but not in aims. in the history of the Jewish community organi­ premacy of a mighty neighbour. This was not was a Jewish Diaspora in Europe even before There was the charity chest, which in addition zation. Here was a decisive break with the past the result of any particular arrogance. More there was a Roman Empire, and Italy, Spain to receiving donations was supplied with and Jewish communal life was restructured on often than not it was the result of a more basic and Gaul had their Jewish inhabitants long revenues from the self-imposed taxation; there different premises. And yet this break was in feeling of responsibility by the local leadership before the destruction of the Second Temple, were the schools caring for children and the overall, all-embracing organization but not for its own community, a feeling of guarding a it is during a rather obscure process which adults, and the community as a whole was on the level of the basic cells which composed sacred deposit, and above all, the ever-re­ took place in the Early Middle Ages, during responsible for the education of orphans and the body politic of the nation. Moreover, true curring tenet that local business had to be the tenth and eleventh centuries, that a new needy children, as it was responsible for the to our pattern of life, it was the spiritual transacted by those who were locally involved. configuration of European Jewry came to widows and the poor. Marrying off poor leadership which was responsible for and Yet the striving for absolute independence, light. It was a demographically formative maidens, welfare and the upkeep of cemeteries mediated this transition. Neither demography strengthened by actual Halacha legislation, period, but also a period which created new and their hallowed ground were additional was never conceived as splitting up Jewry into nor opulence nor prosperity would have been tasks of the Kahal. The hub of community life types of Jewish life, cohesion and communal non-related cells, families without any links sufficient to mark the new era in our history. was the synagogue, which besides being the organization. between them. This new period, stretching for some three The second factor was the disruption of the prayer place of the community was also the hundred years (10th to 13th centuries) is What characterized the period was an unity of the Caliphate, which began as early as meeting place of the community and its insti­ dominated by the great luminaries of our almost permanent tension between the de­ the middle of the eighth century in Spain, but tutions. It was the General Assembly in the nation, figures of great scholars, teachers and mands for local autonomy and the striving to changed the course of history of the Near East, synagogue which was theoretically the ultimate legislators. Their legal decisions, their Aca­ create bonds between communities. For with the rise of a rival Caliphate in Egypt at carrier of sovereignty. Here leaders and demies and systems of studies, the philoso­ reasons of prestige but often national raisons the beginning of the tenth century and the pro­ officers were elected, here the major decisions phers, poets and grammatists, whose decisions d'etre, larger communities tried to bring gressive weakening of the Eastern Caliphate taken. Taxation for communal purposes, like became binding law, were the basis of the more coherence into the existence of or­ even in the lands of Asia. This process brought the payment of teachers, the upkeep of the change from the sacral, aristocratic and state­ ganized Jewry. Whereas smaller communi­ to power local dynasties which paid only lip synagogue, the care of the Mikva and of the wide Babylonian organization to the emer­ ties fought against the infringement of their service to the unity and power of the Head of cemetery were permanent agenda of the gence of new entities, the communities of natural rights, the larger and more prestigious the Faithful. The disruption of the all- meetings. But whereas such practical matters Ashkenaz. For almost three hundred years ones were not averse to imposing their hege­ embracing Caliphate brought with it in its could have been and actually were decided by they dominated the stage of history, writing a mony. As early as the middle of the eleventh wake a similar phenomenon in Jewish autono­ the Parnassim, the community counsellors, most glorious chapter in the vicissitudes of the century, we have a Responsum (Tshuva) my structure, the emergence of independent there was also a type of legislation which Diaspora, until external factors shifted the saying: "Nobody has any right to coerce, even communal structures in the far flung lands of transcended such matters. These were the

30 31 even crafts, theirs was an authority to which the Jewish authorities in far away provinces Statutes of the Kehilot (Takkanot ha-Kehila), remain in the cities. This meant agreement to bowed even the mightiest in the community. and in the lands of the German Empire. disciplinary in character, which also dealt with exorbitant taxes, bribery, and attempts to Independent in the best sense of the word, they Another example of this kind is represented by the constitution of the Kehila. Basic statutes, renew privileges, which, in turn, upset the interpreted Halacha to meet the needs of their the common legislation of the three great rather an exception in the early period, were internal structure of the communities. Those times, without accepting any authority but Rhineland communities: Spire, Worms and complemented by ordinances (also called who had contacts with the reigning powers that of another Halachic sage. They were not Mayence 1220-3), which dealt Takkanot), which dealt with very weighty (Kehilot Shum, became the almost exclusively ruling clan. directly involved in the running of community with the relations of the community and its matters like economic competition between Very often they were directly appointed by the affairs, but in their weighty decisions, often members, family relations, education and members of the Kehila or far-reaching deci­ princes or city magistrates and were imposed taken after consultation with other Talmudic welfare and which spread all over the sions to keep out unwanted elements. on the communities despite their protests. Not authorities, or in their principalities of the German Empire. The decisions or ordinances were put into Responsa (Shelot only lay