Openness to Experience and Health: A Review of the Literature

Lameese Eldesouky University of , Berkeley

The Five Factor Model, one of the most commonly used models for assessing , consists of five main universal traits: extraversion, , , , and (McCrae & John, 1992). Recently, its application to fields investigating the role of personality on physical and mental health has been extensive, with most traits producing consistent results across studies. The fifth of the model’s main traits, however, openness to experience, has produced inconsistent results. In this review, we attempt to understand why these findings have been mixed by analyzing various facets of this trait in depth. We evaluate the six facets of openness to experience: actions, ideas, values, , fantasy, and individually to better understand the implications of openness to experience on physical and mental health.

Personality can be defined as the consistent five particular traits: neuroticism, extraversion, behavioral, attitudinal, and motivational patterns openness to experience, conscientiousness, and that differ across individuals (McCrae & John, agreeableness (John, 2008). The appeal of their 1992). To describe this enduring set of patterns, work came largely from its ability to take into theorists have long sought ways to identify and account factors that were similar across different categorize the basic elements of personality. personality scales (John, 2008). For instance, One of the primary methods to identify and extraversion, the trait describing one’s categorize these basic elements has been factor propensity towards sociability and positive analysis, where thousands of personality traits , and neuroticism, the trait describing are listed and then eliminated as similar traits emotional stability, can be found in earlier are grouped together (McCrae & John, 1992). personality scales such as Allport’s , As the field of personality has Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factors, and progressed, though, theorists have continually Eysenck’s Big Three (McCrae & John, 1992). disagreed on what the basic dimensions are and Thus, while personality psychologists frequently how many there should be. And while there still disagreed over what the basic dimensions were remains wide disagreement across theorists, and their number, there was some agreement one recent framework has been particularly on certain dimensions. Following the Five Factor used and accepted across psychology and Model research done by Costa and McCrae and related fields. This model is known as the Five other researchers, additional personality scales Factor Model. measuring these five particular traits were later Evidence for the Five Factor Model began to developed, including Lew Goldberg’s make its way into in the International Personality Item Pool, Gerad early 1980s. Psychologists Paul Costa and Jeff Saucier’s Big Five mini-markers, and Oliver McCrae had finished reviewing multiple John’s Big Five Inventory (BFI) (John, 2008). personality scales and developed an integrative personality scale known as the NEO Personality Author Note: The author would like to thank her advisor Inventory Revised (NEO PI-R), which measured Steve W. Cole, PhD, for his helpful comments on this article.

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While researchers differ in which questionnaire almost always have a plan. Individuals low on they may prefer to use, many of the conscientiousness are unorganized, easily questionnaires have proven to be reliable and distracted, and often not as disciplined. They only have a few discrepancies in questions and prefer spontaneity and are not as concerned length. about controlling aspects of their environment or The Five Factor Model, also labeled the Big even their own behavior. Five, does not refer to a particular questionnaire, Agreeableness is the fourth of the Big Five but rather a general personality framework traits. It is similar to extraversion in that it is based off of five main universal traits: deeply related to interpersonal relationships. extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, However, it is more concerned with the way one conscientiousness, and openness to experience treats and deals with others, as opposed to (John, 2008). Extraversion, as briefly mentioned whether or not one actively seeks relationships above, is one of the most studied personality out. For instance, one who is highly agreeable is traits, probably due to the large role it plays in empathetic towards others. They are our interpersonal lives (John, 2008). It is a trait affectionate, trustworthy, and altruistic (John, characterized by high energy, , and 2008). Due to their kind nature, they are able to assertiveness. A behavioral example is of work better in groups and often have extraversion is an individual who makes the relationships with little conflict (John, 2008). effort to approach strangers and begin Less agreeable individuals may be aggressive, conversation. An individual low on the trait of rude, and look at others with contempt. Unlike extraversion would be less likely to perform such highly agreeable individuals, they are not very an action. Less extraverted individuals often considerate of people’s emotions and might be prefer to keep to themselves and engage in far more concerned about themselves and their solitary activities. While low extraversion does own desires. Their lack of consideration for not necessarily imply anti-sociability, less others might result in unsatisfying relationships extraverted individuals generally have smaller and numerous interpersonal problems. social circles than their more extraverted The last of the Big Five traits is openness to counterparts. experience, which is described by novelty- Neuroticism, also briefly mentioned above, seeking, intellectual , a vivid deals with emotional stability. In fact, some imagination, awareness of inner emotional personality theorists such as Cattell had referred states, and deep appreciation for the arts (John, to it directly as emotional stability (McCrae & 2008). Individuals high on this trait seek out John, 1992). Like all of the Big Five traits, activities that bring meaning to their lives and neuroticism is also on a spectrum. Those who allow them to think about things in a different are high on the trait are more prone to negative way. They may prefer to change their routine to feelings such as , tension, and make things more interesting or they might seek , while those who are low on the trait out an opportunity to do something they have are calmer and more even-tempered (John, never done before. Individuals low on this trait 2008). A behavioral instance of neuroticism is an prefer sameness and predictability and are often individual who might get overly anxious when unoriginal and closed-minded. Overall, they are there is little to be anxious about and ruminate less likely to seek out activities that may enrich continuously about negative events that have their mental and experiential lives, primarily already occurred. A less neurotic individual because they are not interested in doing so. would relax about most situations and when faced with a difficult situation, try to see the good in it. Application of the Five Factor Model to Conscientiousness, the third trait, describes Health order, discipline, and impulse control (John, 2008). It is most noted for its ability to influence The comprehensiveness of the Big Five traits the organization and direction of behavior has enabled researchers to better use (McCrae & John, 1992). High conscientiousness personality traits as predictors for certain types can be seen in people who are punctual, have a of behaviors or outcomes, and thus has been strong work ethic, do not get easily distracted, applied to numerous fields including education, and take good care of their health by eating right industrial and organizational psychology, and taking their medication (John, 2008). They developmental psychology, and forensics are people who are focused, prepared, and

