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DISSERTATION Copy 2 Impacts%of%semi7natural%grazing%on% vegetation%biodiversity:%A%study%of%Knepp% Castle%Estate’s%re7wilding%project% Charlotte)L)Bottone) Geography)MA)(Hons)) 2016) Word%count:%11,636% !1 Declaration)of)originality)) 'I%hereby%declare%that%this%dissertation%has%been%composed%by%me%and%is%based%on%my%own% work’% Signature:_________________________% !2 Acknowledgements) Firstly,%I%would%like%to%thank%my%dissertation%supervisor,%Eva%Panagiotakopulu,%for%going%above% and%beyond.% I%would%also%like%to%thank%Charlie%Burrell%and%Penny%Green%at%Knepp%for%allowing%me%to%carry% out%this%research%and%answering%any%questions%that%I%had.%% I%am%thankful%for%all%the%help%and%advice%Michael%Sutcliffe%and%my%family%gave%me.% Finally%thanks%to%my%fellow%geographers,%the%friends%I%have%made%here%at%Edinburgh%have% provided%endless%moral%support%and%comradery.% !3 Abstract)) Re7wilding%is%a%revolutionary%approach%to%conservation,%one%that%aims%to%restore%natural% processes%and%keystone%species%to%play%a%more%prominent%role%in%the%landscape.%In%addition,% re7wilding%allows%society%to%reconnect%with%nature.%Knepp%Castles%Estate’s%re7wilding%project%is% a%unique%experiment%which%endeavours%to%re7introduce%large%grazing%herbivores%into%the% landscape%in%the%hope%that%this%will%eventually%enable%natural%processes%to%take%place%and% improve%Sloral%and%faunal%biodiversity.%This%study%aims%to%assess%the%impacts%of%the%semi7 natural%grazing%at%Knepp,%as%well%as%the%ways%in%which%it%has%affected%the%vegetation% biodiversity.%This%was%achieved%by%carrying%out%vegetation%surveys%and%applying%the%data%to% calculate%vegetation%biodiversity.%The%results%from%each%of%Knepp’s%three%experimental%blocks% highlight%that%different%levels%of%human%intervention%were%involved%in%the%construction%of%these% experiments.%The%different%levels%of%intervention%affected%the%species%of%grazer,%intensity%of% grazing%and%land%restoration%strategies,%which%in%turn%had%consequences%for%the%vegetation% biodiversity.%Although%there%are%numerous%factors%which%can%alter%the%dynamics%of%an% ecosystem,%this%study%found%that%high%grazing%intensity%had%the%most%inSluence%on%retarding% vegetation%biodiversity.%As%well%as%this,%a%fallow%period%(before%the%introduction%of%grazers)% proved%favourable%to%the%formation%or%mosaic%habitats,%and%subsequently,%vegetation% biodiversity.%These%Sindings%provide%suggestions%for%the%future%of%Knepp’s%re7wilding% experiments,%namely%that%further%and%more%controlled%experimentation%would%be%beneSicial% towards%Knepp’s%success%and%the%instruction%of%other%similar%re7wilding%schemes.%% !4 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Aim and Objectives 3 1.2 Background 4 2. Methodology 12 2.1 Site Selection 14 2.2 Field methods 17 2.3 Data analysis 19 3.Results 24 3.1 Data 24 4. Data Analysis 33 4.1 Descriptive statistics 33 4.2 Inferential statistics 36 4.3 Biodiversity Indices 39 4.4 Grazing 41 4.5 Correlations 41 5. Discussion 44 5.1 Biodiversity 44 5.2 Vegetation succession 47 5.3 Co-existence 50 5.4 The effects of grazing on vegetation 52 5.5 Stocking levels 56 5.6 Effects other than grazing herbivores 57 5.7 Wider implications 58 5.8 Suggestions for the future 61 