leaders were appointed. Internal force by a court composed of the Dayyanim of ve-Thuvot), or in the more academic elabora­ The European communities in France and evolution created the office of a salaried Rov the community, but sometimes there was re­ tion of the exegesis of the Talmud, known as Germany reached the zenith of their power of the community, and even he did not escape course to the frightening weapon of the Tossafot, they created constitutional and be­ and evolution during the twelfth and thir­ the intervention from outside. The dependence Herem, the anathema which struck the tres­ havioral rules incumbent on the nation. Their teenth centuries. But these two hundred years of the Rabbanim on the community, that is, passer and excluded a man from the com­ independence of spirit can perhaps be best of grandeur were followed by an age of adver­ practically on the lay leaders of the com­ munity and the company of his fellows. This illustrated by such a sage as R. Jacob Tarn, in sity which began with the expulsion of the munity, contributed much to the worsening of was not only an economic blow it was a social the second half of the twelfth century, who Jews from England and the expulsion from their social and spiritual standing. Despite ostracism. There was a definite trend to argued against the practical rule of imposing France, and, especially after the Black Plague great efforts and sometimes open protests they strengthen the ability of the Kahal to impose the opinion of the majority on any individual in the middle of the fourteenth century, this bowed to the mighty on whom depended their its rule. From its decisions there was no in the community. Decisions, he argued, were tragedy spread to all the great urban centers of means of existence. appeal, unless one invoked outside powers, to be taken unanimously. This did not prevent the German Empire. and thus put himself outside KM Israel. the communities from refusing to accept in The lords of the Christian cities, secular as Spanish Communities their midst people of bad renown or people well as ecclesiastic, who at the turn of the As a rule there was a Head of the Kahal, a At the time a marked decline characterized who evaded the payment of taxes, thus eleventh century invited Jews to settle in the Parnass, often recognized by the ruling feudal the communal life of the Kehilot of Ashkenaz, imposing additional burdens on the others. new urban agglomerations where the settle­ or ecclesiastical authority of the city, as the Jewish life flourished in another corner of Other sages took a different opinion, and ment of the Jews was an important factor in "Bishop of the Jews" or the "Magister of the Europe in Spain. Spain has a special place in actually each Kehila wrote its Takkanot their development, lost their authority almost Jews," whose authority was backed by an the history and the evolution of Jewish com­ (ordinances) and ruled itself on the basis of a everywhere to the growing power of their elected council which participated in the per­ munities. Perhaps even earlier than in the majority vote. This was a principle accepted in burgher subjects. The latter, organized in formance of his tasks. Whatever the procedure communities of Germany, France and Italy, the second half of the thirteenth century by the "communes" or city-councils, now became of election or nomination, it is clear that the Spain went through the process of a decisive great luminary of the period, R. Meir of the dominant power in the cities. Their own elected officers represented the notables and break with the claims to hegemony of the Rotenburg. corporate organization, perhaps even imi­ the wealthy members of the community. The Babylonian yeshivot and their dynasties. tating in some respects the Kehila, took over fact that they were not salaried officers and Whereas the rule was that of independence Maimonides who left Spain and settled in the rule in the city. Their ruling strata were their donations were a major contribution to of each community, some attempts were Egypt (second half of the twelfth century) was that of the merchant or banking clans, and a the welfare of the community conditioned made, if not to create larger formal organiza­ quite outspoken about the irrelevancy of their clash with the Jewish community was inevi­ this type of communal authority. One could tions, then at least to promulgate practical claims. He boldly advocated the independence table. The new city rulers demanded their describe the rule of the community as that of legislation incumbent upon communities which of the individual communities; he strongly share of the Jewish tax receipts and city wealthy notables if it were not for an addi­ were willing to adhere to it. Thus, in the third argued the affirmation of the position of a legislation became increasingly onerous, until tional and different element by the spiritual quarter of the twelfth century, general rules man of learning in his own right, without expulsion capped the financially exhausted leaders who lived in the different communities. were established in the city of Troyes in invoking the yihus of the Academy or of his communities. Often their renown transcended that of a par­ Champagne, under the authority of R. Jacob family, and, further, that the spiritual leader­ ticular community, and their influence was felt Tarn and R. Shmuel b. Meir (Rashbam). Their In these troubled times, the communities ship was not and should not be a professional not only in larger areas of Jewish settlements, scope included combatting malshinim (in­ tried their best to preserve the life and property one. A man's learning and wisdom should not but often it crossed the borders of countries formers), the invoking of outside authorities of their members and of the communal be a source of making a living. The spiritual and even continents. and attempts to be appointed to office by out­ organization. These self-protective efforts leadership should remain outside the circle of As heads of local Yeshivot in the larger side authorities. The obvious importance of marked this era in the history of the Jewish practical administration of a particular com­ communities, but more often than not men of such legislation was recognized outside the communities. Their energies were channelled munity, as the sage's standing transcends it. learning who made a living in commerce or area in which it was created and accepted by to prolong, against obvious odds, the right to He himself, as is known, became the oracle of