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(McCrae & John, 1992). More recently however, under the same trait, the facets of openness to the Big Five have been used in the field of experience in particular have been argued to health, with a large focus being placed on almost be individual personality traits understanding how personality factors can affect themselves. The six facets of openness to mental and physical health. Extraversion, experience are openness to actions, ideas, conscientiousness, and agreeableness for values, aesthetics, fantasy, and feelings (Coan, instance, have been linked to positive outcomes 1972). Openness to actions describes the drive such as greater immune response to infection to seek out new activities and attempt new (Capitanio, Abel, Mendoza, Blozis, McChesney, things; openness to ideas is the desire to be Cole, & Mason, 2008; Sloan, Capitanio, Tarara, intellectually curious and think about things in & Cole, 2008), lower probability of developing a new and interesting ways; openness to values is cold (Cohen, Doyle, Turner, Alper, & Skoner, the willingness to re-examine one’s traditional 2003), positive health (Jerram & values, be it political, cultural, or religious; Coleman, 1999), longevity (Bermudez, 1999), openness to aesthetics describes the tendency and positive adjustment to illness or disability for one to appreciate the arts; openness to (Boyce & Wood, 2011). Neuroticism on the other fantasy is the proclivity towards deep hand, has been linked to higher disease risk and imagination and fantasy; and the last , other negative outcomes such as decreased openness to feelings, describes how in tune one levels of oxytocin and neuropeptide Y (Schaller is with their emotional states. & Murray, 2011). While individuals who score high on When it comes to understanding the role of openness typically score high on most of the openness to experience in health, findings have facets of openness, the distinction of each facet been mixed, with some studies finding that high makes it possible for someone to be very open openness to experience is beneficial and others in one area, but very closed in another (Coan, finding that it can contribute to negative 1972). For instance, consider the difference outcomes. Perhaps the challenge in making between the person who seeks out exhilarating sense of the relationship between health and activities such as bungee-jumping and the openness to experience arises from the person who prefers calmer activities such as controversial nature of the trait itself. Most attending art exhibits. Even if they are both high personality psychologists endorse some form of on openness, they can vary widely in the types openness to experience, but throughout the of experiences to which they are open (Coan, history of personality psychology the trait has 1972). Thus, it is not accurate to say that such continued to take on different forms (John, individuals are open in the same way, even if 2008). Some have referred to it as an indicator their overall openness scores turn out to be of , while others have referred to it as an identical. indicator of . Since openness to experience is such a complex trait, it is reasonable to take into Applying a Facet Approach. In the longest and account each facet level when approaching most detailed of the Big Five questionnaires, the research on the influence of the trait on health. NEO-PI-R, Costa and McCrae have made Many studies that have examined the influence individual distinctions for each trait within their of openness on health have looked at the trait survey by assigning every trait six facets to broadly instead of at the facet level. It may be better understand the trait (McCrae & John, that failure to take into consideration scores on 1992). Facets can be considered as more the individual facets makes results challenging detailed dimensions of an individual personality to interpret. In this review, we attempt to trait. For instance, one may be extraverted in the understand what the physical and mental health sense that they are very assertive, while one implications of openness are by deeply may be extraverted in the sense that they are examining the individual facets. We first group gregarious. It is not necessary for an individual the six facets into two main categories: facets who scores high on a Big Five trait to embody all that have a strong behavioral and cognitive of its characteristics. Thus, in this example of component, openness to actions, ideals, and extraversion, Costa and McCrae divide aspects values, and facets that have a strong emotional of the trait into facets, two of which are component, openness to aesthetics, fantasy, gregariousness and assertiveness. and feelings. The reason for this grouping is Facets of the Big Five traits are meant to be because facets vary in their main focus and it is inter-related and yet despite being grouped simpler to discuss facets that are similar in their

Eldesouky / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE 27 focus than facets that are different. For instance, openness to actions, most studies have not the facet of actions has a strong behavioral directly assessed openness. Instead they have component because it is geared towards investigated the biological correlates of seeking out physical activities and is less extraversion or . Both concerned with , whereas the facet of sensation seeking and extraversion have been feelings has a strong emotional component linked to high levels of norepinephrine, low because it describes how much one values their levels of monomamine oxidase (MAO), and emotional experience and is less concerned with variations in dopamine receptors (Cloninger, physical pursuit of certain activities. When 2000). In investigating the relationship between discussing each facet we will provide a norepinephrine and sensation seeking, it has description of the characteristics that the facet been found that higher levels of norepinephrine entails then discuss the relevant biological may not be the cause, but rather a consequence correlates that have been found thus far. Next, of sensation seeking. we summarize findings on links between each Norepinephrine is a catchechloamine that facet and health, with consideration for both plays multiple roles, most importantly in the physical and mental disorders. Finally, we stress response. While norepinephrine levels review current controversies and theoretical increase with higher levels of cortisol, it has difficulties, then propose some future directions been hypothesized that only increased levels of for research. norepinephrine, and not cortisol, are directly correlated with sensation seeking (Gerra et al., 1999). However, other research findings have The Facets of Openness to Experience presented a similar hypothesis, but under the belief that high sensation seeking is linked to Openness to actions Openness to actions is lower and not higher levels of norepinephrine characterized by involvement in varied (Zuckerman, 1995). It has been proposed that experiences and enjoyment of novelty. It has high sensation seekers are chronically under- been considered by McCrae and Costa (1997) aroused and thus through the seeking of to be a facet of motivation to engage in novelty stimulating activities, are able to raise their and complexity. While it has been found to have levels of norepinephrine (Zuckerman, 1995). a strong relationship with the trait of Likewise, other researchers have made a similar extraversion, McCrae and Costa (1997) have proposal with dopamine, proposing that argued that it reflects a pure behavioral individuals high on sensation seeking have high exploratory tendency, while openness to actions scores because they have an increased takes into account a cognitive element as well. sensitivity of postsynaptic dopamine receptors To better understand the behavioral component and that they require higher densities of of openness to actions, many researchers have dopamine to overcome the sensitivity (Gerra et also examined sensation seeking (Aluja, Garcia, al., 1999). & Garcia, 2002). This is because extraversion In examining MAO, researchers have found and openness to actions are often positively that there is a negative correlation with the trait correlated with sensation seeking. Sensation of sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1995). MAO seeking has been defined by Zuckerman (1979) is an enzyme that regulates monoamine levels as “the need for varied, novel, and complex by breaking down various neurotransmitters. sensations and experiences and the willingness The type B MAO has been particularly noted for to take physical and social risks for the sake of its significance because it breaks down such experience.” It has been linked to the dopamine (Zuckerman, 1995). Since low levels seeking of high stimulating activities such as of MAO are related to sensation seeking and exotic meals, various sports, as well as illegal extraversion, it is not surprising that individuals activities. Such activities include the willingness high on sensation seeking and extraversion to take various risks to experience them and have higher levels of circulating dopamine. thus, frequently carry with them the trait of Research on gender differences in MAO levels (Gerra, Avanzini, Zaimovic, Satori, has found that men typically have lower levels of Boochi, Timpano, Zambelli, Delsignore, Gardini, MAO. In addition, males that carry the 3-VNTR Talarico, & Brambilla, 1999). MAOA gene variant have higher levels of MAO and correspondingly, significantly lower scores Biological correlates of openness to actions. In in openness (Samochowiec, J., Syrek, Michal, investigating the biological correlates of Ryzewska-Wodecka, Samochowiec, A.,

