UNIT 2 VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS IN A DEMOCRATIC

Contents 2.0 Aims and Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Origins of Democracy 2.3 Democratic 'Rights' and Fundamental 'Freedoms' 2.4 Essential Tenets of Voluntary Associations 2.5 Genesis and Growth of Voluntary Associations 2.6 Consolidation of Voluntary Associations in a Democratic Society 2.7 Essential Characteristics of Voluntary Associations in a Democratic Society 2.8 Let Us Sum Up 2.9 Suggested Readings and References 2.10 Model Answers 2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this unit is to acquaint you with the important aspects related to the manifestation of voluntary associations in a democratic society. We have explained that emergence and growth of voluntary organisations is intrinsically tied up with the historical rise of modem democracy. The expansion of individual 'rights' and 'freedoms', spread of democratic and humane ideals, strengthening of democratic institutions of state and consequent growth of commercial economy resulted in a vast expansion of voluntary associations. We have also explained the process related to the transformation of religious and charities into modem forms of voluntary associations. Next, we have described the nature and characteristics of socio-political voluntarism. Furnished is also a brief depiction of some essential characteristics of modem voluntary associations. After having learnt this unit, you should be able to: describe the origins and rise of modem democracy; identify the historic landmarks pertaining to the emergence of 'individual' rights and fundamental 'freedoms' constitutive of a democratic society; locate the manifestation of the essential tenets of voluntary associations in a democratic society; understand the genesis and process of transformation of philanthropy and charities into modem forms of voluntary associations, and their subsequent expansion in democratic ; appreciate the nature and characteristics of socio-political voluntarism; analyse the impact of welfare state and consequent consolidation of voluntary associations in a democratic society; and depict the basic characteristics of modem forms of voluntary associations in a democratic society. 2.1 INTRODUCTION The emergence and growth of voluntary associations is intrinsically tied-up with the modem concept of democracy. The idea of democracy is known since the times of Greeks. However, democratic ideals and practices prevalent in the city-states of ancient Greece were not exactly the same as those found in contemporary democratic Voluntary Associations in societies. The roots of modem democracy can be traced back in history to Renaissance a Democratic Society and Enlightenment Era in Europe. Beginning with Renaissance, the fundamental tenets of democracy emerged'and grew out of the long-drawn struggles for power between monarchy, aristocracy, commercial classes, church and general masses (at a later stage) spread over many centuries throughout Europe. Democracy as understood in its modem sense, developed mainly during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The real consolidation of liberal and representative institutions of democracy took place only during the twentieth century.

Broadly stated, progressive, secular and liberal ideals and principles which lie underneath the foundations of modem democracy are : the rights of individual; equality before law; civil liberties; freedoms related to speech, association and peaceful assembly; freedom of religion; equal opportunity irrespective of race, caste, sex, etc., independent and impartial judiciary; a representative form of governance by the people and so on.

These basic tenets of modem democracy released unlimited potential and scope for 'individual action' in society. Individual actions shaped by one's own volitions and choices, and further anchored in the right to 'freedom of association' gave big impetus to the expression of modem forms of voluntarism in democratic societies. Infact, the most significant outcome of the rise of liberal democracy was the creation of social, economic and political conditions conducive to the immense growth of voluntary associations in society.

In this Unit, we will explain to you the important aspects of the relationship between democracy and voluntary associations. In the beginning you will learn that a certain version of democratic ideals was practised even during ancient times. These ideals and principles of democracy were rediscovered after a gap of many centuries during the -Renaissance and Enli*tenment Era in Europe. Next we will acquaint you with the significance of Magna Carta, which is the single most important document in the history of democracy. After that you will learn about the nature of democratic rights and fundamental freedoms as enshrined in English Bill of Rights (1689), US Bill of Rights (1791), Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) and Constitution of India (1950). These documents are the most important landmarks in the evolution of modem democracy and fumish a broad matrix of progressive, secular, liberal ideals and principles practised in democratic societies.

Next you will learn about the social base of voluntary associations in a democratic society. We will explain to you that important tenets such as 'freedom of association', 'collective action', and 'social ethos of non-profit' as practised in democratic societies provided the necessary social base for the emergence and expansion of voluntary associations. In the section on Genesis and Growth of Voluntary Associations, we will fumish an analysis of the transformation of traditional philanthropy and charities into modem forms of voluntary associations.

Further, we will also explain the basic aspects of socio-political voluntarism, which further contributed to their growth in democratic societies. Next, we will describe the consolidation of voluntary associations along with the rise of welfare state. The discussion on the qualitative aspects related to the emergence, growth and consolidation of voluntary sector is rooted in most representative cases of democracy. Towards the end of this unit you will find a brief depiction of some basic characteristics of voluntary associations as are manifest in a democratic society.

2.2 ORIGINS OF DEMOCRACY In this section, we will acquaint you with idea and basic aspects of democracy as practised in the city-states in ancient Greece and Roman Republics. You will also Voluntarism, State and learn that earliest known practice of democracy in the form of 'Mahajanapadas' Society existed in ancient India. Further, you will learn that Renaissance which emerged as a cultural movement galvanized Europe. Renaissance created a vast knowledge base in various fields of study. The original idea of democracy was rediscovered. More specifically, the philosophical and literary works generated progressive, secular and humane principles which gradually contributed to the emergence of modern democracy. Lastly, we will furnish a discussion on Magna Carta which is the most important legal document in the history of democracy. You will learn that Magna Carta runs like a thread in English history around which struggles for rights and privileges were fought by monarchy, aristocracy, church and the commercial classes. Later on this document became predecessor to the English Bill of Rights in 1689. 2.2.1 Ancient City-States and Republics i) Greek City-States The original idea of democracy (literally meaning 'rule by the people') is associated with the Greek city-states of Athens. An important institution of Athenian democracy was the 'Assembly' where important issues related to politics and governance were debated and decisions made by a majority rule. The right to participate in assembly was vested with only Athenian citizens. Further, citizenship rights were strictly limited to male, adult, non-slave Athenians. Women, slaves, foreigners and resident-aliens were not granted the right to participate in assembly. This way almost half of the population was deprived from participation in decision making and governance. Similarly, around 5" century B.C., a large number of other city-states practised some form of democratic governance in ancient Greece.

Notwithstanding the differential rights and privileges granted to citizens, the Greeks gave to mankind the idea of politics as the vocation of citizens which stands in stark contrast to the rule of absolute monarchs or despots. The genesis of democratic ideas such as 'governance' accountable to citizens; trial by jury; civil liberties of speech, thought, writing and worship etc. lies in Greek history. The notions of liberty and independence inspired Greeks to make rich contribution in the fields of philosophy, politics, literature and science during that era. Soon, you will learn that after a gap of many centuries, these ideas were rediscovered and reinterpreted during Renaissance which provided the main impetus for the emergence of modem democracy in Europe. ii-) Ancient Roman Republic Romans became successors to Greek ideas and initial inspiration for Roman republic came from Athenian democratic principles and institutions. Ancient Romans practised democratic system which consisted of three main bodies, viz., Assembly, Consul and the. Senate. Assembly consisted of Roman citizens who further elected consuls. Senate was the most powerful legislative body which approved laws and elected magistrates. There existed no real system of check and balances between three different bodies.