32 33 Christian communities in the fourteenth his generation and followed by the nation as a Crown. In time, in the fourteenth century, the death sentence was pronounced. century, when the rise of craftsmen under­ whole until even our own times. meeting of representatives of communities The effort to safeguard the community was mined the position of the ruling city patri­ Though Spain's Jewish communities were in became a permanent feature of the Spanish accomplished by an attempt to distribute archs, this had little or no effect on the situations similar to those that existed in the Jewry organization. Kahal. taxation in a more just manner; there were Dependent on royal privileges, it was less re­ heyday of the Jewish communities in France On the local level the communities drew permanent grumblings and accusations that sponsive to social stirrings inside its ranks. and Germany, they also had particular their strength as much from the autonomous those in charge of taxation (that is taxes paid Still, by the end of the fourteenth century problems, which were less apparent in Central Jewish evolution as from the privileges of the by the community to the State) imposed too (1386), an ordinance tried to check the ruling Europe. Beginning with the Christian re- state. The Jewish community courts had the great a burden on the weaker members of the oligarchy by making the Kahal authorities conquista (12th and 13th centuries), the Jews rights of high justice, which included the right Kahal, whereas the notables evaded their more representative. Whereas three played major roles and were far more of passing sentences of death. The latter was Neemanim share. The infrastructure of the Kahal had to (and they were as a matter of fact the notables numerous in these roles than they were in demanded not so much for the suppression of be safeguarded against mismanagement or of the community) remained the heads of the northern Europe not only in the cities but also criminality as for fighting delators who en­ corruption by regular elections and appoint­ a council of 15 with more than con­ in the administration of the expanding dangered the life of individuals and the Kahal, ments to the various offices, especially those sultative competences was added. It was Christian Kingdoms, Castille and Aragon. It existence of communities. of the Dayyanim. This legislation was con­ composed in a way which assured to the three was there that we see for the first time a new The basic characteristics of the Spanish scious of the fact that in the last resort the "estates," that is to say the different social type of leader, whose influence would be felt communities up to the end of the fourteenth whole structure rested on the Talmud Torah. strata of the community, equal representation. in the communities—the Jewish courtier. They century, and as a matter of fact, until the A whole system of direct taxation (on But this was a rather exceptional experience. were usually merchants turned bankers, tragic end of Jewish history in Spain at the end consumption, like meat and wine, on mar­ The great calamities of the middle and the financial advisors and often treasurers, min­ of the fifteenth century, was their outspoken riages, on funerals) was introduced to assure end of the fourteenth century (esp. 1384 and isters of finance and financiers of the king­ oligarchic character. In almost all the great the necessary funds for the existence of the 1391) introduced the most somber chapter of doms^ Some were not only businessmen. and populous communities, the leadership of Yeshivot or the teaching of children and our history in Spain. These occurrences Theirs was a special position which reflected the Kahal was vested in two or three dozen adults. Each Kehila had to assure the existence prompted a kind of rethinking of the standing an almost unique pattern of Jewish tradition. families. By a system of rotation, cooptation of the Talmidei Hakhamim marbitzey Torah. and functioning of the The anti-Jewish Many belonged to the highest class of Jewish or elections restricted to a given class, all the Kahal. It is of interest to note the particular concern outbreaks swept all over Spain and the intellectuals, poets or writers, men versed in legislative and executive powers remained for education. Classes taught by a teacher and consciousness of the need for more coopera­ Jewish learning. It was almost to be expected within this group. As their competences an assistant, it was ordered, should not tion between the Kehilot moved into the fore­ that this leisure class which could enjoy all the included taxation, that is the fixing of the number in excess of 40 students; when there is ground of political thinking. Moreover, out­ benefits of learning should produce the amount of tax on each family, this often a teacher without an assistant, then the limit side influences were at work. Castille, always favourites, appointed by the Crown to the brought them to direct interference in the was only 25. And it goes without saying that more centralized than Aragon, took the lead. leadership of the Jewish communities. In private lives of the members of the Kahal. As the Kahal had to assure the existence of a So in 1432 a famous meeting of the Council of direct daily contacts with the authorities, the the whole system was based on "royal" praying minyan, and to punish anybody who Rab del corte was recognized as the represen­ privileges often acquired by the efforts of the Jewish communities in Valladolid in Castille, would dare to disturb the cult in the syna­ with the participation of the Rov del Corte, tative of the Jewish communities in the most influential members of the Kahal, there gogue. Unfortunately the Ordinances of tried to reconstruct Jewish life in the Kehilot. kingdom in their relations with the ruling was little that could have been done to change Valladolid were more testimony to ideals than These Ordinances of Valladolid are less a power. Some, because of their learning were the situation. These social tensions often left to realities. The calamities of the fourteenth landmark in the history of the Kahal than a accepted by the communities and even merited the Rov of the community in a most pre­ century undermined the existence of Spanish testimony to the major problems which faced the title of "Head of the Diaspora