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Horodnicki, Zakrzewska, & Kucharska-Mazur, 7 repeat allele having significantly high 2004). sensation seeking scores (Epstein et al., 1996). Another enzyme partly responsible for Okuyama and colleagues have said that the metabolizing catecholamines that has been effects of the 7 repeat allele is a result of briefly investigated is the enzyme catechol-O- differences in ligand affinity (Okuyama, Ishiguro, methyltransferase (COMT). Unlike the findings Nankai, Shibuya, Watanabe, & Arinami, 2000). on MAO, high enzyme activity of COMT has They have also looked at DRDR, namely a been shown to be related to high levels of polymorphism at -521C/T, and found that extraversion and sensation-seeking (Reuter & individuals with the T variant of the C-521T Hennig, 2003). Reuter and Hennig (2003) have polymorphism have reduced transcriptional vouched for the functional polymorphism of efficiency (Okuyama et al., 2000). Thus, COMT, VAII58MET, as a candidate gene locus subjects with a T/T genotype had the lowest to examine further in determining biological sensation seeking scores, while subjects with a correlates of extraversion and related C/C genotype had the highest sensation seeking characteristics and behaviors. In their scores (Okuyama et al., 2000). In addition to experiment they found that the group with the DRD4, Ishiguro and colleagues have also higher extraversion scores had the VAL/VAL looked at the dopamine D2 receptor gene polymorphism (Reuter & Hennig, 2003). (DRD2) and found that high sensation seeking is Most work on high levels of dopamine has correlated with the A2 allele. They state that this consistently shown that it is linked to is likely a result of increased dopamine D2 characteristics such as impulsivity, excitability, receptor binding (Okuyama et al., 2000). and a desire to explore (Epstein, Novick, DeYoung and colleagues have attempted to Umansky, Priel, Osher, Blaine, Bennett, examine possible differences between Nemaov, Katz, & Belmaker, 1996; Panksepp, extraversion/sensation seeking and openness 1998; Reuter & Hennig, 2003). Lower levels by proposing that extraversion is linked to have been affiliated with less flexibility, but a dopaminergic projections to the striatum and calmer temperament (Epstein et al., 1996). The that openness is linked to dopaminergic belief is that dopamine regulates the projections to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and motivational component of openness similar to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (DeYoung et how it regulates extraversion (Depue & Collins, al., 2003). They have argued that openness is 1999). Research on Parkinson’s patience has linked to the PFC because the PFC plays corroborated this hypothesis (Kaasinen, Nurmi, numerous roles in cognitive function, particularly Bergman, Eskola, Solin, Sonninen, & Rinne, working memory, which is necessary for 2001). Patients with Parkinson’s disease manipulating information and carrying out experience degeneration of motor movement important executive functions (DeYoung et al., due to the death of dopamine-generating cells in 2003). In addition, increased dopaminergic the brain’s substantia nigra. Kaasinen and activation in the PFC has been linked to an colleagues (2001) compared un-medicated improvement of performance on tests of Parkinson’s disease patients and controls to see cognitive ability and flexibility. Despite their if there was a difference in sensation-seeking proposal, however, after administering cognitive levels. Patients with Parkinson’s disease were tasks such as letter randomization, word fluency, found to have lower sensation seeking scores recency judgments, and spatial and non-spatial than controls, although this is identified as an conditional association tasks, DeYoung and effect of the disease, not a cause (Kaasinen et colleagues have found that openness to actions al., 2001). Similar relationships between is the least strongly related openness facet to sensation seeking and dopamine have also cognitive variables (DeYoung et al., 2003). been found in patients with schizophrenia, who unlike Parkinson’s disease patients have Health and openness to actions. Research on abnormally high levels of dopamine and thus, the links between health and openness to higher levels of sensation seeking, as well as actions has given mixed results, with some high openness scores (DeYoung, Peterson, & evidence demonstrating a positive association Higgins, 2003). and other evidence demonstrating a negative Epstein and colleagues examined the association. Evidence demonstrating a positive dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III association has supported the hypothesis that polymorphism and found that it was linked to individuals high on openness to actions have sensation seeking, with individuals that carry the better physical health because they have better

Eldesouky / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE 29 mental health. Researchers in support of this Another study by Schneider and colleagues proposal have argued that this is because (2011) came across the same findings. This may individuals higher on openness to actions are be further evidence for the hypothesis that more likely to engage in behaviors that make higher sensation seeking scores are linked to them happy (Salovey, Rothman, Detweiler, & high levels of norepinephrine, but not high levels Steward, 2000). This is particularly significant for of cortisol. individuals who are diagnosed with a serious While there is evidence in support of the physical illness. Seeking activities that improve a benefits of openness to actions, such as patient’s mood can allow them to have greater proactive seeking of diverse experiences and a confidence in themselves and recovery of their decreased risk for depression, other evidence illness (Salovey et al., 2000). For instance, when demonstrates that high openness to actions can examining patients with Parkinson’s disease, it also be detrimental to health. Booth-Kewley and has been found that lower scores on sensation Vickers, Jr. (1994) conducted an experiment on seeking have been linked to higher depression the associations between openness to scores than controls (Menza & Mark, 1994). experience and health behavior. Several Dua (1990) has found that openness to individuals high on openness to actions reported actions predicts “emotional stability, lack of greater substance risk taking. Booth-Kewley and depression, and positive affect, both from Vickers, Jr. also measured other domains of thoughts and from real-life experiences”. In a personality, but found openness to be the only more recent study, Garcia and colleagues found significant personality domain that predicted that high sensation seeking was linked to less substance risk taking (Booth-Kewley & Vickers, depression (Garcia, L.F., Aluja, Garcia, O., & Jr., 1994). One common model that attempts to Cuevas, 2005). Carrillo and colleagues (2001) link personality and disease holds that have also come across similar results, with personality can lead to disease through the openness to actions negatively correlating with practice of unhealthy behaviors (Friedman & the Neuroticism factor and being predictive of Booth-Kewley, 1987). Since openness to actions depression. Higher scores on openness to demonstrates a positive association with actions were significantly less associated with substance risk taking due to the desire to both neuroticism and depression (Carrillo, Rojo, explore and bring about pleasure, it may present Sanchez-Bernardos, & Avia, 2001). Similar a negative link with healthy behavior (Jerram & findings have also been found in relation to Coleman, 1999; Salovey et al., 2000). gender differences. Males, who naturally have higher levels of dopamine, typically score much higher than women on openness to actions and Openness to Ideas are less susceptible to depression (Carrilo et al., 2001). Other evidence on the relationship While openness to actions expresses the between depression and openness to actions motivation behind the behavioral dimension of has also pointed to polymorphisms in the openness to experience, openness to ideas , which has been linked to focuses more on the motivation behind the depression in several studies (Samochowiec et cognitive component. Individuals who are high al., 2004). Women who have the short variant of on openness to ideas exhibit greater flexibility in 5-HTT-linked polymorphic region (5-HTT-LPR) terms of “processing information and exploring have been found to be more susceptible to the environment” (DeYoung et al., 2003). As depression and have lower scores of exploratory Batey and Furnham (2006) state, extraversion excitability (Samochowiec et al., 2004). and openness to actions “predict only the Oswald and colleagues (2006) have quantity, not the quality of ideas”. Individuals examined the association between openness to high on openness to ideas are willing to try to actions and cortisol responses as indicators of new things and examine and reflect on their new stress and anxiety. Participants underwent a experiences (McCrae & Costa, 1997). Even laboratory test and had though an individual high on openness to their cortisol levels measured before and after actions is likely to be high on openness to ideas, (Oswald, Zandi, Nestadt, Potash, Kalydijan, & openness to ideas does not require the Wand, 2006). Individuals who were lower on behavioral component of openness to actions. openness to actions had higher cortisol levels High scores of openness to ideas may or may and individuals who were higher on openness not reflect willingness to engage in novel had lower cortisol levels (Oswald et al., 2006). behaviors, but always indicate a greater