Working at cross-purposes to democracy was the quasi-institution of 'The Clientele'. Rich and powerful senator families nurtured faithful followers called 'clients'. These 'clients' were helped and protected in exchange for absolute loyalty including votes. This system of 'clientele' gradually undermined the democratic system in Rome. With the expansion of Roman Empire which ruled much of Europe, the system turned out to be an oligarchy of kingship, aristocracy, church and democracy. Arbitrary rule of monarchy, feudal lords and priests gradually denied fundamental democratic rights to the general population. The people's existence was made subordinate to the rigid structure of governance wherein theological doctrine became the sole arbiter of truth. The original democratic notions of civil liberties, individual freedom, individual rights and so on were ultimately suppressed by force of religious and political iii) Ancient Indian Republics Voluntary Associations in a Democratic Society In fact, the earliest known practice of democracy existed in ancient India in the form of republics. These republics known as 'Mahajanapadas' were functioning sometime before 6thcentury B.C. Most prominent and well known was the republic of 'Vaishali' (presently Bihar). Greek scholars noted that during the time of Alexander the Great (41h century B.C.) the states of 'Sabarcae' and 'Sarnbastai' (presently Pakistan and Afghanistan) practised a democratic form of governance.

After the decline of ancient republics and Greek city states there was no trace of democracy for many centuries. This lost knowledge about democracy was rediscovered only during Renaissance in Europe.

2.2.2 Renaissance Renaissance (literally meaning rebirth) is considered a period of cultural change and achievement in Europe. It began as a cultural movement in central Italy (particularly Florence) during the last decades of 14" century and represented a reconnection of the west with classic antiquity. This cultural movement strived to rediscover and absorb the lost knowledge created by ancient Greeks and Romans. Intellectuals and scholars revived and refined the study of Latin and Greek languages. This facilitated the rediscovery and interpretations of Roman and Greek texts. During Renaissance (end of 14" century to 1600 AD) tremendous progress was made in the fields of philosophy, mathematics, science, architecture, human anatomy, art, literature and poetry all over Europe. In fact, this historical age of enlightenment effected a transition between Medieval period and Early Modem Europe. Criticisms of Renaissance are that it remained limited to a tiny section of rich and powerful, and brought about no substantive change in the condition of general masses. Notwithstanding this, humanist philosophers strived to create knowledge based on progressive and secular principles, human values, scientific inquiry and the like beyond the theological dictates of the church. Significantly, humanists rediscovered the concept of democracy as prevalent in ancient Greece and even started implementing it (to a limited extent) in some parts of .Europe. Knowledge systems generated by this cultural movement of Renaissance played a crucial role in the emergence of democratic ideals and practices during successive centuries throughout Europe. 2.2.3 Magna Carta

Magna Carta (Latin : Great Chapter) is perhaps the most important legal document in the history of democracy. The document was originally created in 1215 AD to sort out differences between monarchy, church and powerful barons in Engfand on the issue of excessive . In terms of democratic rights and freedoms, this document started a never ending process of curbing the powers of the Monarchy. The process began with the constitution of a committee of 25 barons, which could meet anytime and overrule the 'will' of the king. The Committee evolved into representative 'council' of archbishops, bishops, earls and greater barons. Later 'council' became the 'Great Council' and functioned as sort of proto-parliament. Representation became more wider and membership was extended to other sections of society, viz., knights, businessmen and citizens from cities (limited number). The evolution of English Parliament is traced back to this 'Great Council'.

Magna Carta played a crucial role in granting freedoms and rights to different sections and institutions of society. It guaranteed the freedom of English church, contributed to evolution of English judicial rights, gave rise to jury, magisterial trial and so on. For many centuries, Magna Carta remained in the centre-stage and was repeatedly cited and referred by the social forces contending for power in English society+ven during the struggles between Lords and Commons. Beginning with the curtailment of the power of monarchy and further loosening of the rigid feudal laws, Magna 3 1 Voluntarisrn, State and Carta ultimately laid the basis of . Magna Carta underwent repeated Society renewals, reinventions and reinterpretations throughout English history. In the process it no more remained a single static document; rather, it turned out to be a variety of documents which are referred to under the common name, i.e., Magna Carta. It is considered a predecessor to English Bill of Rights (1689). This single document played an unparalleled role in the historical evolution of democracy.

Most exercises to draft democratic constitutions including the 'United States Constitution' trace back their lineage to 'Magna Carta'. The influence of 'Magna Carta' is evident in the U.S. Bill of Rights (approved in 1791). In the international context, Eleanor Roosevelt referred to the 'Universal Declaration of (1948) as 'Magna Carta for Mankind'.

- -- Check Your Progress I Note: a) Use the space. given below for your answers b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this Unit.

1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick- mark (d ) in the relevant box. True False a) An important institution of Athenian democracy was 'Assembly'. [I[] b) Citizenship rights were enjoyed by all the population living in the Greek city-state of Athens. [I[]

c) Assembly, Consul and Senate were the main bodies of democracy in ancient Roman Republic. [ 1 ['I

d) The quasi-institution called 'The clientele' contributed to strengthen democracy in ancient Rome. [I[]

e) Earlier known practice of democracy existed in ancient India in the form of republics. []I1

f) 'Magna Carta' was originally created to sort out differences between monarchy, church and powerful barons in England. [I[]

g) Magna Carta played no role in granting 'Righbs' and 'Freedom' to different sections and institutions of society in England. [ ] [ ] h) 'Magna Carta' is the predecessor toeEnglish Bill of Rights (1689). [][I 2) Explain very briefly, the significance of Renaissance in-the context of modern democracy in Europe. (Hint : see the text) Voluntary Associations in 2.3 DEMOCRATIC 'RIGHTS' AND FUNDAMENTAL a Democratic Society 'FREEDOMS'

The progressive, secular and liberal principles and ideals, and 'democratic rights and fundamental freedoms' which laid the foundations of modem democracy are enshrined in various historic Bills, Declarations and Constitutions of democratic countries. The most important landmarks in the evolution of democracy are : i) (English) Bill of Rightsf1689) ii) United States Bill of Rights (completed in 1789 and approved in 1791) iii) Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) iv) The Constitution of India (1950) In this section, you will learn specifically about the nature of democratic rights and fundamental freedoms which formed a broad matrix of democracy and ultimately created social space conducive for the emergence and growth of voluntary associations in democratic societies. 2.3.1 Bill of Rights (1689)

After Magna Carta, Bill of Rights is considered as the most important document of constitutional law, and a significant step towards a constitutional monarchy in England. The Bill enunciated certain constitutional provisions whereby the Crown required the of the people as represented in Parliament. Learner may carefully note, that the Bill was still not an embodiment of positive rights and freedoms which citizens andlor residents of a free and democratic society ought to have enjoyed: It consists of a list of rights in respect of the people as represented in Parliament. In fact, the Bill was intended to address only the rights of freedom of Parliamentarians sitting in Parliament against the Crown.

The fundamental tenets included in this Bill pertaining to the civil and political rights of English people as represented in parliament are : freedom of speech in Parliament freedom to elect members of Parliament freedom from royal interference with law freedom from taxation by royal prerogative freedom from cruel and unusual punishments freedom from fines and forfeitures without trial freedom to petition the King and so on.