in Spain" carious position. As a salaried official it was Jewry; the vaccillating attitude of the Spanish Spanish Jewry in the last century of its (Rosh galuth Sfarad); some even established not easy to be entirely independent of the rulers to their Jewish subjects in the fifteenth existence on the Iberian peninsula. There was kinds of dynasties, handing down their status establishment. Fractions in the Kahal, or the century accompanied, as it was, by a great first of all the great effort, almost a cruel one, to their descendants with the approval of the demands of the lower classes of the com­ wave of antiSemitism and the growing grip of to preserve the autonomy and the existence of Crown. The latter saw in the system an easy munity, left the Rov in the unenviable position the Inquisition, all combined together to make the Any appeal to the Christian solution to the problems of Jewish taxation. of taking a firm stand against what he Kahal. the efforts to reconstruct Jewish life in the judiciary or administration Moreover, the Spanish taxation system was regarded as corruption or injustice. In some (Erkhaot Goyirn) communities practically impossible. Jewish was branded as delation The such that it strengthened the tendencies to cases the Jewish autonomy had even to bow to (Malshinut). leadership was fighting a losing battle against punishment of informers or those who create frames of more comprehensive and the common law of the city and of the king­ government and church without, and apostasy invoked outside interference went from public general organization. This found expression in dom, although it did not correspond to Jewish and flight within. When the tragic proclama­ associations of communities for the Collecta, law and procedure. flogging to the branding of the informer on his tion of expulsion sounded in 1492, Spanish forehead with a hot iron. In extreme cases a that is the collecting of Jewish taxes due to the Despite a change which swept through the Jewry was caught at a moment of weakness.

34 35 Lithuania. Va'ad, Council, denoted originally And yet those who preferred exile and Judaism preponderance of the center. It was the chief frame of organization of Polish Jewry. How­ the action of common deliberations and not to the fleshpots of Spain carried with them city which was the Kehila and which took upon ever, already earlier there was a general trend the institution. Though such common deliber­ communal traditions which would flourish itself the responsibility to assure elementary in the different parts of Poland to find ways of ation never reached the phase of a formal legal again in their countries of new settlement. services to the smaller Jewish satellite settle­ cooperation among the particular communi­ organization, they were institutionalized, and The disappearing Jewries in Western and ments. ties dispersed in the immense territories of for almost 250 years they were the culminating Central Europe found compensation in Nor­ By the sixteenth century the greater com­ Poland. The first step in this direction was the expression of Jewish autonomous life in the thern Africa and the lands to the East which munities felt the need for a larger frame of creation of Meetings of Provinces (Va'ad Diaspora. Since the beginning of the sixteenth cooperation. This was facilitated by royal or Hagalil). This happened in 1519 in Great since the fifteenth century entered the folds of century and until their formal abolition in princely privileges, called Kiyumim, which Poland, when representatives of eleven large the Ottoman Empire. Moreover a vigorous 1765, the Va'adim played a major role in guaranteed the Kehilot a large measure of communities met at Wloclawek and the insti­ Jewry came of age in Eastern Europe. Jewish life. Moreover, their influence on autonomy. This included, among others, tution was strengthened by the adherence to Jewish historical consciousness survived their Jewish Communities of Eastern Europe absolute rights of jurisdiction over Jews, the Va 'ad of the great community of Posen a abolition. After the massacres and pogroms of including the right to pronounce the penalty of generation later. The Va'ad of "Crown The disappearance of Jewish communities Chmielnicki (1648), the Va'adim were already Poland" began (ca. 1550) as a matter of ex­ in Spain found a new Jewry consolidating its death. nostalgically described as the "High Court of pediency. Its origins go back to the meetings of positions in Eastern Europe. There were the The individual community in the great ex­ Judgement," and their leaders as the "Great the great Jewish merchants at the yearly fair of Jewries of Slavonic lands often dominated by panses of Poland and Lithuania, which also Sanhedrin sitting in judgement" in the Holy Lublin. The meetings were periodic and German dynasties but mainly the future great included parts of the Ukraine, show a great Temple. At the time of their abolition, it was usually with the participation of the great Jewry of Poland. A branch of the Ashkenazi amount of uniformity in their inner organiza­ felt that this was tantamount to depriving spiritual leaders of the Jewry. The meetings Jewry, although not lacking Oriental in­ tion. The Parnassim, or Roshim were the Judaism of its statehood. Deep into our became institutionalized in time, one of their fluences, reproduced the main frames of leaders of the community and they controlled century, the Va'adim and what they stood for main aims being the division of taxes imposed organization of the Kahal of Central Europe, to a large degree the different offices of the were regarded by some Jewish historians and by the State on the individual communities. but by transforming and adapting them, it Kahal. Theoretically, they were elected by autonomists as a possible solution of the On the other hand the presence of Gedolei created a new image of the Jewish Diaspora Borrim (electors) from among the tax-paying Jewish question in the Diaspora. Torah on such occasions decided inter-com­ for more than four hundred years to come. members of the community (Ba'alei-Batim). Though the ideal was far from reality, there munity litigations. The periodic meetings As already noted, attempts at general The College of Parnassim functioned in a was a grandeur in the vision of the Va'adim strengthened the bonds of cohesion and the organizations of Kehilot were found in many particular way. Three to five of its