30 YALE REVIEW OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY engagement in activities that have the potential relevant to openness (Silvia et al., in press). to increase knowledge (Wainwright, Wright, Stability is a combination of the remaining Big Luciano, Geffen & Martin, 2008). The willingness Five traits, agreeableness, conscientiousness, to engage in activities that increase any kind of and neuroticism/emotional stability, and reflects knowledge has led to findings on how openness the tendency “to maintain stability and avoid to ideas affects and creativity (or disruption in emotional, social, and motivational plasticity). domains” (Silvia et al., in press). They found that When first determining the characteristics the students’ levels of openness predicted their associated with openness to experience, levels of creativity in several domains, ranging McCrae and Costa had decided that intellect from arts and sciences to humanities (Silvia et was related to the trait, but that it was too broad al., in press). While there was a positive (McCrae & Costa, 1997). Amongst the Big Five association though, there were a few concerns, traits though, openness is the only trait positively all countering the assessment of creativity. correlated with the (IQ), The first concern was regarding the plasticity which is frequently used to assess general dimension of creativity. Because it is composed intelligence (DeYoung et al., 2003). Of the six of extraversion in addition to openness, it may facets, openness to ideas has appeared to not be entirely accurate. Some introverts have capture intellect the most adequately, with been found to be more open and creative than individuals high on this facet demonstrating extraverts. It may be however, that introverts are greater efficiency in processing, organizing, and more likely to have higher levels of stability due reflecting on information (DeYoung et al., 2003). to the frequent associations between Alongside openness to values and aesthetics, it introversion and agreeableness, has been found to be heavily associated with conscientiousness, and neuroticism. Whereas, fluid intelligence, thereby showing cognitive they may have lower levels of plasticity due to flexibility, and not merely knowledge of facts the fact that it relies highly on extraversion. A (DeYoung et al., 2003; Wainwright et al., 2008). second concern was regarding the finding on Nonetheless, researchers acknowledge that predicting creativity in several domains. High openness to ideas, or openness in general, creativity and openness was found in students cannot be used to measure intelligence because who had high interest in sciences, but if they had they describe a dimension of personality as high interests in the arts. Other students opposed to intellectual ability (McCrae & John, however, such as those who exhibited interest in 1992). High openness has also been frequently the math-science domain were not found to linked to education level, which has made the exhibit high levels of creativity. This may indicate issue of using openness to determine a relation to openness to aesthetics, where intelligence or intellect controversial (Tesch & intellect alone is not sufficient, and artistic Cameron, 2003). creativity and interest is necessary. DeYoung, Since a characteristic of openness to ideas Quilty, and Peterson (2007) have proposed that is the desire to seek and engage with different openness may in fact be divided into an types of ideas, researchers have explored the intellectual component and a more artistic relationship between creative thinking and component involving imagination, creativity, and openness. Silvia and colleagues (in press) had aesthetics. Thus, while creativity can be a college students complete measures of the Big measure of plasticity and intellect, it may be a Five and measurements of creativity, including better measurement to use when assessing creative cognition and creative achievement. openness to aesthetics, instead of openness to While the Big Five is intended to be a separate ideas. measure of personality, measurements of creativity also indirectly assess aspects of Biological correlates of openness to ideas. Little personality because the two areas of creativity, work has been done on the biological correlates plasticity and stability, are a combination of the of openness to ideas, with most research Big Five traits. Plasticity is composed of general targeting biological correlates of intelligence to openness to experience and extraversion to represent the facet. In one study by Duncan and reflect the tendency “to explore and engage colleagues (2000) PET scans of subjects were flexibly with novelty, in both behavior and taken during tasks requiring the use of general cognition” (Silvia, Nusbaum, Berg, Martin, & intelligence (g). The tasks that required high use O’Conner, in press). This area of creativity in of g were found to activate the dorsolateral particular is argued to be a higher-order factor prefrontal cortex (PFC) as well as the dorsal

Eldesouky / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE 31 anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (Duncan et al., growth and reflect on their experiences. 2000). It is proposed that this may be due to the Opportunities pursued may include a wide range PFCs role in cognitive permeability and the of intellectual and cultural activities that can ACCs role in working with the PFC to monitor enable individuals to enhance and maintain their possible errors and reset task goals. It is also cognitive abilities, which can promote higher life hypothesized that dopamine may regulate satisfaction. People high on openness to ideas openness’ cognitive permeability, as not only exhibit higher , but also demonstrated in DeYoung et al.’s study on less stress. A study by Oswald and colleagues openness to actions where increased found that after taking a psychological stress dopaminergic activation in the PFC was related test, individuals high on openness to ideas had to increased cognitive ability and flexibility lower cortisol responses than individuals low on (DeYoung et al., 2003). the facet (Oswald et al., 2006). The study previously mentioned by Schneider and Health and openness to ideas. Openness to colleagues (2011) in the discussion on ideas has generally been shown to provide openness to actions, also felt that high numerous health benefits. A desire to engage in openness to ideas predicted lower cortisol various activities and interests not only responses. increases knowledge and keeps the brain significantly more active, but is also linked to many introspective and expressive behaviors Openness to Values that have the potential to raise self-esteem, flexibility, and life satisfaction (Tesch & Openness to values is defined as the extent to Cameron, 2003; Wainwright et al., 2008). which individuals are resistant to or receptive of Individuals high on openness to ideas have change. Similar to openness to ideas, openness been found to exhibit greater flexibility in dealing to values has frequently been linked to with life changes as well as changes in one’s determining flexibility of thought. Individuals who identity (Whitbourne, 1986). are high on openness to values question Flexibility is linked to an analysis of identity conventional norms and traditions and are more exploration and a reflection on current events. likely to reject unconventional principles. Thus, it Someone who is flexible exhibits the willingness is often studied in political psychology to analyze to not only think about the changes that they’re the personality differences between undergoing, but make reasonable alterations to “conformists” and “non-conformists”. Whereas their life (Whitbourne, 1986; Tesch & Cameron, conservative individuals are less adventurous, 2003). When examining how openness to ideas socially conforming, and prefer rigidity and was linked to personality and life change, structure in society, liberal individuals are more Whitbourne found that through flexibility, likely to support protests and revolutions in light individuals came to feel positive about of accepting change (McCrae, 1996). Some themselves and that they had a sense of control research has even found that low openness to over how to deal with different life events values is linked to authoritarianism and a (Whitbourne, 1986). A previous study by Costa tendency towards (McCrae, 1996). and McCrae (1980) had shown that there was a Research has also shown that cultural relationship between the occurrence of major life values more traditional work ethics events and openness. Whitbourne’s study came and conventional female roles (Van Hiel & across a similar finding in which individuals who Mervielde, 2004). While openness to values were more open were more likely to seek out encourages independent thinking, action and experiences that increased knowledge, such as receptiveness of change, low openness to pursuing a higher education (Whitbourne, 1986). values encourages protecting stability and Stephan (2009) examined the relationship security (McCrae, 1996). Thus, it’s believed that between openness and life satisfaction in older openness to values can predict whether one adults and found that openness to ideas was prefers change in aspects of her life or not. positively correlated with self-reported life Despite these positive findings, however satisfaction, regardless of self-reported health some researchers have argued that there is a and financial satisfaction. He concluded that distinction between personality traits and moral greater life satisfaction was correlated with values, and so it is conceptually invalid to claim openness to ideas because open people that such differences reflect personality per se. typically search for opportunities for personal As McCrae has argued, “traits describe what