Bill of Rights had its counterpart in Claim of Right Act (1689) applicable to the then ' separate kingdom of Scotland. No doubt 'Claim of kght Act' was expressed in different terms but in essence had largely similar effect related to the powers of monarchy. Together, this development was a significant historic landmark in the curtailment of the power and rights of monarchy and progress of British society towards a constitutional monarchy. This was the turning point in the evolution of governance towards parliamentary supremacy in Great Britain.

In the evolution of democratic rights and freedoms, Bill of Rights is considered as a predecessor to United States Constitution, United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and European Convention on Human kghts (1950). Voluntarism, State and 2.3.2 United States Bill of Rights (completed in 1789 and approved Society in 1791) It differed substantially in form and intent from the English Bill of Rights which had basically addressed the rights of Parliamentarians against crown in Great Britain. However some of the basic tenets of English Bill of Rights were adopted in it and extended to general public in the United States.

This Bill is actually an embodiment of the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. The spirit of the Bill is to provide protection to the rights of the people. Fufther, it intended to prevent 'congress' from curtailing various freedoms of citizens. These freedoms included : freedom of speech freedom of the press freedom of assembly freedom of religious worship preventing unreasonable search and seizure; cruel and unusual punishment guaranteeing due process of law and a speedy public trial by an impartial jury provision of an independent judiciary. The U.S. Bill of Rights is the anchor sheet of American law and governance. It remains an essential and outstanding symbol of the democratic freedoms and liberal culture enjoyed by the American people. It is noteworthy that at such an early stage .in history, the U.S. Bill of Rights addressed most of the fundamental tenets which contributed to the making of modem liberal democracies in the world during nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Of particular relevance to this unit is the omission of right to 'freedom of association' while the constitution First Amendment (part of the Bill) identified as the right of assembly. L,ater, the United States Supreme Court Jurisprudence addressed its implied meaning as follows :

i) freedom of association is recognized and may be protected as a fundamental element of personal liberty; ii) freedom of association is recognized and may be protected for the purposes of engaging in activities such as speech, assembly, free exercise of religion and so on. Thus, there is constitutional freedom to associate as a means of preserving other individual liberties. 2.3.3 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)

The principles enunciated in this document were inspired by the philosophical and political ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. This French declaration contained several provisions similar to those stated in United States Constitution (1787) and United States Bill of Rights (1789) (adopted at about the same time). An outcome of French Revolution, the document aimed at the transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy. In fact, three weeks after the abolition of feudalism, this Declaration enunciated the doctrine of popular sovereignty and equal opportunity. Prior to that. political doctrine of the monarchy found the source of law in the divine right of kings.

The pre-revolutionary French society was marked by a division into three estates viz. the Roman catholic church; the nobility; and the rest of the population (known as the Third Estate). The first two estates enjoyed special rights. In fact, rights, privileges or deprivations were inherited by birth. The document was influenced by the doctrine of natural rights pertaining to human nature considering such rights to be universally Voluntary Associa~tions in valid in all times Bnd places. Law is seen as an "expression of the general will" and a Democratic Society social (as theorized by Jean-Jacques Rousseau). It intended to promote equality of rights and to forbid 'only actions harmful to society'.

The document guaranteed to all French citizens the rights of 'liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.' It considered all citizens being equal before law having equal opportunity of public dignities, places and employments according to one's capacity virtues and talents. It guaranieed equality before taxation; and regarding criminal law, the presumption of innocence prohibiting undue duress to the suspect.

The Declaration provides for freedom of speech and of the press but a slightly weaker guarantee of freedom of religion.

It is noteworthy that (specially in the context of voluntary associations), similar to the omission in the U.S. Bill of Rights, right to 'freedom of association' is also missing in this Declaration. The Declaration had not enunciated the principles related to 'freedom of assembly', 'liberty of association' or the right to strike. However, later on, these principles acquired constitutional value from provisions made in the 'Constitution of the French Fourth Republic'.

2.3.4 Constitution of India (1950) The Constitution of India is one of the most refined and evolved documents in the history of modem democracy. It draws extensively from western legal traditions in its enunciation of the principles of liberal democracy. It is the longest written constitution of any democratic nation in the world. It establishes the main organs of gqvernance viz. the Executive. the Legslature and the Judiciary. The Constitution not only defines 'the powers of each organ but also demarcates their responsibilities. It also lays down the national goals of India - Democracy, Socialism, Secularism and National Integration. i) Preamble The essential democratic ideals and broader parameters of liberal democracy are enshrined in the preamble to the Constitution as follows :

We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereign socialist, secular democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens: Justice, social economic and political; liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; equality of status and opportunity; and to promote among thern all fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation. ii) Fundamental Rights The Fundamental Rights are defined as basic human freedoms which every citizen has the right to enjoy. These rights (enshrined in Part I11 of Constitution) universally apply to all citizens and guarantees civil liberties so that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India. The rights are inspired by historical sources such as English Bill of Rights (1689), the United States Bill of Rights (1791) and France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen'. The Fundamental Rights enshrine in the Constitution are: Right to equality

. . Right to freedom Right against exploitation Right to freedom of religion Cultural and educational rights --

Voluntarism, State and Right to constitutional remedies Society The constitution also guarantees the right to life and personal liberty which in turn cites specific provisions in which these rights are applied and enforced. These rights guaranteed under the constitution are incorporated into law and are enforceable in a court of law. Equality before law means that state shall not discriminate a citizen on the basis of caste, creed, colour. sex, religion or place of birth. The right to constitutional remedies ensures the protection of civil rights by means of writs such as habeas corpus. The punishment for the violations of these rights is determined by an impartial and independent judiciary in the light of punishments laid out in Indian Penal Code. iii) Right to Freedom Right to freedom is enshrined in the constitution in order to guarantee the individual rights of Indian citizens. The 'right to freedom' as stated in Article 19 guarantees the following six freedoms: Freedom of speech and expression enabling an individual to participate in public activities. Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms. Freedom to form associations and unions. Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India. Freedom to reside and settlk in any part of the territory of India. Freedom to practice any profession, occupation, trade or business subject to specific technical or professional qualifications. The state may restrict these freedoms in the interest of the independence, sovereignty and integrity of India or in the interests of morality and public order. The right to life and personal liberty can not be suspended. The six freedoms are automatically suspended during a state of emergency.

In the above two sections, you have learnt that rise of liberal democracy has for the first time in history, made available a whole range of individual rights, freedoms and civil liberties to mankind. It is this social matrix of 'rights' and 'freedoms' which is the fertile ground for the emergence and universe growth of modern forms of voluntary associations in contemporary democratic societies.

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this

1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick- mark (4 ) in the relevant box. True False a) English Bill of Rights curtailed the powers and rights of the Monarchy.

b) English Bill of Rights was a statement of positive rights and freedoms of citizens as enjoyed in a democratic society.

c) US Bill of Rights is an embodiment of the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. d) US Bill of Rights is a symbol of democratic freedoms and liberal culture enjoyed by American people. [I[]

e) Declaration of 'the Rights of Man and the citizen guaranteed to all French citizens the rights of liberty, prosperity, security and resistance to oppression. [I[] f) Right to freedom of association was included in the Declaration of Man and of the citizen. [I[]

g) The Constitution of India is one of the most refined and evolved document in the history of liberal democracy. [I[] h) Essential democratic ideals are enshrined in the Preamble to Constitution of India. [I[]

2) List the Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Constitution of India. (Hint : see the text) ......