members and the story of some ten generations of un­ feelings of mutual responsibility as well as the periods and occurred in many areas, but none were in actual exercise of power on a rotation interrupted Jewish autonomy. Their impor­ consciousness of need and possibility of basis, namely, each was for a month the active ever reached the degree of autonomy of the tance in Jewish life and history should not be common action. Thus, what might be called a head of the community and bore the title of Polish Jewry, neither in scope nor in the Jewish policy was formulated to fight defama­ Parnass Hahodesh, the Parnass of the Month. minimized because their authority was par­ effective power wielded. tially based on external factors, like the finan­ tions against Jews and Judaism. By the middle The ordinances of the Kahal were kept in a The major waves of migration which since cial needs of the rulers of Poland and of the sixteenth century meetings of Rabbanim Pinkas ha-kahal, which also included lists of the thirteenth century augmented the Jewish Lithuania. The growing importance of the began to play a role in dealing with Jewish taxes and tax-payers. Some Kehilot kept population in Poland, Bohemia and Austria, Va'adim was favoured by the failure of the taxation. These meetings developed into a Memorbuchs, which included names of de­ brought with them the old-established system Kingdom of Poland to create a particular, more representative system, when two dele­ ceased members of the community, sometimes of Kahal organization. But the characteristic centralized administration of Jewish affairs, gates sent from each community met together stories of particular events which happened in features of the early period of organization that is to say of Jewish revenues. Since the to deal with that problem. Nine elected repre­ the community and very often lists of martyrs were already influenced by the particular beginning of the sixteenth century Jewish sentatives and three rabbis became the exe­ and martyrdoms. structure of Polish Jewry. When Jewish life in tax-collectors and rabbis were appointed by cutive instance of the organization, meeting The responsibility of the greater communi­ the West was more and more concentrating in the government for the different provinces of every three years, unless an emergency called ties for smaller ones in their vicinity, logical as cities, especially larger cities, in the Slavonic the kingdom. As always in such cases, there for additional and special meetings. lands, Jews settled not only in the nascent it might seem to us, created a state of almost were reluctance and opposition of the Jewish These meetings, a kind of Jewish provincial cities (often built by German immigrants) but permanent tension, usually on the grounds of communities to the appointments, though the parliament, if one may use this expression, also in townships and villages. One of the unjust repartition of taxation; there were also rabbis were certainly authoritative and compe­ were differently structured as to the way of results of this demographic structure was a squabbles about geographical divisions of tent personalities. By 1551 the Jews, in what election and representation in the different particular type of Kehila organization, namely jurisdiction and rights of appeal. Such cases was called "Great Poland" (Polin Gadol), provinces. As a rule, almost everywhere the a major town as the center (e.g. Posen and were dealt with on a higher supra-community received a basic privilege to choose their own wealthiest tax-payers had the decisive vote, but Kalish) and a number of townships or villages level, in the Va'adDaleth Aratzot in the terri­ Chief Rabbi, which postulated a more general in some areas, where economic developments with small communities acknowledging the tories of Poland and Va'ad Medina! Lita in

36 37 to a large extent conditioned by the rhythm of life in a way to assure the livelihood of its conditioned a greater dispersion and conse­ of the Jewish population, those who lived economic life. Usually it was the great Fairs of members and at the same time to prevent quently the creation of new and smaller half- outside the principal urban centers, were Lublin or Jaroslav which served as meeting possible clashes with the outside world. The rural communities, the question of their excluded from any vote though they could places. But neither place nor date were ever Orenda institution, for example, insured any participation in the decision-making process bring their complaints to official forums. But Jew who farmed revenues from a lordly estate was a permanent bone of contention. Almost fixed, although some attempts were made in in the communities themselves the oligarchies against the competition of other Jews. At the everywhere it was the most populous com­ this direction. were the real power. It is estimated that only same time an effort was made not to enter into munity which had the decisive vote, but we The competences of the Vaadim were as one thousand Baaley-Batim in 35 communities too ambitious projects of farming or economic should also add in fairness that theirs was also various as the aspects of Jewish life. The most had a real right to vote or participate in the role with the revenues or incomes of estates the chief responsibility. Their major duty was important was obviously the right of distri­ ruling of communities, that is to say only (Lithuania took a different position), so as to to establish the right type of relations with the bution of the government taxes which were about one percent of the total Jewish adult create safeguards against jealousies of out­ government and there is nothing more assessed on the Jewry as a whole and left to the population. siders and so prevent possible adverse reper­ symptomatic than the emergence of the almost Va'adim was the extremely unpopular task of cussions in case of failure. Jewish Communities official Shtadlan, the go-between for Jewry dividing them among provinces/ cities, and in the Age of Emancipation and government who, by words and bribes had townships. It was also clear that from the State Along with the various acts of legislation, point of view this was the raison d'etre of the from Shtadlanut to the safeguarding of to gain the good will of the ruler or of the When East European Jewries were chang­ privileges, legislation regarding taxation and ruling classes. whole structure of