32 YALE REVIEW OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY people are like, but values refer to what people 2009). Increased extracellular serotonin levels consider important” (McCrae, 1996). Traits are would lead to increased neural plasticity and representative of enduring dispositions, whereas responsiveness (Kalbitzer et al., 2009). Other values serve as cognitive representations of studies have not followed up on these findings enduring goals and guiding principles of how or proposed other biological correlates for being one prefers to live their life (McCrae, 1996). associated with openness to values. One study by Van Hiel and colleagues (2000) had shown that there was a relationship Health and openness to values. Similar to between conservative ideology and openness investigations on biological correlates of the facets in Western Europeans. However, the one values facet, there has been little investigation facet that exhibited no association was the on its relationship to health. Most studies values facet. Thus, it is not clear if psychological however have demonstrated that being high on factors, no matter their ideological content, are openness to values can be harmful to one’s linked to a liberal or conservative ideology (Hiel health. Jonassaint and colleagues (2007) found & Mervielde, 2004). Hiel & Mervielde argue that that individuals who were high on values were at conservatism may be conceptualized differently increased risk for cardiac deaths and elevated across cultures, where in some cases they may mortality, compared to individuals who were low be related to certain personality traits such as on values. The researchers did not interpret this broadmindedness, but in other cultures, such as result. However, it is possible that the desire to the Western European sample taken in Van Hiel stick with familiarity and avoid accepting change et al.’s (2004) experiment may not. may lead to a Type A personality that is frequently discussed in medical literature. Biological correlates of openness to values. Few Another study on the relationship between investigations of biological correlations of health and openness to values found that openness to values have been performed. current smokers had significantly higher Those that have been done, however, have openness to values scores than non-smokers in focused on cognitive flexibility, with the idea that the study (Terracciano & Costa, Jr., 2004). This greater cognitive flexibility is not only reflective is contrary to the belief that increased smoking of intellect, but also resistance to or acceptance would be linked to openness to change. Since of change. In one study by Kalbitzer and findings have produced mixed results, further colleagues (2009), cerebral binding of plasma investigation in the area of openness to values membrane serotonin transporter (5-HTT) was and health needs to be done. tested. Kalbitzer and colleagues (2009) hypothesized that potentiation of sertonergic transmission could effect cognitive flexibility. Openness to Aesthetics Using positron emission tomography (PET), it was found that subjects who had greater While openness to actions, ideas, and values cerebral binding of the 5-HTT selective PET focus on the interaction between cognition and radioligand were lower on openness than action, the remaining three facets, aesthetics, subjects who had low levels of binding fantasy, and feelings focus on emotional factors. (Kalbitzer, Frokjaer, Erritzoe, Svarer Cumming, Openness to aesthetics, the first of the three Nielsen, Hasemi, Baare, Madsen Hasselbalch, more emotional facets, is described as the Kringelbach, Mortensen, & Knudsen, 2009). appreciation of different art forms. While Interestingly, however, most of those who were individuals high on openness to aesthetics tend low on binding were S-allele carriers. Many to enjoy and appreciate the arts, the facet does studies have shown increased vulnerability to not apply to appreciation for a particular kind of various types of illness and disorders with the S- art form (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974). Aesthetic allele of the 5-HTT. However, in this case, sensitivity carries with it a particular form of having the S-allele seemed to have a beneficial intellect that combines intelligence, creativity, effect. The researchers interpreted the imagination, and perception (McCrae & John, association between low binding and high 1992). DeYoung et al.’s experiment, mentioned openness to change as reflecting greater earlier, on dopamine projections and cognitive cognitive flexibility. They believed that the lower performance had examined the role of binding promoted slower serotonin re-uptake at aesthetics. While the main finding of the the plasma membrane so that there were higher experiment was that openness to actions was extracellular serotonin levels (Kalbitzer et al., the facet least linked to cognitive flexibility and

Eldesouky / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE 33 intelligence, the role of openness to aesthetics also on the more emotional facets (DeYoung et proved to be intimately linked to cognitive al., 2003). flexibility and intelligence (DeYoung et al., 2003). In terms of creativity and imagination, Health and openness to aesthetics. Minimal some studies have found that higher scores on research has been done on the health benefits aesthetics have been significantly linked to of being high on openness to aesthetics. creative activities (Griffin & McDermott, 1998). However, the few studies that have been done What makes the aesthetics facet distinct have examined the link between the aesthetics from the other facets though is not its role in facet and artistic creativity because artistic intellect or even creativity, but its appreciation of creativity has been found to correlate with mood experience for its own sake (Bergeman, disorders (Wolfestein & Trull, 1997). In one Chipuer, Plomin, Pedersen, McClearn, study that explored openness to aesthetics, Nesselroade, Costa, Jr., & McCrae, 1993). researchers found that the facet was most While most assessments of openness to strongly related to depression (Wolfestein & aesthetics have relied on questionnaires, some Trull, 1997). As most studies have previously studies have looked at aesthetic markers as demonstrated, there is a significant and common being a universal marker of openness to association between and neuroticism. In this experience, which have been particularly unique study, the researchers found that individuals to the openness trait (McCrae, 2007). Aesthetic higher on openness to aesthetics were less chills are emotional responses to experiences of extraverted, more neurotic, and scored higher beauty (McCrae, 2007). The emotion on depression scores (Wolfstein & Trull, 1997). experienced during aesthetic chills is similar to The implications of these findings are not those felt during the emotion of elevation, in completely clear because while individuals may which there is a of awe and deep engage in the arts out of depression, engaging appreciation. Thus, while the chills experienced in arts may also decrease their feelings of can be similar to chills of surprise, they are not depression. The findings on aesthetics, unpleasant (McCrae, 2007). They also differ introversion, and neuroticism are also unclear. It from the chills of excitement that come with risk- is well known though that introverts are often taking, which are likely to be more apparent with more emotional, regardless of whether they high openness to actions (McCrae, 2007). express it or not. While everyone has the capacity to experience aesthetic chills, individuals who are more prone to experiencing them are those who Openness to Fantasy exhibit high emotional responsivity and sensitivity. They are the type of people who pay Like openness to aesthetics, openness to greater attention to all kinds of stimuli, internal fantasy is also strongly related to a person’s and external, as argued to be linked to a emotional disposition. As the name of this facet temperament known as Orienting sensitivity implies, it encompasses the tendency to engage (McCrae, 2007; Evans & Rothbart, 2008). They in fantasizing, which not only involves the are also the type to enjoy connecting with development of a mental picture, but also experiences by absorbing them and engaging engages high levels of creativity and several with them emotionally (Tellegen & Atkinson, emotions. While most research on fantasizing 1974). Thus, people high on the aesthetics facet has found that it can lead to increased risk for frequently experience opposing emotions depression, the research also suggests that simultaneously and at high intensities, though fantasizing can have both positive and negative not at the level of a clinical mood disorder effects, depending on the emotional investment (McCrae, 2007). As a result of the strong that one puts in them, the types of fantasies that emotional component, they also tend to be high one has, and whether or not the fantasies effect on the facets of fantasy and especially, feelings. everyday behavior. In addition, these facets have been found to be significantly high in individuals who are low on Health and openness to fantasy. Returning to extraversion, but high on openness to Wolfestein & Trull’s study, as discussed in the experience (DeYoung et al., 2003). Thus, the section on openness to aesthetics, openness to proactive seeking of breadth and depth of fantasy is also linked to depression (Wolfstein & experiences need not merely be expressed Trull, 1997). Wolfestein & Trull (1997) predicted through high scores on the actions facet, but that openness to fantasy could have a positive