2.4 ESSENTIAL TENETS OF VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS

In the following section, we will acquaint you with fundamental democratic tenets which lie at the root of voluntary associations in a democratic society. We will explain to you that though the principle of 'association' existed since the origins of society, the right to 'freedom of association' is a hallmark only of democratic societies: Next, we will describe the historical transformation in the attributes of collective acfion. In the past the character of collective action was non-voluntary co-operation governed by customs or conventions in a feudal society. A significant attribute of such collective action was reciprocal compulsion determined by birth, caste, occupation and so on. The rise of democracy and attendant economic transformation created conditions where individuals could volun&ry donate free time and labour to execute collective action related to social causes in 3 democratic society.

Lastly, we will describe an important tenet underlying voluntary associations i.e. 'social ethos of non-profit' that is borne-out of the humane democratic ideals constitutive of a democratic society. 2.4.1 Right to Freedom of Association

People earned the right to 'freedom of association' during the historical evolution of democratic rights and freedoms in Europe. Freedom of association as a legal right of all individuals to combine or quit according to one's own free-will for the promotion of a common cause or purpose became a standard practice in a liberal democracy. This fundamental condition gave immense impetus to the expression of modem forms of voluntarism. Hence the emergence and growth of diverse kind of voluntary associations in contemporary democratic societies. Voluntarism, State and In the last section, you have learnt about the status accorded to 'right to freedom of Society association' in different documents (including Constitution of India) which are considered important landmarks in the history of democracy. This 'right' was further re-affirmed in various International Conventions and Declarations.

Keeping in view the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany, there emerged a general consensus in the world community that the United Nations charter did not sufficiently clarify the 'rights' it protected. Therefore, a universal declaration that articulated and codified the 'rights of the individual' was necessary. Hence the 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights' was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. The document consists of a Preamble followed by thirty articles. Along with certain additions and elaborations, the document emphasizes most of the 'individual rights', freedoms and civil liberties contained in the historic Bills, Declarations and Constitutions of democratic societies. Of particular interest to this unit is Article 20 of this declaration which is related to 'freedom of association'. It states :

1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. 2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Furthermore, in order to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms; right to 'freedom of association' again found reiteration in 'European Convention of Human Rights' (1950) as follows: Article 11 - Right to Freedom of Assembly and Association Article 11 protects the right to freedom of assembly and association, including right to form trade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are 'in accordaice with law' and 'necessary in a democratic society'. 2.4.2 Genesis and Meaning of Voluntary Association

Social existence is structured upon collective striving of people in society. Different individuals whether acting around some common interest or pursuing certain broader cause/goal must come together and act together. This immediately brings in picture the element of 'association.' But collective action and the attendant requirement of association (coming-together) of individuals is not something new in history. The existence of 'collective action' based on the association of a number of persons to perform certain tasks can be traced as far back as the origins of society. What is new about association? The new aspect of it is that with the rise of democracy people have earned the right to freedom of association. Freedom of association as a legal right of people to combine or quit (according to qne's own free-will) for performing certain tasks or activities (for the promotion of a cause or purpose) is hallmark of only a democratic society. Now, this aspect of an individual's freedom to join or opt out of some arrangement according to one's free-will brings in the element of voluntarism. Voluntarism means that an individual should have freedom of action shaped by one's own volitions, desires and choices, i.e., according to one's own free- will (see Unit-I). The two fundamental tenets i.e. right to 'freedom of association' and 'voluntarism' lie at the root of any voluntary association. Further, the social, political, legal and economic conditions for expression of both of these tenets, i.e., freedom of association and voluntarism, have become available to mankind only with the rise of democracy. The existence of a 'voluntary association' is anchored in both of the above discussed tenets which is further inextricably linked to the concept of democracy. Hence, one witnesses the emergence and enormous growth of a diverse kind of voluntary associations in liberal democratic societies during the contemporary period.

To facilitate your understanding let us explain this aspect further. Earlier in history, there were many activities performed by agricultural communities which required 'collective effort' and association with each other. Small farmers had always to pool their labour for the performance of many tasks, e.g., during harvesting season. But Voluntary Associations in this kind of association was based upon 'reciprocity' which in turn was governed by a Democratic Society conventions or customs prevalent in a community. These conventions or customs were recognized as 'obligations' by the members of the community. Association based on such conventions or customs had an, in-builf mutually -understood element of compulsion. Entry or exit in such arrangements was iot a matter of free will. An individual who violated such a custom or convention (by opting out of a customary association) was bound to seriously jeopardize hisher social and economic . existence.

Again commercial activities and tra& in towns was organized around ''. The shared interests of persons engaged in a particular commercial activity or trade were taken care of by the formal structure of the ''. Entry into such a formal structure was governed by birth, caste, occupation or status. Withdrawal from such an arrangement again jeopardized a person's social and economic interests.

Such association - whether of rural people for 'collective-action' or of urban traders - in the historical past lacked two most important elements, i.e., right to freedom of association and voluntarism. Entry into an 'association' was not a matter of free-will and choice, and the participant could not withdraw from such arrangement without seriously underminingharming hisher own social and economic interests.

The emergence and existence of a modern form of a voluntary association has become a possibility because of the social thought of voluntarism and the right to 'freedom of association' which in turn are further embedded in 'individual rights' and 'fundamental freedoms' guaranteed in a liberal democratic society. An individual in a democratic society is free to join an association with others for some collective action; the person is equally free to withdraw or quit from the same without harming own interests. Even if the basis for the voluntary association is 'unconditional' or reciprocity, the volunteer always has the freedom to join or quit such an arrangement according to own free will in a democratic society.

2.4.3 Modern Attributes of Collective-Action The collective action, as mentioned above, in feudal society was convention-governed and was in the form of non-voluntaristic, co-operation gmong individuals in history. Association with others was reciproeal in nature, dictated by traditional social structure. The exit from a particular social arrangement was not cost-free in social and economic terms. Similarly trade or commercial activities in cities were organized around 'guilds'. The need for volunteer labour became apparent only when customary and conventional co-operation among rural communities and power of 'guilds' in cities declined.

With the advent of commercial capitalism in Europe rational self-interest required certain kinds of co-operation among economic actors who were often unable to provide for all the contingencies themselves. The long standing conventions were gradually replaced by mutual-benefit initiatives. Such initiatives were based on informal assistance as well as financial benefits. The primary motive for joining such co- operatives efforts were still economic since these provided some insurance against the future uncertainties. No doubt some degree of independence for rational choice had come into operation but still the 'exit' was not entirely cost-free.

The industrial mode of production radically altered the market and attendant social relations. Market could not cater to each and every need of the individual which was hitherto taken care of by the community. The working class simply lacked capital and resources with which to combine their labour so as to generate 'collective goods' or services. The contradictions between capital and labour and the subsequent resolutions brought radical changes in social and moral values in European societies. Voluntarism, State and secul )n social thought and modern democratic ideals and political awareness Society about rights and freedoms was simultaneously emerging and asserting throughout Europe.