6. Conclusion 62 !5 List of Figures Figure1:%p5% Figure%2:%p6% Figure%3:%p6% Figure%4:%p9% Figure%5:%p12% Figure%6:%p13% Figure%7:%p18% Figure%8:%p32% Figure%9:%p33% Figure%10:%p43% Figure%11:%p35% Figure%12:%p37% Figure%13:%p40% Figure%14:%p42% Figure%15:%p46%% Figure%16:%p48% Figure%17:%p50% Figure%18:%p53% Figure%19:%p55% Figure%20:%p59%% List)of)Tables) Table%1:%p14% Table%2:%p15% Table%3:%p17% Table%4:%p24725% Table%5:%p26727% Table%6:%p28729% Table%7:%p30731% Table%8:%p38% Table%9:%p38% Table%10:%p39% Table%11:%p41% Table%12:%p43% !1 1.)Introduction)) %% % Re7wilding%is%the%mass%restoration%of%ecosystems,%which%attempts%to%recover%areas%of% wilderness.%The%term%re7wilding%was%Sirst%used%by%the%conservation%activist%Dave%Foreman%in% the%1990’s,%but%has%since%been%reSined%by%conservation%biologist%Michael%Soulé%(Fraser,%2009).% He%based%re7wilding%on%three%principles,%Sirstly%that%ecosystems%are%maintained%by%‘top7down’% predators,%second%that%these%animals%require%extensive%space,%and%third%that%they%need% connectivity%(Soulé%and%Noss,%1998).%%In%short%hand%these%are%known%as%the%three%C’s:%cores,% corridors%and%carnivores%(Soulé%and%Noss,%1998).%Since%then,%re7wilding%has%become% popularised%by%writers%such%as%British%environmentalist%George%Monbiot,%who%argues%that%re7 wilding%is%quintessentially%based%on%the%earth%being%a%self7regulating%and%complex%set%of% ecosystems%(Monbiot,%2013).%He%explains%the%importance%of%the%discovery%of%trophic% cascading,%and%highlights%the%key%role%large%animals%play%in%many%aspects%of%an%ecosystem.%In% addition,%he%contends%that%removing%these%animals%causes%drastic%changes%to%a%habitat,%both% directly%and%indirectly%(Monbiot,%2013).%This%makes%for%a%powerful%case%to%re7introduce%large% mammals%and%keystone%species%back%into%the%environment,%not%in%order%to%create%a%particular% type%of%habitat,%but%instead,%to%minimise%human%intervention%in%natural%processes.%% % Re7wilding%has%often%been%mistakenly%described%as%an%attempt%to%turn%back%time,%when% in%fact,%it%is%a%way%of%using%the%past%to%inform%the%present%(Lorimer%et%al.,%2015).%Knepp%Castle% Estate%is%an%example%of%such%a%project,%it%is%a%site%which%uses%large%grazing%herbivores%to%restore% natural%processes%(Knepp,%2016).%The%ecologist%Frans%Vera’s%pioneering%work%in%re7wilding%has% informed%the%project%at%Knepp%(Greenway,%2006).%His%wood7pasture%hypothesis%determined% the%primordial%baseline%for%the%state%of%vegetation%in%Europe%(Vera,%200).% !1 % This%study%assesses%how%the%introduction%of%large%grazing%herbivores%has%inSluenced%the% vegetation%biodiversity%at%Knepp%Castle%estates’%re7wilding%project.%This%is%achieved%by% surveying%the%vegetation%across%three%blocks%of%Knepp%which%have%all%undergone%forms%of%re7 wilding%experiments.%This%study%aims%to%Sill%in%gaps%of%knowledge%in%Knepp’s%re7wilding% project,%no%study%has%been%carried%out%assessing%the%impacts%of%grazing%on%vegetation% biodiversity.%The%data%gathered%during%the%survey%period%was%then%analysed,%and%upon% examination,%the%southern%block%proved%to%be%the%most%successful%at%‘re7wilding’.%This%is% because%the%southern%block%has%progressed%further%in%terms%of%vegetation%succession%due%to%an% optimal%grazing%intensity%of%a%variety%of%large%grazing%herbivores.