34 YALE REVIEW OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY relation with mental health since openness and (Carrillo, Rojo, & Staats,1996). However, it is self-actualization are closely linked. However, also a possibility that positive fantasies can they also kept in mind that a private self-focus, a provide one with ambition to act and change construct highly linked to openness to fantasy their circumstances, so long as they are within and openness to feelings, could be linked to realistic bounds and are not impossible. In depression. The Self-Awareness Theory of addressing the possibility of openness facets, Depression argues that when individuals including fantasy, leading to increased risk for experience a type of loss or failure then they depressing, McCrae and Costa argue that face a challenging time in dealing with the openness is not meant to lead to either positive differences between their actual and ideal states mental health or maladjustment (Carrillo et al., (Pyszczynksi, Holt, & Greenberg, 1987). This is 2001). They propose that an individual high on where fantasizing can potentially play a openness is able to experience and reflect on significant role and lead to increased risk for several positive and negative experiences. By depression and negative emotions (Wolfstein & undergoing a wide variety of experiences, an Trull, 1997). Keeping this theory in mind, the individual high on openness is able to find a researchers anticipated the possibility of balance of positive and negative reactions to individuals high on openness to fantasy their experiences (Carrillo et al., 2001). experiencing a difficult time in dealing with their In the area of physical health, there have actual and ideal states (Wolfstein & Trull, 1997). been studies on imagination and disease While the results demonstrated that openness to contraction. One study by Sherman and fantasy was linked to depression, there was a colleagues (1985) examined how perceived greater link to depression if the subject was likelihood of contracting a disease can be extraverted as opposed to introverted. influenced by imagining contraction of the Another study by Garcia et al. (2005) disease. Some participants were asked to produced the same findings, where fantasizing imagine easy-to-imagine symptoms and others was more detrimental for the mental health of an were asked to imagine hard-to-imagine extravert than an introvert. Wolfstein and Trull symptoms. Afterwards, participants were asked (1997) have hypothesized that extraverts may to rate how easy it was to imagine the symptoms be more susceptible to having negative in the assigned condition and how likely they fantasies that deal with failing social were to actually contract the disease (Sherman, relationships, whereas introverts may not Cialdini, Schwartzman, & Reynolds, 1985). engage as much in socially based fantasies, and Sherman and colleagues (1985) found that this may explain the result. A study by Carillo judgment of imagination as being easy or and colleagues (2001) has also examined the difficult reflected participants’ estimates of role of openness to fantasy in predicting likelihood of contracting the disease. The depression and came across similar findings as subjects who rated the disease as being easy- Wolfstein and Trull. In addition to Wolfstein and to-imagine had judged the disease as more Trull’s findings however, they also examined likely to occur than subjects who rated the gender differences and found that women disease as being hard-to-imagine (Sherman et scored higher in fantasy than men, and were al., 1985). Perhaps for some, fantasizing is a thus more susceptible to depression than men source of motivation for changing the way they (Carillo et al., 2001). perceive a future negative event, while for In a previous study by Carrillo and others, it may be a source of depression colleagues it was found that fantasy predicted because they might be more inclined to have more than just depression, but also “neuroticism, negative fantasies. Regardless of whether the family maladjustment, personality disorders, and effects of fantasizing are positive or negative a lack of positive affect” (Carrillo, Rojo, though, the influence of fantasizing appears to Sanchez-Bernados, & Avia, 1998). It may be have significant implications because it that individuals who fantasize are more likely to demonstrates the power of appraisal, where do so because they are unhappy with reality and thinking about a situation can influence one’s fantasizing gives them a sense of control over perception of an event. their own inner reality. It has been proposed that overly positive fantasies about the future can Openness to Feelings actually have negative effects on one’s health by potentially suppressing motivation and action, Of all six facets, openness to feelings is thus increasing one’s vulnerability to depression recognized by many researchers as being the

Eldesouky / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE 35 most complex (Coan, 1972; McCrae, 2007). especially since the Pro allele demonstrates a Individuals high on openness to feelings highly protective effect and is more beneficial than the value emotions and are thus, more sensitive to Leu allele. emotional experiences. They also experience Other studies have looked at the brain- most emotions more intensely than individuals derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene who are lower on the facet. Greater levels of Val66Met polymorphism, particularly since it is sensitivity and intensity of emotional experience associated with the pathophysiology of mood has often been noted as being potentially disorder, as is openness to feelings (Matsuzawa harmful to one’s health. In certain cases, et al., 2005). BDNF has been heavily experiencing a wide range of emotions can investigated for its role in depression, and result in frustration because an individual may antidepressants have aimed to increase BDNF be confused and overwhelmed with their transcription to cure symptoms of the disorder emotions (McCrae, 2007). The inability to make (Sen, Nesse, Stolenberg, Li, Gleibernman, sense of the mixed emotional states that one is Chakarvarti, Weber, & Baurmeister, 2003). experiencing may be even worse for people who Other reasons for investigating the relationship frequently suppress their emotions. A lack of between BDNF and depression come from coherence of emotional states has the potential research on depression, hippocampal size and to lead to difficulty in effective emotion neurogenesis. Individuals who are depressed regulation. Unsurprisingly, research shows that have smaller hippocampi and experience high openness to feelings has been linked to decreased neurogenesis. BDNF is a crucial higher experience of anxiety and neuroticism factor in neurogenesis because it affects (Garcia et al., 2005). Research also shows that neuronal differentiation during development and women tend to be higher on openness to plays a crucial role during adulthood in synaptic feelings than men and that this is linked to the plasticity and neuronal survival (Sen et al., higher rates of anxiety and mood disorders in 2003). In a study by Sen and colleagues it was women (Coan, 1972). Another large body of found that the Val allele was linked to an research though proposes that emotional increase for depression and that the Met allele awareness can actually be beneficial and reduce had a protective effect. This is because the Mel health problems, including depression. allele of BDNF produces higher activity and better processing of BDNF. Individuals who Biological correlates of openness to feelings. were high on openness to feelings were more Research on the biological correlates of likely to have a homozygous or heterozygous openness to feelings has generally been linked genotype including the Mel allele (Sen et al., to understanding the role they play in disease 2003). and psychiatric disorders. In one study it was One study by Jonassaint and colleagues found that a functional polymorphism of the examined how the various facets of openness to glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX1) gene was experience were linked to inflammation. They linked to openness to feelings, and even found that the feelings facet had the most openness to experience in general cell significant effect. Similar to the above findings (Matsuzawa, Hashimoto, Shimizu, Fujisaki, & they also found that higher openness to feelings Iyo, 2005). Glutathione peroxidases protect cells had beneficial effects. Individuals higher on from oxidative damage by reducing hydrogen openness were found to have lower mean C- peroxide present in and around the cell reactive protein (CRP) levels. They proposed (Matsuzawa et al., 2005). The three possible that this was related to high emotional genotypes are Pro198Leu, Leu198Leu, and awareness and can have a protective effect Pro198Pro. Unlike the Pro allele, previous against disease. This is unlike low emotional studies have shown that the Leu allele is less awareness, which they suggested can lead to responsive to added selenium and may lead to excessive stress-induced sympathetic activation functional consequences. In this study, and affect circulating inflammatory markers individuals who had the Pro198Pro allele were (Jonassaint, Boyle, Kuhn, Siegler, Copeland, & higher on openness to experience, and the Williams, 2010). The challenge of identifying feelings facet in particular, than any genotypes feelings and failing to allow oneself to fully with the Leu allele (Matsuzawa et al., 2005). experience them has been linked to greater Matsuzawa and colleagues argue that this may physiological arousal (Jonassaint et al., 2010). have significant implications for risk of Thus, low emotional awareness may lead to neuropsychiatric diseases and mood disorders, increased risk of inflammation and