A critical component of the new social philosophy was the thinking and realization that simple economic int'erest was not sufficient for the healthy functioning of the social system. Consequently emerged this fundamental tenet that people should devote their time and labour to corn,, unity affairs. Thus phenomenon of modem voluntary associations rooted in voluntary labour got established in the late nineteenth century and thrived subsequently in the twentieth century in Europe. By now you should bt: in a position to relate these developments with the simultaneous emergence of democratic principles and institutions more or less during the same period in European history. Greater diversification of voluntary associations, however, took place only after the birth of the Welfare State in democratic societies. 2.4.4 Social Ethos of Non-Profit

A crucial aspect of voluntary associations in a democratic society is the modem view of the 'volunteer' as an unpaid actor, in contrast with the paid-employee or a professional worker of ti business . Volunteer offers his labour or time while worlung for a voluntary association without seeking salary, payment or financial profit. Hence a voluntary association can exist and function only when there is sufficient economic surplus in society so that individuals can choose to donate their time and labour free of cost. Only surplus economy can ensure the people in society have surplus labour and time beyond the requirements of regular jobs or professional pursuits mandatory for survival. This needs to be distinguished from the situation in peasant societies where the individual cannot survive for long without conforming to customary co-operative practices related to agriculture etc. The rise of democracy and the orientation of capitalist economy created existential conditions conducive for the of time and labour by individuals in society. Thus this tenet of social 'ethos of non-profit' that lies at the root of voluntary associations is borne out of humane democratic ideals and can be nurtured better only in a democratic society. In the last analysis, it is because of the diverse kind of democratic struggles and demands that forced industrial capitalism to effect a radical reformation of economy in democratic societies.

It may be noted that the above discussed modem view of volunteer as an independent and unpaid actor simply conveys the ideal and purest sense of the term volunteer. In practice, the situation, however. is different. Notwithstanding the metaphysical aspects there is seldom a free-will of the actor in the social and economic sense. Formal and informal controls influence individual choices and actions in society. An individual decides to participate in a particular sphere of activity (e.g. joining a voluntary association) only after having assessed the advantages or disadvantages of one choice: over the other.

Regarding payments for voluntary work, the reality on the ground is again different and uneven. There are volunteers who never receive any payment for their labour, time or professional skills. Some voluntary associations make modest payments for particularly difficult or time consuming work. Further, there are large voluntary organisations which employ paid workers, salaried specialists and professionals like

' all other modem . However, keeping in view the theoretical essence of voluntarism, there is general agreement that a voluntary association on the whole should strive to abide by the social ethos of non-profit in order to maintain its credibility and legitimacy in a democratic society. - Voluntary Associations in Check Your Progress I11 a Democratic Society Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Cheek your answer with the model answer given at the end of this Unit.

1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick- mark (4 ) in the relevant box. True False a) Individual 'Right' to freedom of association is a characteristic of democratic society. [I[]

b) Article 20, of Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is devoted to freedom of association. [I[]

c) Association for performing agricultural tasks in feudal society were not based on 'reciprocity'. [I[]

d) In an association governed by customs or conventions the exit was simply a matter of free-will of the individual. [I[] e) The need for volunteer labour became apparent when conventional cooperation among rural communities and power of 'Guilds' in cities declined. [I[]

f) The fundamental tenet that people should devote their free time and labour to community affairs is unrelated to voluntary associations. [I[] g) The modem view of the 'volunteer' as an un-paid actor is characteristic of voluntary associations in a democratic society. [I[] h) The social-ethos of 'non-profit' underlying voluntary associations is nurtured by humanistic ideals and concerns about common goal in a democratic society. [I[]

2) Describe briefly the basic nature of Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). (Hint : see the text) ......

2.5 GENESIS AND .GROWTH OF VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS

We will, in this section, explain to you the process of transformation of religious philanthropy and traditional charities into modem voluntary associations. This process was influenced by the new social and economic philosophy of laissez-faire which emerged with the spread of democracy and rise of commercial capitalism in Western Europe. We will also acquaint you with the nature and characteristics of socio- Voluntarism, State and political voluntarism. Voluntary associations emerged to take up social causes or Society issues of semi-political nature, which normally remained unattended by conventional political parties. Both these developments resulted in the vast growth of voluntary associations in democratic societies in Western Europe. However, the following analysis is mainly rooted in one of the oldest and most important example of democracy in the world, i.e., Great Britain.

Lastly, in this section, we will describe the nature and characteristics of socio-political voluntarism. 2.5.1 Transformation of Traditional Philanthropy and Charities in a Democratic Society The modern view of voluntary associations developed along with the establishment of democratic institutions in Western European societies. Like mutual benefit activities, historically, the major strands of voluntary action emanated from traditional philanthropic and charitable pursuits. Philanthropy and was the sole concern of religion, landed gentry and rich and wealthy merchants since the medieval period. Philanthropic and charitable pursuits in feudal society and later on in commercial era had far more to do with giving away of land or money than personal voluntary service to the people. The philanthropist during those times was one who donated land, money or assets to civic causes rather than devoting personal time or labour to the well being of society. In fact, the modem notion of contributing personal time or labour was absent during that era.

The transformation in the character of traditional philanthropy and charities had occurred during the last two centuries concomitant with the rise of democracy. The Report of the Wolfenden Committee (1978) depicts this transformation of Religious Philanthropy and Charities patronized by aristocracy in feudal economy leading to the emergence and growth of voluntary associations in the context of Great Britain. For the purposes of explaining the transition of traditional philanthropy and charities into modem voluntary associations we will rely extensively on the perspective furnished in this Report. 2.5.2 Transition from Feudalism to Commercial Economy - Expansion of Voluntary Associations Historically, the first source of help for most people in times of need or distress used to be an informal system comprising family, friends, neighbours and so on. Beyond the informal system, the next source of help was religious philanthropy. Religious philanthropy and charities remained closely intertwined with civic services during that era. Perhaps most important of all, in the context of Great Britain, was the system of paternalism and patronage practised by aristocracy over the masses (including their own workforce). Aristocracy controlled local charities and exercised considerable influence on the functioning of Poor Law administration to strengthen their own system of paternalism and patronage. However, the rise of new commercial and industrial class along with progressive democratic ideals posed a serious challenge to the old order during the earlier decades of the nineteenth century. The new thinking attacked the system of wage regulation, indiscriminate charities, and poor-relief, since this arrangement was mainly serving the interests of aristocracy and was further detrimental to the system of laissez-faife. Thus, the system of protection of wages was dismantled, and the relevance of the old 'Poor Law' along with indiscriminate charities was seriously questioned in the emerging socio-economic and political scenario in British society.

The new social and economic philosophy of laissez-faire triumphed and the Poor Law Amendment Act (1 834) introduced a centrally controlled system of relief to the poor in society. The new developments influenced the functioning of philanthropy and Voluntary Associations in charities. It was soon realised that policies of running charities require fresh reorientation a Democratic Society so as to remain consistent with the new thinking that underlied the poor-relief administration. A requirement of critical importance arose that deserving poor need to be distinguished from the undeserving ones. Hence, the attempts to rationalise charities on these lines resulted in the founding of the 'Charity Organization Society' in 1869. Its aim was to coordinate activities in each area and to encourage 'scientific' evaluation of each individual case so that no one received excessive help and no deserving poor was left outside the fold of charities.

