1 Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins 7 1.1 Foreword 7 1.2 Amino Acids 7 1.2.1 General Remarks 7 1.2.2 Classification, Discovery and Occurrence 7 1.2.2.1 Classification 7 1.2.2.2 Discovery and Occurrence 9 1.2.3 Physical Properties 10 1.2.3.1 Dissociation 10 1.2.3.2 Configuration and Optical Activity 11 1.2.3.3 Solubility 12 1.2.3.4 UV-Absorption 13 1.2.4 Chemical Reactions 13 1.2.4.1 Esterification of Carboxyl Groups 13 1.2.4.2 Reactions of Amino Groups 14 1.2.4.2.1 Acylation 14 1.2.4.2.2 Alkylation and Arylation 16 1.2.4.2.3 Carbamoyl and thiocarbamoyl derivatives 18 1.2.4.2.4 Reactions with Carbonyl Compounds 18 1.2.4.3 Reactions Involving Other Functional Groups 19 1.2.4.3.1 Lysine 19 1.2.4.3.2 Arginine 20 1.2.4.3.3 Aspartic and Glutamic Acids 20 1.2.4.3.4 Serine and Threonine 20 1.2.4.3.5 Cysteine and Cystine 20 1.2.4.3.6 Methionine 21 1.2.4.3.7 Tyrosine 21 1.2.4.4 Thermal Degradation of Amino Acids 21 1.2.5 Synthetic Amino Acids Utilized for Increasing the Biological Value of Food (Food Fortification) 24 1.2.5.1 Glutamic Acid 25 1.2.5.2 Aspartic Acid 25 1.2.5.3 Lysine 25 1.2.5.4 Methionine 26 1.2.5.5 Phenylalanine 26

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1.2.5.6 Threonine 27 1.2.5.7 Tryptophan 27 1.2.6 Sensory Properties 27 1.3 Peptides 28 1.3.1 General Remarks, Nomenclature 28 1.3.2 Physical Properties 29 1.3.2.1 Dissociation 29 1.3.3 Sensory Properties 29 1.3.4 Individual Peptides 30 1.3.4.1 Glutathione 30 1.3.4.2 Carnosine, Anserine and Balenine 31 1.3.4.3 Nisin 31 1.3.4.4 Lysine Peptides 32 1.3.4.5 Other Peptides 32 1.4 Proteins 32 1.4.1 Amino Acid Sequence 33 1.4.1.1 Amino Acid Composition, Subunits 33 1.4.1.2 Terminal Groups 33 1.4.1.3 Partial Hydrolysis 34 1.4.1.4 Sequence Analysis 35 1.4.2 Conformation 37 1.4.2.1 Extended Peptide Chains 37 1.4.2.2 Secondary Structure (Regular Structural Elements) 38 1.4.2.2.1 0-Sheet 39 1.4.2.2.2 Helical structures 40 1.4.2.2.3 Reverse turms 41 1.4.2.2.4 Super-Secondary Structures 41 1.4.2.3 Tertiary and Quaternary Structures 41 1.4.2.3.1 Fibrous Proteins 41 1.4.2.3.2 Globular Proteins 41 1.4.2.3.3 Quaternary Structures 43 1.4.2.4 Denaturation 43 1.4.3 Physical Properties 44 1.4.3.1 Dissociation 44 1.4.3.2 Optical Activity 45 1.4.3.3 Solubility, Hydration and Swelling Power 45 1.4.4 Chemical Reactions 47 1.4.4.1 Lysine Residue 47 1.4.4.1.1 Reactions which Retain the Positive Charge 47 1.4.4.1.2 Reactions Resulting in a Loss of Positive Charge 48 1.4.4.1.3 Reactions resulting in a negative charge 48 1.4.4.1.4 Reversible reactions 48 1.4.4.2 Arginine Residue 49 1.4.4.3 Glutamic and Aspartic Acid Residues 49 1.4.4.4 Cystine Residue 50 1.4.4.5 Cysteine Residue 51 1.4.4.6 Methionine Residue 51 1.4.4.7 Histidine Residue 52 1.4.4.8 Tryptophan Residue 52 1.4.4.9 Tyrosine Residue 52 1.4.4.10 Bifunctional Reagents 52 1.4.4.11 Reactions Involved in Food Processing 53 1.4.5 Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions 56 1.4.5.1 Foreword 56 1.4.5.2 Proteolytic Enzymes 57 1.4.5.2.1 Serine Proteinases 57 1.4.5.2.2 Cysteine Proteinases 58 Table of Contents XI