36 YALE REVIEW OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY cardiovascular disease (CVD). The researchers therapeutic for individuals (Cameron & Nicholls, also proposed that low emotional awareness 1998). Writing always leads individuals to take can lead to negative affective states that have different approaches to their experiences and the potential to elevate CRP. think of ways to resolve potential conflicts. The Another study by Jonassiant and his worry though is that while some individuals colleagues (Jonassaint, Boyle, Williams, Mark, might use writing to continuously ruminate on Siegler, & Barefoot, 2007) also came to the stressful events instead of taking the time to same conclusion: that low openness to feelings develop effective coping strategies (Cameron & can increase risk for illness. They found that low Nicholls, 1998). Thus, it is not necessarily the openness to feelings led to cardiac trends and intensity of emotional experience that can be that there was a protective effect of scoring costly, but the way one deals with their higher on this facet (Jonassaint, 2007). They emotions. propose that this is due to low emotional Whether or not openness to feelings is awareness and -blunted affect. Low beneficial seems to depend significantly on emotional awareness can lead to increased appraisal since appraisals guide emotional physiological arousal and predispose individuals experience and action (Schneider, 2008). As an to behaviors like social isolation and substance indirect measurement of the effects of appraisal, abuse and increase the experience of affective researchers have examined how and if stress states including “depression, somatic responses are linked to openness to feelings. complaints, and anxiety” (Jonassaint, 2007). This is because the way one deals with stress Alexithymia-blunted affect can also lead to involves changes in appraisals, emotion, and diseases through “physiological, behavioral, task performance (Schneider, 2008). Appraisal social, or cognitive mechanisms”. What is describes how one deals and interacts with a interesting to note though is that the individuals situation in the environment (Lazarus, 1999). high on openness had experienced positive and Primary appraisal begins with an evaluation of negative emotions more intensely, which can whether or not a stressor is relevant to an also be another risk in itself. individual. A secondary appraisal evaluates the resources that are available for coping with the Health and openness to feelings. Some studies stressor. If an individual thinks of the situation as have examined how various types of emotion a challenge that they are capable of overcoming, regulation and appraisal can influence health. it might reasonably be predicted that they would Such findings are significant because both experience a greater level of confidence in their extreme emotional suppression and extreme ability to cope with the situation. However, if an emotional expression have been linked to individual sees the situation as a threat then emotion in disease onset and progression, they are likely to feel overwhelmed and fail to affecting the endocrine, immune, and autonomic deal with it effectively (Lazarus, 1999). systems (Gross, 1989). For instance, in one In a study on the effects of appraisal on study it was found that frequent suppression of affect and performance, Schneider (2008) found negative emotions predicted increased risk for that challenge appraisals led to greater positive myocardial infarction (MI) (Denollet & affect and that threat appraisals led to greater Brutsaertm, 1998). In another study it was found negative affect. She also found that openness in that individuals who suppressed their emotional particular was what drove this effect and that thoughts were also more susceptible to general extraversion, which is often expected to be illness (Petrie, Booth, & Pennebaker, 1998). related to appraisals, was not (Schneider, 2008). They showed a significant decrease in CD3T When presenting subjects with a task, they lymphocyte levels, CD8 (T suppressor) cells, found that performance was also associated and total lymphocyte numbers (Petrie et al., with openness, with those higher on openness 1998). They also had poorer natural (NK) cell to feelings performing better (Schneider, 2008). activity. However, the researchers also found A study specifically looking at stress regulation that those who had done emotional writing and and openness found that higher openness to were high on openness to aesthetics had feelings was also linked to increased positive increased levels of circulating CD4 (T helper affect (Williams, Rau, Cribbet, & Gunn, 2009). cells) and the total number of lymphocytes In terms of chronic illness onset and (Petrie et al., 1998). This protective effect has progression, higher openness to feelings has been seen in other studies, where writing about been linked to better health outcomes. It has thoughts and emotions has proven to be been linked to decreased cardiac death and

Eldesouky / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE 37 lower all-cause mortality (Williams et al., 2009). to pursue and the way we choose to perceive Researchers have also found that individuals and deal with events in our lives. The pursuit of higher on openness have blunted cortisol understanding what the core elements of responses and experience higher personality are remains as different theories parasympathetic activity and decreased continue to arise. As the field of personality sympathetic activity (Williams et al., 2009). The psychology continues to grow though, some belief is that this results from effective aspects of personality gain wide acceptance. reappraisal of negative emotional stimuli and the The Five Factor Model is an instance of this. Its possibility that more open people are higher on comprehensive integration of past research and mindfulness when it comes to emotion labeling. personality scales has helped further the Thus, even when confronted with difficult understanding of personality. Even though there situations, individuals who are high on openness are multiple questionnaires that adopt the to feelings may engage in more adaptive and theory, they adopt the same five main traits: flexible coping mechanisms (Williams et al., extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, 2009). This type of mindfulness may even conscientiousness, and openness to experience, extend to coherence of narratives from and have been to produce similar results. Only psychotherapy experiences, allowing individuals recently has application of this model been to engage in meaningful reflection on their extended to fields beyond personality experiences. Some evidence for this is linked to psychology, in hopes of gaining a more prefrontal cortex functioning, which is linked to extensive understanding of human mind and general cognitive abilities, as discussed in the behavior. Instances of this can be seen in fields section on openness to actions. In addition to exploring health such as psychology and playing a role in cognitive abilities, the PFC also medicine, where fields that once appeared to be plays a role in stress-dampening self-regulatory unrelated are now relying significantly on each activity. Thus, the PFC’s role in executive other. functions, which is typically more active in To better understand physical and mental people high on openness, also includes health, researchers have begun to acknowledge inhibitory control. the important role of personality and thus, have The ability for high-open individuals to adopted the popular Five Factor Model into engage in more effective emotion regulation and many of their studies. Researchers have see things as being more rewarding than stumbled across several correlations between threatening has extended to research on the Big Five traits and aspects of health such as openness and life satisfaction (Williams et al., health perception, health behavior, risk for 2009). Stephan has examined the relationship disease, and disease progression. While the between openness and life satisfaction in older traits of extraversion, neuroticism, adults. He found that openness to feelings was agreeableness, and conscientiousness have positively correlated with self-reported life produced consistent results across numerous satisfaction, while controlling for health and studies, findings on the influence of openness to financial satisfaction (Stephan, 2009). When it experience on health have remained mixed and came to the benefits of openness to feelings, heavily disputed. In this review, we proposed Stephan believed that this resulted from open that the mixed findings may have been due to individuals adjusting how they felt in response to the complexity of the trait and thus, proposed experiencing new ideas or situations (Stephan, that the trait be examined in more depth, instead 2009). Thus, the inability to adjust or cope of being examined broadly. Openness to effectively can in fact lead to greater vulnerability experience, the most controversial of the Big to the effects of stress for low-open individuals Five, can describe a wide array of people such and provide a protective effect for those who are as those who appreciate the arts, those who high on openness to feelings (Williams et al., enjoy traveling and trying new foods, and those 2009). who love to fantasize. Since people can be open in a myriad of ways, we suggested that a detailed look at individual levels of the main Big Openness to Experience: A Good Thing? Five traits might give a clearer understanding of openness to experience as well as its Personality plays a key role in our lives because implications for health. of the significant impact it has on the decisions To gain an accurate understanding of the we make such as the activities that we choose actions facet, we first examined the similarities