These developments triggered the real turning point in the history of voluntary associations. Hence onwards, a large number of voluntary emerged to deal with a wide range of different categories of deserving and needy people throughout the latter half of the nineteenth country. Special voluntary organisations were established to help the orphan, the blind, the deaf, the mentally challenged, and others. Several of the churches set up voluntary organisations for disseminating moral values through social work in society. Voluntary initiatives even entered the arena of establishing community settlements which may now be considered as a predecessor to the modern notion of community work. On the whole, a vast growth of voluntary associations took place during this period. 2.5.3 Socio-Political Voluntarism i) Notion of Volunteer Labour Religious philanthropy and feudal charities, as discussed above, remained limited to donating land or money for patronizing poverty stricken masses in society. The notion of voluntary service by donating personal time or labour was absent during that era. However, during the last decades of the nineteenth century, the 'idea of 'scientific charity' (mentioned above also), became popular in both Britain and United States of America. The idea of scientific charity recognized the principle of 'a rigorous distinction' between the deserving and undeserving poor. Separation of different categories of claimants for relief neGessitated detailed information about individual cases.

The organisation of charities around this principle required such information as could be obtained only by labour intensive programmes involving interviews and visits to the people. Volunteer labour was most conducive for this work and it was not just because of economic reasons. Selfless image of the volunteer was best suited to disseminate moral guidance which helped to exercise a form of social legitimacy and control over the masses.

While 'scientific charity' provided an initial stimulus for this kind of voluntary action rooted in volunteer labour, there occurred several developments which further altered its character. Among the expanding new middle class, there emerged the notion that it should participate in such community activities as may bring it into contact with other classes. Such a social ethos opened a broader front for the growth of voluntary associations. While some voluntary associations aimed simply at enhancing legitimacy or social control, there emerged many more which were established on progressive social philosophy.

Further, professionals started participating in voluntary associations and attended to individual problems in their spare time within the community. Even after the welfare state was established in Great Britain (and later on a quasi-welfare state in the United States of America) volunteer labour was not discarded as simply a hangover from an earlier era. Rather, the welfare state encouraged voluntary associations in many areas since it was virtually impossible for the welfare state to provide for all the essential services to all sections of society. Voluntarism, State and ii) Socio-Political Voluntarism Society A major thrust for volunteer labour came from social and political struggles for democratic rights. fhdustrialization had produced significant changes in the class structure of emerging democratic societies. It created a 'working class' which, though lacking in political resources, enjoyed some of the civic freedoms as compared to peasantry or agricultural labour in feudal societies. At least they had some rights (though very limited yet) of association and assembly and numerical strength. They also mostly lived in close proximity. These initial advantages, available in the matrix of democratic ideals and principles, helped in the 'association' and mobilisation of urban industrial working class. A whole range of democratic struggles relied heavily on such participants as were willing to voluntarily devote their time and labour for orgaaising meetings and demonstrations. Availability of volunteer labour gradually ensured increasing participation of working class in social and political struggles.

During the nineteenth century, working class political voluntarism was gradually harnessed by mainstream political organisations. Political parties required members who were willing to donate their time and labour to political activities and-were also motivated enough to maintain the social front of the party. Voluntary associations in the form of working class societies and unions flourished during the last half of the nineteenth century along with the rise of industrial capitalism.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, there occurred a vast increase in the member of well educated members of middle class in western societies. This expanding urban educated middle class (new middle class) increasingly had enough time to devote to other activities of a social kind. In addition, the process of industrialisation effected drastic social transformation of western societies, thus throwing up a large number of issues which usually fell outside the boundaries of conventional political parties. These furnished a fertile ground for middle class~socialand political voluntarism and the attendant growth of voluntary associations.

The new social philosophy placed a high value on the public regarding socio-political activities in which people sacrificed their private personal interests while working for the common good of society. The independent minded volunteer who offered time and labour for social and political activities when circumstances demanded, but otherwise lived as a normal citizen, turned out to be an 'ideal model'. Middle class prefetred to do voluntary work in the transient and informal political voluntary associations. This led to an upsurge of middle class participation in voluntary associations devoted to socio-political affairs. Social and political changes in first half of twentieth century further led to an increase in this type of voluntary associations in democratic societies.

Greater economic resources further created conditions for the growth of a diverse kind of voluntary activities. Transformation of modem economies have created a class of people capable of devoting free time and labour to issues of social and political relevance in society. Hence there occurred an enormous growth of voluntar- associations devoted to political, cultural, developmental, environmental and leisure activities. Though focal issues of voluntarism have changed throughout history, the fundamental conditions and basis for the existence of voluntary associations remain the same in a democratic society.

Check Your Progress IV Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this Unit. Voluntary Associations in 1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already a Democratic Society read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick- mark (4 ) in the relevant box. True False a) Philanthropy and charity was the sole concern of religion, landed gentry and welfare merchants prior to the rise of democracy. [I[] b) Aristocracy patronised and controlled local charities during the era of Poor Law in England. [I [I

c) Poor Law Amendment Act (1834) effected a change in the functioning of philanthropy and charities. [I[]

d) The social and economic philosophy of laissez-faire brought radical transformation in the character of charities previously controlled by aristocracy. [I[]

e) Transformation of traditional philanthropy and charities did not take place with the rise of democracy in Great Britain. [I[]

f) The notion of volunteer labour became popular with the emergence of scientific charity in Great Britain and United States of America. [I[] g) Political voluntarism emerged because a large number of social issues remained unattended by conventional political parties. [I[] h) Mainstream political parties did not harness the potential of political voluntarism to their advantage. [I[]

2) Describe briefly the essential features of traditional philanthropy and charities. (Hint : see the text) ......

2.6 CONSOLIDATION OF VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY In the last section we will explain to you the dynamics of a welfare state vis-A-vis the voluntary sector. The rise of welfare state brought into picture a whole range of welfare measures related to social services. It seemed, in the beginning, that welfare state will appropriate the temtory of social services occupied by voluntary associations. However, interestingly, after facing some retreats here and there in certain sectors, the voluntary associations very soon adapted to the new role of the welfare state. You will learn that during the past few decades of twentieth century, voluntary associations consolidated their position as an institution of extreme relevance to a democratic society. Keeping continuity with our discussion in the last section, the analysis in this section is again furnished in the context of Great Britain. Lastly, we will describe the essential characteristics of voluntary associations as are manifest in contemporary democratic societies all over the world. Voluntarism, State and 2.6.1 Welfare State and Voluntary Associations Society Democratic ideals were further influenced by the progressive vision of socialism (re- born under the influence of Marxism) during the past few decades of nineteenth century. The new democratic discourse offered a comprehensive criticism of the existing socio-economic conditions in society. Working class perspectives identified the causes of poverty, misery, degradation, disease and ignorance in the exploitative character of industrialisation and Industrial capitalism. The new discourse vehemently attacked the doctrines underlying the charity organisation society, the Poor Law and so on, and demanded radical reforms of the social and economic structure of society. In the very first decade of twentieth century, democratic state initiated legislative measures (initially limited in scope) related to the provision of social services. Gradually the scope of these services broadened along with their extension to other sections of society.