1.4.5.2.3 Metallo Proteinases 60 1.4.5.2.4 Aspartic Proteinases 60 1.4.6 Chemical and Enzymatic Reactions of Interest to Food Processing .. 61 1.4.6.1 Foreword 61 1.4.6.2 Chemical Modification 61 1.4.6.2.1 Acylation 62 1.4.6.2.2 Alkylation 64 1.4.6.2.3 Redox Reactions Involving Cysteine and Cystine 64 1.4.6.3 Enzymatic Modification 64 1.4.6.3.1 Dephosphorylation 64 1.4.6.3.2 Plastein Reaction 65 1.4.6.3.3 Associations Involving Cross-Linking 68 1.4.7 Texturized Proteins 68 1.4.7.1 Foreword 68 1.4.7.2 Starting Material 69 1.4.7.3 Texturization 69 1.4.7.3.1 Spin process 69 1.4.7.3.2 Extrusion process 70 1.5 Literature 70

2 Enzymes 73 2.1 Foreword 73 2.2 General Remarks, Isolation and Nomenclature 73 2.2.1 Catalysis 73 2.2.2 Specificity 74 2.2.2.1 Substrate Specificity 74 2.2.2.2 Reaction Specificity 75 2.2.3 Structure 75 2.2.4 Isolation of Purification 75 2.2.5 Multiple Forms and Enzymes 76 2.2.6 Nomenclature 77 2.2.7 Activity Units 77 2.3 Enzyme Cofactors 80 2.3.1 Cosubstrates 80 2.3.1.1 Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide 80 2.3.1.2 Adenosine Triphosphate 81 2.3.2 Prosthetic Groups 81 2.3.2.1 Flavins 81 2.3.2.2 Hemin 82 2.3.2.3 Pyridoxal Phosphate 82 2.3.3 Metal Ions 83 2.3.3.1 Magnesium, Calcium and Zinc 83 2.3.3.2 Iron, Copper and Molybdenum 84 2.4 Theory of Enzyme Catalysis 85 2.4.1 Active Site 85 2.4.1.1 Active Site Localization 85 2.4.1.2 Substrate Binding 87 2.4.1.2.1 "Lock and key" Hypothesis 87 2.4.1.2.2 Induced-Fit Model 88 2.4.1.2.3 Stereospecificity 88 2.4.1.3 Effect of Substrate Binding on Reaction Rate 89 2.4.1.3.1 Steric Effect - Orientation Effect 89 2.4.1.3.2 Bond distortion 90 2.4.1.3.3 Entropy effect 90 2.4.2 Reaction Mechanisms 91 XII Table of Contents