autonomy, which as a ing, at least in their central organization, economic life, attempts against defamation These territorial, provincial organizations matter of fact broke down when the govern­ major changes took place in the surrounding and the defense of Jewish lives (Nekama—lit. culminated in the creation of the far more em­ ment decided on a different way to assess the world of Western Europe. Soon they began to vengeance; actually attempts to bring to court bracing Va'ad Daleth Aratzot, the Council of Jewish taxes. Taxation obviously included the be felt in the overcrowded ghettos of Central murderers of Jews), there was one occupation the Four Lands: Great Poland (Posen), Small rights of coercion. Once a sum was imposed on and Southern Europe, and different types of which was ever and everywhere present: to Poland (Cracow), Lvov (with Wolyn) and a district, it was the obligation of the district community organizations were emerging in the assure the survival and continuity of Jewish Lublin, to which later on were joined six leaders to assess the revenue of the individuals. countries in the West. These changes, which life. This took the ever present form of additional provincial Va'adim (including Po- This was done by the local oligarchies, usually also mark the real beginning of the modern assuring Jewish education for children and dolja and Podlesie). This Council of the Four a group of wealthy and well known people period in Jewish history, coincide in time with adults: the existence of Yeshivot. It is moving Lands began to function in the middle of the who served as assessors. Their task was cer­ the breaking away from medieval patterns of to see even in the harshest of times taxation sixteenth century and had basically a dual type tainly not an enviable one, especially as they existence. Basically they were the outcome being imposed by the community on its of leadership. On the one hand what might be personally often had to guarantee the quotas more of external pressures than autonomous members to entertain at their cost a student or called a lay-leadership vested in the Elders of of taxations. Cases of refusal of communities, Jewish development. Where such pressures did scholar to enable him to pursue his studies. the Lands or Heads of States. This was the especially the smaller ones, to bow to their not exist, the traditional patterns remained in This is as continuous and unbroken a charge in decisions, alleging exploitation, even reached force for another century. Assembly of the representatives of the the Takkanot, as is the care of widows and different Provinces, headed by the Marshal of state tribunals. No need to add, that in addi­ poor girls to assure them husbands through a In the second half of the eighteenth century, tion to communities, individuals or even whole the Jews (Parnass Beit-Israel). On the other shadkhan. Teaching young girls Jewish ways a complex set of factors which changed strata of society in the communities were com­ hand there were the Judges of the Provinces of life by their serving in wealthier Jewish European society as a whole did away with plaining. When the general economic situation (Dayyaney ha-Aratzot), composed of the Chief families; the care not to live and consume forms of thinking and existence which were the worsened, there was no escape but to look for Rabbis of communities and provinces. The conspicuously are to be found in the product of medieval forms of organization. alleviation through bribery or loans on latter became a kind of High Court of Polish Takkanot, which also include such items as The major features of this new period, which interest. Both were only temporary remedies, Jewry, judging litigations between its com­ taking care of families living in isolation from culminated in the French Revolution, was the and, as the taxation grew heavier, created a ponent parts, but also functioning as judges of other Jews on an estate or in a village, so that breaking down of the last vestiges of medieval vicious circle. the Fairs, but above all the highest instance of they should be able to perform mitzvoth and guild organization. In this early era of capital­ At the same time excommunications were legislation backed by the authority of the abstain from non-kosher food or activities istic enterprise, corporate organizations of any used to prevent informing or acts to bring Halacha. This was often compared to the against the Law (e.g. breeding of pigs). kind which limited production, created mono­ Sejm, the Polish equivalent of a parliament. A about state intervention into internal prob­ polies or prevented competition were seen as a This great edifice, it must be said, was never similar pattern of organization was followed lems. The Jews wanted to live within the frame major obstacle to the new spirit of freedom a democratic institution. Neither the age nor by Lithuania, where the Va'ad was composed of their own secular organization, if the com­ and free enterprise. The standing of the the realities were ripe in any way for such of three large provinces and their great centers munity can even be called by that name. The medieval man was conditioned by the standing developments. The Va'adim were often high of Brest Litovsk, Grodno and Pinsk, with well Jew wanted freedom of faith and cult in his of the corporate body to which he belonged. handed, but so were the leaders of the defined frontiers. synagogue and nothing beyond Jewish legis­ This was rapidly changing. Even before the communities. About one-quarter or one-third The meetings of these different bodies were lation, to organize the community's economic French Revolution officially abolished medi-

