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Emergence of Human Rights Activities in Authoritarian Indonesia: the Rise of Civil Society

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Emergence of Human Rights Activities in Authoritarian Indonesia: the Rise of Civil Society EMERGENCE OF HUMAN RIGHTS ACTIVITIES IN AUTHORITARIAN INDONESIA: THE RISE OF CIVIL SOCIETY DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Takeshi Kohno, B.A., M.A. * * * * * The Ohio State University 2003 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor R. William Liddle, Adviser Professor Marcus Kurtz ____________________________ Professor Craig Jenkins Adviser Political Science Graduate Program ABSTRACT My dissertation focuses on the activities of the human rights organization LBH (Lembaga Bantuan Hukum, the Legal Aid Institute) in Indonesia as a case study to assess its role in the rise of civil society, and possibly democratization. I argue that the academic foci on democratization so far have been upon, in general, the importance of large macro-structures and political elites. In particular, socioeconomic, cultural, and structural variables are treated as critical determinants of democracy. As for the micro-level approach, the political elites are the major players, at least for the short-run “transition” and “consolidation.” Although the macro-level variables and political elites are important, there are critical links between the macro- level variables and micro-level variables, which have been left unexamined. The existing literature on civil society fails to specify possible formation processes of a civil society in different political settings, and merely provides an ideal typology. In this dissertation, I propose a new approach to understanding the property and the dynamic workings of civil society by examining the state-society relations in authoritarian Indonesia between 1990 and 1998. I describe the interaction between the state and the society, as well as how social actors in their relationship to the state find ways not only to survive in an authoritarian regime but also to actively influence the state. ii I first examine both conservative and reformist elites in the Indonesian government, and how they find themselves in conflict, which creates a split within the state. Second, I argue that the split which took place in the Indonesian government has been occupied by the activities of LBH, both institutionally through the court system and functionally through personal networking. Once the penetration of human rights organizations into the state is successful, the state is no longer the same as the pre- penetration state and this new condition of the state sets an arena for another round of conflict between reformists and conservatives within the state. Through this series of conflict-driven cycles of change, the state and the society interact with each other, thereby creating and enlarging a relatively autonomous civil society. I endorse the view that human rights organizations and their activities are an important part of the development and maintenance of civil society, thus it is a vital element for democratic capacity and the possibility for democratization. In other words, vigorous civic activities through social movements in an authoritarian setting, such as Indonesia, are a healthy indicator of civil society, and hence democratic capacity. I advocate the view that nonviolent actions, which are generated through social movements, provide a political arena in which democratic principles can be sustained and people are encouraged in an orderly fashion to move toward democracy. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to thank my advisor Dr. R. William Liddle, and committee members Dr. J.Craig Jenkins and Dr. Marcus Kurtz for their help and encouragement in writing this dissertation. I also want to thank the following individuals who kindly supported my research in number of ways. In Indonesia, I wish to thank Adnan Buyung Nasution, Ali Sadikin, Todung Mulya Lubis, Frans Hendra Winarta, Bambang Widjojanto, Dadang Trisasongko, Boedhi Wijardjo, Munir (all at YLBHI); Apong Herlina, Badaruzzaman Ramli, Aulia Hidayat, Dewi Novirianti, Mursyid, Tubagus (all at LBH Jakarta); Haneda Lastoto, Wirawan, Midian Situmorang, Irwan Nasution, Saut Christianus Manalu, Mulyadi, Afsal Mohamad (all at LBH Bandung); Budi Santoso, Budi Harsono, Satryawan Guntur Zass, Arie (all at LBH Yogyakarta); Artijdjo Alkostar, Halimah Ginting (all at Pusat Advokasi HAM, Yogyakarta); Afan Gaffar, Mohtar Mas’oed, Mohammad Fajrul Falaakah (all at Universitas Gadja Mada); Hadi Sasono, Dwi Saputro (all at LBH Semarang); Darmanto Jatman (Universitas Diponegoro); Joko Prihatmoko (Persaudaraan Pekerja Mulim Indonesia, Semarang); Ansori, Andik, Poengky Indarti, Herlambang Perdana, Eko Sasmito (all at LBH Surabaya); Abi Hasan Mu’an, Iberahim Bastari, Edwin (LBH Bandar Lampung); Nanang Trenggono (Universitas Lampung); Dasril Yanto (Merdeka Daily); Deddy Marwadi (Yayasan Pendidikan dan Bantuan Hukum Indonesia); iv Sakurayati Irisna (Ikadin); Kusbianto, Hendra, Nur Alamsyah, Togatorop (all at LBH Medan); Alamsyah Hamdani, Surya Dharma (Yayasan Indonesia Untuk Kemajuan Desa); Osmar Tanjung (Wahana Informasi Masyarakat, Medan); Afridal Darmi, Ansharullah Ida, Rufriadi, Syarifah Marlina (all at LBH Banda Aceh); Afrizal Tjoetra (Forum LSM Aceh); Sayed Muhammad Husen (Gema Baiturrahman, Banda Aceh); Luhut M. Pangaribuan, Hendardi (all at Perhimpunan Bantuan Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia Indonesia); Salim Said (Banking Reform and Reconstruction Corporation); Bahtiar Effendy (National Islamic University, Jakarta); Mari E. Pangestu, Hadi Soesastro, Clara Joewono, Harry Tjian Silalahi, Rizal Sukma, Tubagus, Titik Anas, Asnani Usman, Vidhyandika Djati Perkasa, Maria Sianipar (all at the Centre for Strategic and International Studies); Douglas Ramage, Tessa Piper, Hana F. Satrio, Robin Bush, Sahala Sianipar (The Asia Foundation, Jakarta); Hans Antlov (The Ford Foundation, Jakarta); Mohammad Syah Agusdin (Media Dakwah); Damai Sudjana; Kwan Kwie Liong (Yayasan Kepedulian Sosial Paramita); Yuichi Tabata (Nippon Hoso Kyokai, Jakarta); Professor Aiko Kurasawa (Keio University); and Professor Ko Naito (Shizuoka Eiwa Junior College). In the United States I would like to thank Idelle Nissila-Stone (The Ford Foundation Archives, New York); Sidney Jones (formerly Human Rights Watch Asia, currently International Crisis Group Jakarta); Lian The-Mulliner (Ohio University Library); Dwight King, I Ketut Putra Erawan, Adi Abidin (Northern Illinois University); Rizal Mallarangeng, Denny J. Ali, Saiful Mujani, Kathleen Woodward, and Eep S. Fatah, Kuskrido Ambardi (The Ohio State University). v My assignment in Jakarta with the Foreign Ministry of Japan for three years (August 2000-June 2003) also gave me a significant amount of insight into the workings of Indonesian politics. For this I would like to thank the three ambassadors I have had the privilege to serve: H.E. Mr. Takao Kawakami (currently president of Japan International Cooperation Agency); H.E. Mr. Yukio Takeuchi (currently Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs); and current Ambassador H.E. Mr. Yutaka Iimura. Many of my bosses and colleagues at the Embassy of Japan in Jakarta gave me assistance and encouragement as well: Hideaki Domichi, Shigekazu Sato, Koji Tsuruoka, Yoshihiro Akimoto, Jun Yamazaki, Mitsuhiro Wada, Masaki Tani, Ken’ichi Sakurazawa, Hiromitsu Goto, Koji Sugihara, Sumio Nagai, Shingo Higashimoto, Kazuya Kaneko, Koen Ono, and Eriko Hamashiro. To my family, Ruth, Bridgett Hatsune, and Garrett Hiroshi, this dissertation is dedicated. vi VITA January 19, 1966 ………………………Born, Yamanashi, Japan 1988 ……………………………………B.A., Law and Poliltical Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan 1992 ……………………………………M.A., International Affairs, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 1994-2000 ……………………………..Graduate Teaching and Research Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 2000-2003 …………………………….. Senior Advisor, Embassy of Japan, Indonesia PUBLICATIONS "Interdependent Industrialization: Japan, Indonesia and the Asahan Project," Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie 84 (1993) No.3: 207-219. (with C.Airriess) FIELDS OF STUDY Major field: Political Science vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………..iv Vita………………………………………………………………………………………vii List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………xi Chapters: 1. Theoretical Terrain……………………………………………………………...…1 1.1 Overview………………………………………………………………………1 1.2 Civil Society and Democratization……………………………………………3 1.3 Review of Democratization Literature………………………………………...6 1.3.1 Macro-level Approaches…………………………………………….7 1.3.1.1 Economic development as a determinant…………………8 1.3.1.2 Culture as determinant…………………………………...10 1.3.1.3 Class as determinant…………………………………..…16 1.3.1.4 Critiques of Macro-level approaches…………………….18 1.3.2 Micro-level Approaches……………………………………………21 1.3.2.1 Transition Literature……………………………………..22 1.3.2.2 Critique of Transitions Literature………………………..23 1.3.2.3 Civil Society Literature…………………………………..26 1.3.2.4 Critique of Civil Society Literature……………………...30 1.3.2.5 Social Movement Literature……………………………..35 1.3.2.6 Critique of Social Movement Literature…………………41 1.4 LBH: A Social Movement Organization in an Authoritarian Setting………..44 1.4.1 Definining the Survival of Social Movements…………………..…44 1.4.2 Factors determining the survival of social movements………….....48 1.4.2.1 Organizational structure………………………………….48 1.4.2.2 Inter-organizational Relationships……………………….52 1.4.2.3 Political opportunity structure……………………………53 1.4.2.4 Ideology and political structure………………………….56 1.4.2.5 Socio-economic change………………………………….59
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