Notwithstanding the changed stance of the State towards social services, voluntary sectw continued to act (throughout this period) as a major provider of services. The voluntary sector remained a major provider of care of children and the handicapped., The new national insurance scheme was implemented partly by voluntary associations. It was envisaged that voluntary sector should assume further major responsibilities. Royal Commission on the Poor Law (1909) recommended that voluntary aid councils should be set-up in every county in England. Further, efforts to coordinate the activities of voluntary associations at local level through 'Guides of Help' and 'Councils of Voluntary Service' became increasingly a common phenomenon.

However, very soon these voluntary associations providing or sharing in the provision of basic services became a subject of criticism. This criticism stemmed from the fact that voluntary organisations were functioning as an 'extension ladder' to the statutory services provided by state. It was realised that it is important to create proper links between statutory and voluntary sector so as to ensure that the work done by voluntary associations is truly supplementary rather than an unsatisfactory substitute of services provided by the welfare state (a more detailed discussion on welfare state is available in Block 1, Unit 3, Section 3.5).

During the period 1945-51, the Poor Law was finally removed from the statute book and the obligation of the democratic state to provide basic social services for the welfare of its citizens as a matter of right, to a greater extent, got established. The modern history of voluntary sector (for about three decades after the second world war) is predominantly marked by the problems of adaptation vis-a-vis the new role of the welfare state. After the second world war the following two views emerged 4 about the future of voluntary sector :

i) The establishment of a comprehensive system of social services by the welfare state might appropriate the space occupied by voluntary action; hence withering away of voluntary associations. ii) Voluntary action might undergo transformation in its nature and characteristics. Hence, by rediscovering their potential, voluntary associations may continue to remain important and relevant to the needs of a democratic society. For about fifteen years after second world war, it seemed as if the voluntary sector was marking its time. In fact voluntary associations required time to assess and abs~rbrhe effects generated by the welfare state's substantial involvement in social services rendered to democratic soclety. What is more, voluntary sector awaited the judgment of democratic society about the adequacy or inadequacy of the social services provided by the welfare state. Except some retreats here and there, without having lost much ground, voluntary sector retained the same position as it was at the end of the war. However, from the early 1960s onwards following,significant changes took place in Voluntary Associations in the nature and character of voluntary associations : a Democratic Society a) the reorientation of some voluntary organisations to differentiate their services from those provided by statutory agencies of the welfare state; b) the enormous growth of social and political pressure-group voluntary associations, sought to influence the policies of the welfare state; c) the emergence of mutual-help voluntary associations; d) increase in voluntary' associations devoted to coordination of diverse range of voluntary activities taking place at local and national level; and e) favourable environment created by welfare state and financial support provided through grant-aid, led to the expansion and diversification of voluntary sector. Thus, the rise of welfare state, initially posed threat to the social space occupied by voluntary associations. voluntary sector suffered marginal retreats in certain areas of social services. On the whole it adopted a polic; of wait and watch to see the consequences of welfare measures. However, within a decade or so; voluntary associations quickly adapted, reoriented and transformed their character in consonance with the ethos and policies of the welfare state. They consolidated their position as an institution of extreme relevance to a democratic society. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY

A characteristic feature of the shift from medieval to modern times is the rise of groups with specialized interests and divergent activities in a democratic society. Notable among such interest groups are voluntary associatibns since they symbolize freedom of association and modern attributes of collective action in democratic societies. a) Definitional Aspects: A voluntary association is formed when a group of people having some common interest or purpose agree to act together to achieve their objective. It may continue to function in the form'of a small group. On the other hand, original members may urge other like-minded persons to join them in which case the association can take the form of a large and extended organisation. Definitions of the term voluntary association differ widely but they usually contain same key elements. A voluntary association is formed to pursue a common interest or to achieve some condition or change in society. Membership is based on the freedom of association, i.e., it is voluntary and is not by virtue of birth, caste status and so on. Voluntary associations exist independent of the state and are usually non-profit ventures. All non-state, common purpose organisations are voluntary associations. A voluntary association is a non-statutory body. In other words, it does not owe its existence to an act of parliament. Rather it originates in the decision of a group of people to join together for achieving some objective. It is also independent of the laws of the market, i.e., it is a non-profit organisation and its purpose does not include profit making for its members. The major activity of a voluntary association is not related to the economic activities of its members. Majority of members of a voluntary association are volunteers (i.e. non-salaried) but large ones do employ paid-workers. Voluntary associations finance their activities through voluntary contributions. They also raise their own resources through various fund raising activities, however, most of them also receive grants-in-aid Voluntarism, State and Voluntary associations differ in terms of size, structure, sources of finance and Society relationship with state. Some are small, and function within local communities in an informal manner. Others are large, extend their activities on a national scale and usually acquire a formal organisational structure. Again, some receive funds from the state or enjoy different forms of state patronage; others are independent of the state and raising finance through voluntary contributions. Voluntary - associations also pursue a variety of interests of purposes such as mutual-aid, promotion of some common interest, service to community, advancement of central social cause viz. civil liberties, developmental concerns, environmental protection and so on. Notwithstanding these aspects, a qualitative distinction among them has been cited in literature. The associations which exist simply to express or satisfy the interests of their members in relation to themselves are called 'Expressive Voluntary Associations'. Examples are recreational and sports associations, social and hobby clubs, professional societies and so on. The associations which act as instruments of social change are called 'Instrumental Voluntary Associations'. They intend to achieve some condition or bring some change in society. They take up issues of social concern and their activities influence the functioning of society. Examples are voluntary associations devoted to social work; development, environmental, humanitarian causes, economic activities for the uplift of poor and family and health related issues. Such associations are rarely found outside modem democratic societies. Totalitarian 'regimes do not tolerate their existence and consider them detrimental to their interests. So long as voluntary associations remain small, they continue to function in an infonnal manner. Members retain sufficient independence, freedom of opinion and action. The interaction is not structured. Rules regulations are not well developed and there is hardly any specialized activity. In fact, democracy exists within the association. However, as voluntary associations grow and expand their activities, they tend to acquire all the structural and organisational character found in large bureaucracies or business corporations. b) Objective Base of Voluntary Associations in a democratic society: Some of the main explanations for undertaking voluntary work have generally been thought of as follows : Felt needs, often bypassed or overlooked by the state, require urgent attention and provide the motivation. Voluntary action can also be started to question' or challenge the rule and policies of state and of market forces. There are jobs to be done which can not or at least will not be done by paid personnel. I The opportunity to give service and to do good to others, satisfies a personal need felt by an individual or group. Voluntary action is a powerful force for social progress and so on. However, these are not sufficient explanations. There are concrete objective conditions which are responsible for the existence of voluntary associations in democratic societies.