38 39 eval-type corporations, their antiquated forms the demand of reform. Soon autonomous belonging to a community remained on a loopholes. Jews were not allowed any roof- of production and fossilized structures of Jewish developments, like the Hassidic move­ voluntary basis only. organizations; the official program of "re­ hierarchies were disintegrating. It was the ment reached the communities, whereas major A new system of organization was effect­ forming" the Jews meant Russification and individual who became an entity of existence changes in Jewish demography, the great ively introduced by Napoleon and approved at finally conversion. The process called for in his own right; it was now the state which waves of migration to the West, beginning as the meeting of the Sanhedrin in 1807. The direct interference in Jewish life, government faced directly the individual. All historical and early as the sixteenth century with the influx of basic idea was that already announced at the appointment of Rabbanim mita'am (by the artificial barriers were broken down. The great Sephardi Jews into Mostarabi or Ashkenazi beginning of the Revolution: the Jews would authority), rabbis by the grace of the eighteenth century Enlightenment stressed centers, created problems of plurality in the abandon any claim to nationhood; as human government, and a close watch on Jewish the importance of the individual and opposed until now homogeneous Jewish organizations. beings they would enjoy civic rights, and it was education. The communities which disap­ the autocracy of the state, as well as that of Late eighteenth century trends became ever only their specific religious needs which would peared dejure, continued to function de facto, corporations and corporate organization. stronger in the nineteenth century. The new remain the realm of Jewish bodies, like the when voluntary, charitable organizations took Both tendencies, singly and together, en­ national states in the West, as well as the newly created Consistoire. A Chief Rabbi and over the duties of Jewish education, social couraged a vision of Jewish community absolute or centralized states in Central and the religious services would be financed by the welfare and religious services. The Jews organization as an antiquated and fossilized Eastern Europe tried to find a new kind of state, as it was done for other denominations. survived the Tsar and with the outbreak of the remnant of a hated past. This combined with organization for their Jewries. Almost all Thus, in a sense, the community aims were Russian revolution local Jewish federations the fact that the community was losing its arrived at a given time at the same conclusion thrown back on the synagogue, the ritual bath were created only to be brutally destroyed by utility as an instrument of government, made which left to the community little more than and the cemetery. The old community with its the Bolsheviks, who created the notorious the community organization, certainly in the religious duties, sometimes combined with that own vital functions ceased to exist. Commissariat for Jewish affairs (only in the eyes of the outsiders, an unnecessary and of recruiting contingents for the armies (as in In some places, notably Holland and Crimea and Birobijan short-lived was de jure superfluous institution. Strangely enough, the Russia). But there were also other influences England, the influx of Jewish populations autonomy granted). granting of civil rights to the Jews in the which eroded the Jewish communities. The from outside, like the Portuguese Jews, nineteenth century had created a new, com­ newly gained freedoms created seemingly easy created a problem (not really entirely new, Between the Two World Wars bridges from Judaism to non-Judaism. Edu­ munity-hostile perspective. because already known in medieval Egypt and Between the two World Wars Jewish life cation, that is non-Jewish education, one Things would perhaps have taken a different Syria) of particular communities centered was strongest in the newly created states of found (at least as to a certain level) outside the turn, if it were not for the fact that community around their own synagogues, which preserved Poland, Lithuania and Rumania, where community. Moreover the new industrial and organizations were everywhere in a state of individual autonomies within the larger frame international treaties were supposed to grant banking age not only opened new possibilities, depression. Not that the tasks they performed of the preexisting community. The experiment to the Jewries the rights of minorities. Here despite antiSemitism, but also created new were superfluous or that other agencies were was successful and the Portuguese community local Jewish communities began to flourish types of economic relations between Jews, and now supplying services until now performed could boast one of the best systems of Jewish again and roof organizations were created to non-Jews, which the community's Rov or by the communities. Nothing of this kind education. Things happened the other way represent Jewish interests on the state level. Dayyan could not always decide according to happened. No foreign factor ever assured around in England, where the 18th century For some forty years Jewish history witnessed the Halacha. Jews had to plead in non-Jewish Jewish modes of life but the Jews themselves Ashkenazim immigration created a new com­ a revival of Jewish life, creativity, and activity. courts, and the rabbinical courts were more had to assure them. The community organiza­ munity. But the Board of Deputies, created in But activity meant, by definition, clashes of and more confined to family relations. The tion had everywhere the same sad features: 1760, tried to supply a roof organization for opinions. Political ideologies, representing the Jew as a part of the external world was being rule of an oligarchy; exemption from taxation dealing with external Jewish affairs, whereas different trends of the Zionist movement, torn from the community. by state privileges of the wealthiest members the local, ethnic groupings catered to the ideologies which represented often class particular religious needs of the communities. of the community; increasing debts which one Thus during the whole of the nineteenth interests; anti-Zionist ideologies of the leftist It is here that we encounter the precursor of generation transmitted to its successor and century the community was in a deep process Bund; and the Orthodox Agudath Israel fought the most recent type of organization which which consequently made for unbearable of transformation. Much of its duties were now now for key positions to dominate the Kehila would prevail among American Jews, namely burdens. This objective situation could not performed by the state, a part was performed and its institutions. What was common to all that of pluralistic groupings. endear the institution. Additionally, ideolo­ under state supervision or inspiration by those diverse parties and fractions, though for gical opposition, which originated in the great organizations, which one would rather call In Eastern Europe, Poland under Russian different