2.4.2.1 General Acid-Base Catalysis 91 2.4.2.2 Covalent Catalysis 93 2.4.2.3 Redox Catalysis 96 2.4.3 Closing Remarks 96 2.5 Kinetics of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions 96 2.5.1 Effect of Substrate Concentration 96 2.5.1.1 Single-Substrate Reactions 96 2.5.1.1.1 Michaelis-Menten Equation 96 2.5.1.1.2 Determination of Km and V 98 2.5.1.2 Two-Substrate Reactions 99 2.5.1.2.1 Order of Substrate Binding 99 2.5.1.2.2 Rate Equations for a Two-Substrate Reaction 101 2.5.1.3 Allosteric Enzymes 101 2.5.2 Effect of Inhibitors 104 2.5.2.1 Irreversible Inhibition 104 2.5.2.2 Reversible Inhibition 104 2.5.2.2.1 Competitive Inhibition 105 2.5.2.2.2 Non-Competitive Inhibition 105 2.5.2.2.3 Uncompetitive Inhibition 106 2.5.3 Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity 106 2.5.4 Enzymatic Analysis 108 2.5.4.1 Substrate Determination 108 2.5.4.1.1 Principles 108 2.5.4.1.2 End-Point Method 110 2.5.4.1.3 Kinetic Method Ill 2.5.4.2 Determination of Enzyme Activity Ill 2.6 Temperature Effects Ill 2.6.1 Q10-Value 112 2.6.2 Activation Energy 112 2.6.3 Temperature Optimum 113 2.6.4 Thermal Stability 114 2.7 Effect of Water Activity 117 2.8 Enzyme Utilization in the Food Industry 117 2.8.1 Technical Enzyme Preparations 118 2.8.1.1 Production 118 2.8.1.2 Immobilized Enzymes 118 2.8.1.2.1 Bound enzymes 118 2.8.1.2.2 Enzyme Entrapment 118 2.8.1.2.3 Cross-Linked Enzymes 118 2.8.1.2.4 Properties 119 2.8.2 Individual Enzymes 119 2.8.2.1 Oxidoreductases 119 2.8.2.1.1 Glucose oxidase 119 2.8.2.1.2 Catalase 120 2.8.2.1.3 Lipoxygenase 120 2.8.2.1.4 Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 120 2.8.2.1.5 Butanediol Dehydrogenase 120 2.8.2.2 Hydrolases 121 2.8.2.2.1 Proteinases 121 2.8.2.2.2 a-Amylase 122 2.8.2.2.3 p-Amylase 122 2.8.2.2.4 Exo-l,4-a-D-Glucosidase (Glucoamylase) 123 2.8.2.2.5 Pullulanase and Isoamylase 123 2.8.2.2.6 a-D-Galactosidase 123 2.8.2.2.7 P-D-Galactosidase (Lactase) 123 2.8.2.2.8 p-D-Fructofuranase (Invertase) 123 Table of Contents XIII

2.8.2.2.9 a-L-Rhamnosidase 123 2.8.2.2.10 Glycosidase Mixtures 123 2.8.2.2.11 Lysozyme 124 2.8.2.2.12 Thioglucosidase 124 2.8.2.2.13 Pectolytic enzymes 124 2.8.2.2.14 Lipases 125 2.8.2.2.15 Tannases 126 2.8.2.3 Isomerases 126 2.9 Literature 126

3 Lipids 128 3.1 Foreword 128 3.2 Fatty Acids 129 3.2.1 Nomenclature and Classification 129 3.2.1.1 Saturated Fatty Acids 129 3.2.1.2 Unsaturated Fatty Acids 130 3.2.1.3 Substituted Fatty Acids 132 3.2.2 Physical Properties 132 3.2.2.1 Carboxyl Group 132 3.2.2.2 Crystalline Structure, Melting Points 133 3.2.2.3 Urea Adducts 134 3.2.2.4 Solubility 134 3.2.2.5 UV-Absorption 135 3.2.3 Chemical Properties 135 3.2.3.1 Methylation of Carboxyl Groups 135 3.2.3.2 Reactions of Unsaturated Fatty Acids 135 3.2.3.2.1 Halogen Addition Reactions 135 3.2.3.2.2 Transformation of Isolene-Type Fatty Acids to Conjugated Fatty Acids 135 3.2.3.2.3 Formation of a 7t-Complex with Ag+ Ions 136 3.2.3.2.4 Hydrogenation 136 3.2.4 Biosynthesis of Unsaturated Fatty Acids 136 3.3 Acylglycerols 138 3.3.1 Triacylglycerols (TG) 138 3.3.1.1 Nomenclature, Classification 138 3.3.1.2 Melting Properties 138 3.3.1.3 Chemical Properties 139 3.3.1.4 Structural Determination 140 3.3.1.5 Biosynthesis 143 3.3.2 Mono- and Diacylglycerols (MG, DG) 143 3.4 Phospho- and Glycolipids 144 3.4.1 Classes 144 3.4.1.1 Phosphatidyl Derivatives 144 3.4.1.2 Glycerolglycolipids 146 3.4.1.3 Sphingolipids 146 3.4.2 Analysis 147 3.5 Lipoproteins, Membranes 149 3.5.1 Lipoproteins 149 3.5.1.1 Definition 149 3.5.1.2 Classification 149 3.5.2 Involvement of Lipids in the Formation of Biological Membranes... 150 3.6 Diol Lipids, Higher Alcohols, Waxes and Cutin 151 3.6.1 Diol Lipids 151 3.6.2 Higher Alcohols and Derivatives 151 3.6.3 Cutin 152 XIV Table of Contents