38 YALE REVIEW OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY and differences between openness to actions, behind this study. Other studies however, extraversion, and sensation-seeking, finding that indicated that this may be linked to decreased the actions facet not only had a strong cognitive flexibility, which is effected by behavioral component, like the other two sertonergic transmission. A primary concern personality constructs, but also a strong regarding the openness to values facet is where cognitive component. We identified some to draw the line between one’s values and one’s potential biological correlates including personality. It is not entirely clear how holding norepinephrine, MAO, and variations in onto one’s traditional values can have a dopamine receptors (Cloninger, 2000). In our negative influence on their health, especially if investigation of its effect on health, we found they are content with those values and use them that scoring high on the facet had the potential to structure aspects of their life. to be beneficial to one’s health because it was Similar to the values facet, we found minimal associated with a greater experience of positive research on the role of the aesthetics facet in emotion (Carrilo et al., 2001). This was also true health. However, we reviewed related research for those who were diagnosed with an illness. similar to the aesthetics facet. Research on Openness to actions appeared to form a buffer artistic creativity had shown that it was against depression because it encouraged one sometimes associated with mood disorders. In to pursue activities that brought them joy, one study, it was found that just like increased regardless of their current state (Salovey et al., artistic creativity, a higher score on the 2000). At the same time, openness to actions aesthetics facet was linked to increased risk for has the potential to be costly to one’s health. depression (Wolfestein & Trull, 1997). While we One who pursues dangerous activities such as did not find any studies that looked at biological substance abuse may be experiencing a lot of correlates of the aesthetics facet, perhaps it positive emotion, but also face many health risks would be useful to look at the role of BDNF and (Booth-Kewley & Vickers, Jr., 1994). Future the GPX1 gene, which have been found to studies should identify what other unhealthy increase risk for depression. Biological behaviors may be linked to openness to actions correlates aside though, it is challenging to besides substance abuse. determine whether engagement of the arts is a In our analysis of the openness to ideas result of depression or if it helps to decrease facet, we found that individuals scoring high on depression. At the same time, the aesthetics the facet felt more positive emotion and were facet is not entirely equivalent to artistic more satisfied with their life (Stephan, 2009). creativity since the aesthetics facet need not The suggested reason for this is that the brain is entail engaging in the arts, but simply kept active and that individuals are more flexible appreciating the arts. in thinking, as supported by some studies on the Just as we did not come across any findings role of dopamine in cognitive flexibility (Duncan that examined biological correlates of openness et al., 2000). Thus, not only do individuals get to aesthetics, we also did not find any that were joy out of increasing their knowledge, but they related to the facet of fantasy. We did however, are also able to better cope with challenges they come across similar findings to the aesthetics encounter because they make the effort to think facet in that the fantasy fact was also linked to about them positively (Whitbourne, 1986; Tesch depression (Carrillo et al., 1996; Wolfestein & & Cameron, 2003). While these findings are Trull, 1997). Some studies indicated between- linked to cognitive flexibility, researchers must group differences though, finding that extraverts be careful not to confuse the facet with intellect high on the fantasy facet were more susceptible or intelligence. Much of the debate that has to negative outcomes than introverts. The come about regarding what openness is as a researchers behind the study proposed that this trait has come about from the cognitive may have been due to differences in fantasy characteristics related to this facet. content, namely that extraverts may have more Unlike our findings on the actions and ideas negative socially-based fantasies. Further facets, we did not come across positive investigation should be done on how outcomes linked to the values facets. The few extraversion might play a role in fantasizing and studies that have been done on its role in health more generally, how the content of one’s have found that it is linked to increased risk for fantasies can influence their health and well- cardiac deaths as well as elevated mortality being. Just as we proposed in our discussion on (Jonassiant et al., 2007). No interpretation of the facet, it may be that for some fantasizing is a these results was provided by the researchers

Eldesouky / OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE 39 source of motivation and hope, while for others it aspects of personality that go beyond the main may be a source of depression and loss of hope. five factors (McCrae & John, 1992). It has also The last facet we examined was the feelings been criticized for its questionnaire approach, facet, which was the most unclear in its which puts a limitation on personality. There is implications for health relative to the other five the risk of bias on the part of the participant facets. On one hand, we found that some of its because individuals are more likely to report biological correlates such as the GPX1 gene positive traits on questionnaires as opposed to and the BDNF gene increased risk for negative traits. At the same time, personality is neuropsychiatric diseases and mood disorders. dynamic and operates through a variety of On the other hand, we found that low scores on situations. Even though certain patterns are the facet were linked to decreased risk of consistent, questionnaires cannot capture this inflammation and contraction of cardiovascular dynamic and can only provide one side of the disease (Jonassaint et al., 2010) as well as picture. Detailed approaches such as narratives decreased cardiac death and greater life should be examined in addition to satisfaction (Williams et al., 2009). It may be questionnaires because they are likely to offer a beneficial to be aware of one’s emotions, but different perspective in understanding emotional awareness does not automatically personality. Through a narrative, one is able to imply that one knows how or even wants to deal provide descriptions that give explanations for with her emotions. For instance, one may why they may have acted or felt a certain way. ruminate continuously or suppress their Unfortunately, a structured questionnaire with emotions, both of which can be harmful to one’s questions that have been written by researchers health (Gross, 1989). In this case, it appears to does not offer free responses. be more beneficial to be less emotionally aware. If researchers hope to understand the role of Future studies need to investigate the openness to experience in health, it is relationship between emotional awareness and imperative that they look at how the individual emotion regulation, and ultimately, how this aspects of the trait influence health and attempt relationship impacts one’s health. to separate openness from the other Big Five When examining the effects of openness to traits when doing so. More importantly however, experience on health, our analysis of each facet they should consider multiple ways of assessing enabled us to understand why the trait of personality because the Five Factor Model, as openness was so complex. We suggest that a any personality model, will have its limitations. facet approach be taken by empirical Given that the field of personality psychology is researchers and that they use the Big Five complex and ever-changing though, researchers questionnaires that contain facets as opposed to should keep in mind that the results will be ever- using the more condensed questionnaires changing as well. because the questionnaires with facets are more detailed. Beyond the obstacles that come with understanding the role of each facet level in References health though, there is another obstacle that arises with the independence of the trait itself. Openness to experience has been continuously Aluja, A. et al. (2002). Relationships among extraversion, openness to experience, and challenged for not being an independent trait sensation seeking. Personality and Individual even though psychometric tests have Differences 35:671-680. demonstrated that it is a very distinct trait Batey, M., & Furnham, A. (2006). Creativity, (Garcia et al., 2005). For instance, he actions intelligence, and personality: A critical review facet is frequently linked to extraversion, the of the scattered literature. Genetic, Social and ideas facet is often correlated with General Psychology Monographs 132:455- agreeableness, and the values facet tends to be 929. related to neuroticism. Bergeman, C.S. et al. (1993). Genetic and Related to the independence of openness is Environmental Effects on Openness to the independence of the other Big Five traits Experience, Agreeableness, and themselves. The Five Factor Model may be a Conscientiousness: An Adoption/Twin Study. comprehensive and widely used model to Journal of Personality 61:2. assess personality, but it is not the only way to Bermudez, J. (1999). Personality and Health- assess personality. It has been criticized for Protective Behaviour. European Journal of being too broad and failing to take into account Personality, 13, 83-103.

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