reasons, was the safeguarding of the breath of freedom in the West, very often with Organizations for the Jews than Jewish rule and parts of Western Russia, the community autonomy. This whole great the marching legions of revolutionary France, organizations. Such were often the Land- traditional Kehilot fought their last battles Jewish world went up in the flames of the was reaching into Central and Eastern Europe. sudenschaften in Prussia and Central Europe. during the 19th and 20th centuries. The Kahal Holocaust. The Haskala movement, in all its shades and True that in some areas the Jew had to belong was officially abolished in Poland in 1822 and When European Jewry was living its last opinions, found the existing Kehila an easy to a Jewish community and had to pay specific in Russia in 1844, but these acts along with the great chapter before the Holocaust and target of attack and the most fertile ground for taxes. Later the obligation was abolished and whole antiSemitic state legislation had their calamity, another Jewry, that across the

40 41 Atlantic was coming of age, creating the old and new social outlooks, a variety of particular activities of the Israeli state and institutions in our history, those whose largest and most opulent Diaspora in the political ideologies, and, above all, the variety society. thinking and making are forging a new link in of religious trends and ideologies. history of the nation, the Jewry of the United The American scene is a unique experience the chain of history. States of America. There is probably nothing The general American slogan of pluralistic in the development of Jewish community Their knowledge of contemporary Kehilot more confusing for a European than to try to society led inexorably to the notion of organizations. In its aims, structure, and in their respective countries and elsewhere, visualize this magnificent Jewry, which by pluralism in Jewish life and Jewish organiza­ leadership it opens new vistas for the future. their knowledge of the new frame of existence now, for almost three generations has been tion within the perimeters of cities or of the Jewish people in which the Kehila plays carrying the great legacy of the nation and city-quarters. American ideals of individ­ and is destined to play a major role in the whose existence and help were instrumental in ualism and independence penetrated Jewish Conclusion future, are the guarantee of the Kehila's reconsructing the existence of European life and Jewish local organizations were often Our survey of the three times millenary life permanence, robust growth and channelling Jewry, as well as in the creation and develop­ compared to Protestant groupings of all of the Kehila now reaches the times in which into tasks and functions which correspond to ment of the state of Israel. Neither the tradi­ denominations, which jealously guarded their we live. It ceases to be a history-relating the exigencies of the present. The foregoing tional Jewish community nor the Consistoire autonomy in the frame of their particular aims evolution and res gestae and becomes history- history is partially a lesson to be learned but and its imitators, neither homogeneous local and tasks. This made each synagogue or in-the-making. As such it is out of the hands of mainly the lighthouse from whose pinnacle communities nor overall organization can ade­ prayer-house the center of a particular the historian and becomes the subject matter one can look back at centuries gone by and to quately characterize the Jews of the USA. segment of Jewish population, a community in of those who are heirs to one of the greatest chart the roads of the future. None of the foregoing and yet all of them its own right. Some synagogues developed together but in an infinite number of ever swimming pools and other recreational activi­ changing combinations are the most character­ ties, in addition to caring for Jewish edu­ istic feature of the community or communities cation, welfare and social cohesion. Gradually, organization. the recreational and welfare functions were Clearly, the waves of immigration, the open taken over by separate agencies, whose American society, and what is called the activities and fund-raising began to be "American way of life" were the three major coordinated locally (in the form of Jewish factors which influenced the frame and the Federations). In addition, many membership contents of Jewish community organization. organizations were formed. Jewish community The American Jewry, heterogeneous as it centers were created to cover the various already was in the 1800s, was neither ready nor needs of Jewish local life as well as of too willing to absorb the millions of new­ general Jewish interests. In addition, there comers. Such communities, as they existed, developed local and national coordinated fund found it difficult to cope with the waves of raising organizations for meeting local and newcomers. Moreover the economic, social overseas needs. and educational gap was too pronounced for The magnificent outburst of institutions, the newcomers to find themselves at home each, theoretically at least, with its own with the established American Jew. The latter specific tasks, often overlapping and com­ found refuge in the nuclei of their own places peting, do cooperate when the need arises. of origin, in the Landsmanschaften, their own Jewish individualism, with its stress on the synagogues and charitable institutions and standing and importance of the individual, even their own meat shops, which guaranteed found itself in unison with American individ­ their brand of kashrut (as a matter of fact, ualism. But the sentiments of belonging and illusory only; in 1915 it was proved that 40% cohesion create a climate of public life which were not truly kosher despite the ritual make for cooperation when Jewish interests supervisors, the mashgihim). The traditional are at stake. The creation of the State of Israel notions of a common habitat and a homo­ became in itself a major factor in the closing of geneous Kehila organization were not feasible ranks among the Jewish-American organiza­ in the new mammoth Jewish concentrations. tions. Despite early opposition and reticence, From the beginning the pronounced dif­ the individual and the group can identify ferences of background were compounded by themselves with the State as such or with

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