%The%grazing%herbivores%have% created%intermediate%patterns%of%vegetation%disturbances,%generating%a%mosaic%habitat,%and%in% turn%increasing%vegetation%biodiversity.%This%is%ultimately%indicative%of%a%habitat%undergoing% the%process%of%re7wilding.% !2 1.1)Aim)and)Objectives) The%overall%aim%of%this%study%is:% To#determine#the#effect#of#Semi/natural#Grazing#on#the#vegetation#biodiversity#of##Knepp#Castle# Estate’s#Re/wilding#Project.# In%order%to%achieve%the%above%aim,%this%study%has%three%objectives:% • Examine%current%vegetation%biodiversity%across%the%three%blocks%of%Knepp%Castle%Estate.% %% • Assess%the%impact%of%grazing%herbivores%on%vegetation%biodiversity%by%comparing%the%three% blocks%of%Knepp%Castle%Estate.% %% • Evaluate%which%block%is%most%successful%at%achieving%Knepp’s%re7wilding%aims.% !3 1.2)Background) 1.2.1%Re7wilding% % Broadly%deSined,%re7wilding%is%a%form%of%conservation%aimed%at%protecting%and%restoring% ecological%processes%and%areas%of%wilderness%by%reintroducing%keystone%species%and%apex% predators.%The%preservation%of%wilderness%or%‘wild%places’%was%one%of%the%main%motivations%of% conservation%pioneers%like%John%Muir%in%the%19th%century.%However,%re7wilding%is%a%more% modern%take%on%such%ideas.%Re7wilding%encompasses%a%broad%range%of%projects%globally%with% numerous%approaches,%the%reintroduction%of%wolves%to%Yellowstone%park%is%often%seen%as%the% Slagship%example.%Other%forms%of%re7wilding%include%plestoicene%re7wilding%and%the%use%of% megafauna%analogues%or%island%biogeography%with%the%reintroduction%of%giant%tortoises%in%the% Golapogas%(Hanson%et%al.,%2010).%In%Europe%re7wilding%tends%to%focus%on%naturlistic%grazing% through%the%introduction%of%large%herbivores.%This%has%become%popular%due%to%concerns%over% rural%depopulation%and%intensive%farming%(Macdonald%et%al.,%2000).%Arguably,%some%contention% does%exist%when%it%comes%to%deSining%re7wilding,%for%example,%Svenning%(2015)%argues%that%no% part%of%Europe%could%be%deemed%‘natural’%and%untouched%by%humans,%whereas%Scottish%Natural% Heritage%has%deSined%and%protected%19%%of%current%Scotland%under%the%label%‘wild%land% areas’%(Scottish%Natural%Heritage,%2016).%An%obstacle%for%re7wilding%is%the%nescience%that% misconstrues%re7wilding%as%something%far7fetched,%but%the%restoration%of%wild%places%is%not%a% reverie%of%going%back%to%the%Ice%Age%(Macdonell,%2015).%Nevertheless,%although%re7wilding%has% been%applied%to%a%diverse%range%of%concepts%and%practices,%they%all%share%a%common%aim,%to% maintain,%or%improve,%biodiversity,%while%reducing%the%impact%of%human%interventions%through% the%restoration%of%ecological%processes%(Lorimer%et%al.,%2015).% %% Although%a%vast%array%of%literature%assesses%the%contention%of%what%is%considered%‘wild’% and%‘natural’%(Cronon%1995),%this%study%does%not%discuss%the%theories%of%the%social%construction% !4 of%nature.%This%study%will%refer%to%the%term%natural%based%on%the%mid7holocene%landscape% (around%6000%BP).%This%deSinition%is%chosen%in%parallel%with%Frans%Vera,%who%deSines%a%natural% landscape%as%pre7agricultural,%since%it%involved%little%human%intervention.%% 1.2.3%The%role%of%grazers% Figure%1.%The%forest%cycle%of%vegetation%succession%occurring%with%grazing%
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