i) As discussed in previous sections, the most important among them is the 'freedom of association'. This principle is &ectly linked to the nature and character of state. Democratic state recognizes the right of citizens to create and join associations. A state which tolerates different opinions, interests, activities and so on, is conducive to the growth of voluntary effort. ii) Donation of Labour - The existence of voluntary associations is dependent on the availability of 'voluntary labour' in society. The question of 'voluntary labour' is directly linked to the state of economy. An economy which generates sufficient surplus and ensures its wider distribution releases a large number of people from Voluntary Associations in the basic c~oncernsof making a living. Only people having a free time beyond a Democratic Society their economic pursuits for survival can donate their labour to voluntary effort. Thus existence and growth of voluntary associations is related to the economic conditions prevalent in a democratic society. iii) Beyond State and Market - Both the state and market can not fulfill all the needs of the people. Even a democratic state is considered inefficient at responding to the needs of society. The reasons may be many. A simple reason is the paucity of funds. Due to lack of resources, state may not furnish all the goods and services. Again the market, whether due to lack of information, resources, vested interests or other factors can not generate goods and services to satisfy all the needs created by democratic society. For example, even in advanced democratic societies, some needs like food, can be supplied to most people: but regarding other needs, such as housing, the market system seems to work far less effectively both directly and indirectly. 'Voluntary associations' respond to 'gaps' in need- provision left out by the democratic state and market. Voluntary associations can provide for large number of 'goods' or services in a cost-effective and efficient manner. iv) Socio-Political Space - A large number of issues are either left out or are usually kept peripheral by political parties in a democratic society. Social concerns having ethical values (e.g. abortion) or extreme views (e.g. radical civil liberties) are usually not made central to the agenda by conventional political parties. Politicians and parties have their own organisational constraints and cannot easily entertain - each and every problem arising within a democratic society. Socio-political space, thus left out by the conventional political structure polity, forms a fertile ground for expansion of voluntary action. In fact, most of the progressive social causes have been first taken up voluntary associations in democratic societies. v) Heterogeneous Social Interests - The existence of a significant number of voluntary associations requires that population is heterogeneous in background and interests. Social differentiation within democratic societies, in terms of ownerslup, income, occupation, status, class and so on generates a variety of interests leading to substantial expansion of voluntary associations. Education and social awareness also give major impetus to the expansion of voluntary associations. Urbanization is yet another factor of critical importance. Urbanization weakens traditional ties of family, kindship and community. People are pushed to lead individualistic and alienated life. Therefore, they are bound to exert by forming voluntary associations thus organisation themselves around some common interests. These aspects constitute the objective base which is critical for the existence and growth of , voluntary associations in a democratic society. Voluntary associations promote social and community interaction and enliven life. Voluntary assotiations help to bridge the gap between different classes and interests. I

Check Your Progress V Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with the model answer given at, the end of this Unit.

1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick- mark (d ) in the relevant box. True False a) Democratic ideals were influenced by the progressive vision of socialism during the closing decades of nineteenth century. [I[] Voluntarism, State and Society b) The democratic discourse based on working class perspective identified the causes of poverty and degradation in the exploitative character of industrial capitalism. [I[]

c) The work done by voluntary associations need to be truly supplementary rather than an unsatisfactory substitute of services provided by a welfare state. [I[]

d) During the last decades of twentieth century voluntary associations had not diversified their activities in response to the policies and practices of a welfare state. [][I

e) Associations which act as agents of social change are called instrumental voluntary associations. [I[]

f) The existence of voluntary associations is unrelated to economic conditions of a democratic society. [I[]

g) Voluntary associations respond to the 'gaps' in need-provision left out by the democratic state and market. [I[] h) Socio-political space left out by the conventional political structure forms a fertile ground for the expansion of voluntary associations. [I[] LET US SUM UP

The phenomenon of voluntary associations is inseparably tied-up with the rise of modern democracy. In this unit, we have traced the origins and evolution of democracy. To begin with we have furnished the basic idea of democracy as practised in Greek city-states and ancient republics. After a break of many centuries, the idea of democracy was rediscovered during Renaissance and Enlightenment Era in Europe. We have explained the significance and role of Magna Carta in origins and evolution of democracy. Magna Carta curtailed the power of monarchy, granted freedoms to church and aristocracy thus opening the path for the emergence of individual rights and freedoms during many centuries in England. Magna Carta is the predecessor to English Bill of Rights (1689). Further, we have described United States Bill of Rights (1791), Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) and Constitution of India (1950). We have explained the broad matrix of individual rights and freedoms which are constitutive of modern democracy.

Next we have determined the genesis and location of the fundamental tenets underlying voluntary associations within the matrix of democratic 'rights' and 'freedoms'. The ,enets which laid the foundations of modern democracy are : the right to freedom of association: modern attributes of collective-action; and social ethos of non-profit, volunteer labour and so on. A fruitful discussion of essential characteristics of these tenets is furnished.

After that we have furnished an analysis of the historical process of the transformation of religious philanthropy and charities dominated by aristocracy and the cbnsequent emergence of modern forms of voluntary associations. The discussion on expansion and consolidation of voluntary associations is contextualised in the democratic processes of Great Britain (since it is the most important case of liberal democracy). We have explained, that rise of commercial capitalism, emergence of the social and economic philosophy of laissez-faire and further spread of democratic ideals and principles created social conditions for vast expansion of voluntary associations in society. We have also described the important features of socio-political voluntarism which gave further impetus to the growth of voluntary associations. Later, we have analysed the dynamics of welfare state vis-A-vis voluntary associations. Voluntary Associations in Democratic state initiated welfare measures in the filed of social services and posed a Democratic Society a serious threat to the existence of voluntary associations. But soon voluntary associations adapted to the new conditions created by welfare state. We have discussed that during the last decades of twentieth century voluntary associations consolidated their position as an institution of extreme importance and relevance to a democratic society. Lastly, we have described the essential characteristics of voluntary associations as are manifest in contemporary democratic societies.

2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Birch, H.Anthony, The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy, London: Routeledge 1995 (reprint).

Frazer, Derek, The Evolution of the British WelfQre State, 2"* Edn., London Macmillan 1984.

Lefort, Claude, Democracy and Political Theory, (trans. By David Macey), Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.. 1988.

Mellor, Hugh W., The Role of Voluntary Organisations in Social Welfare, London : Croom Helm, 1985.

Owen, David, English Philanthropy (1660-1960),Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1965.

Pennock J. Ronald and John W. Chapman (eds), Voluntary Associations, New York, Atherton Press, 1969.

Pifer, Alan, ~hiihnthro~~in an Age of Transition, New York : Center, 1984.

Przeworski, A., Capitalism and Social Democracy, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Ware, Alan, Between Projit and State, Intermediate Organisations in Britain and the United States, Cambridge : Polity Press, 1989.

Wolfenden Committee Report, The Future of Voluntary Organisations, London : Croom Helm, 1978. e-sources http:Nen.wikipedia.org - see for various Bills, Declarations, Acts. Conventions. Magna Carta. and Constitution of India.

http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm - see for Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 2.10 MODEL ANSWERS

Check Your Progress I

1) a) True b) False c) True d) False e) True

f) True g) False h) True Voluntarism, State and Check Your Progress I1

1) a) True b) False c) True d) True e) True

f) False g) True h) True

Check Your Progress I11

1) a) True b) True c) False d) False e) True

f) False g) True h) True

Check Your Progress IV

1) a) True b) True C) True d) True e) False

f) True g) True h) False

Check Your Progress V

1) a) True b) True c) True d) False e) True

f) False g) True h) True