3.7 Changes in Acyl Lipids of Food 152 3.7.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 152 3.7.1.1 Triacylglycerol Hydrolases (Lipases) 153 3.7.1.2 Polar-Lipid Hydrolases 154 3.7.1.2.1 Phospholipases 154 3.7.1.2.2 Glycolipid Hydrolases 154 3.7.2 Peroxidation of Unsaturated Acyl Lipids 154 3.7.2.1 Autoxidation 155 3.7.2.1.1 Fundamental Steps of Autoxidation 155 3.7.2.1.2 Monohydroperoxides 156 3.7.2.1.3 Hydroperoxide-Epidioxides 159 3.7.2.1.4 Initiation of a Radical Chain Reaction 160 3.7.2.1.5 Secondary products 164 3.7.2.2 Lipoxygenase: Occurrence and Properties 168 3.7.2.3 Enzymatic Degradation of Hydroperoxides 170 3.7.2.4 Hydroperoxide-Protein Interactions 171 3.7.2.4.1 Products Formed from Hydroperoxides 171 3.7.2.4.2 Lipid-Protein Complexes 172 3.7.2.4.3 Protein Changes 174 3.7.2.4.4 Decomposition of Amino Acids 174 3.7.3 Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation 174 3.7.3.1 Antioxidant Activity 175 3.7.3.2 Antioxidants in Food 175 3.7.3.2.1 Natural Antioxidants 175 3.7.3.2.2 Synthetic Antioxidants 177 3.7.3.2.2 Synergists 178 3.7.4 Fat or Oil Heating (Deep Frying) 178 3.7.4.1 Autoxidation of Saturated Acyl Lipids 179 3.7.4.2 Polymerization 180 3.7.5 Microbial Degradation of Acyl Lipids to Methyl Ketones 181 3.8 Unsaponifiable Constituents 182 3.8.1 Hydrocarbons 183 3.8.2 Steroids and Steroid Derivatives 183 3.8.2.1 Structure and Nomenclature 183 3.8.2.2 Steroids of Animal Food 184 3.8.2.2.1 Cholesterol 184 3.8.2.2.2 Vitamin D 184 3.8.2.3 Plant Steroids (Phytosterols) 184 3.8.2.3.1 Demethylsterols 184 3.8.2.3.2 Methyl- and Dimethylsterols 186 3.8.2.4 Analysis 187 3.8.3 Tocopherols and Tocotrienols 188 3.8.3.1 Structure, Importance 188 3.8.3.2 Analysis 189 3.8.4 Carotenoids 189 3.8.4.1 Chemical Structure, Occurrence 190 3.8.4.1.1 Carotenes 190 3.8.4.1.2 Xanthophylls 191 3.8.4.2 Physical Properties 194 3.8.4.3 Chemical Properties 195 3.8.4.4 Precursors of Aroma Compounds 195 3.8.4.5 Use of Carotenoids in Food Processing 196 3.8.4.5.1 Plant Extracts 196 3.8.4.5.2 Individual Compounds 197 3.8.4.6 Analysis 197 3.9 Literature 198 Table of Contents XV

4 Carbohydrates 201 4.1 Foreword 201 4.2 Monosaccharides 201 4.2.1 Structure and Nomenclature 201 4.2.1.1 Nomenclature 201 4.2.1.2 Configuration 202 4.2.1.3 Conformation 206 4.2.2 Physical Properties 206 4.2.2.1 Hygroscopicity and Solubility 208 4.2.2.2 Optical Rotation, Mutarotation 208 4.2.3 Sensory Properties 209 4.2.4 Chemical Reactions and Derivatives 209 4.2.4.1 Reduction to Sugar Alcohols 212 4.2.4.2 Oxidation to Aldonic, Dicarboxylic and Uronic Acids 212 4.2.4.3 Reactions in the Presence of Acids and Alkalis 212 4.2.4.3.1 Reactions in Strongly Acidic Media 213 4.2.4.3.2 Reactions in Strongly Alkaline Solution 213 4.2.4.3.3 Caramelization 217 4.2.4.4 Reactions with Amino Compounds 218 (N-Glycosides, Maillard Reaction) 219 4.2.4.5 Reactions with Hydroxy, Compounds (O-Glycosides) 225 4.2.4.6 Esters 226 4.2.4.7 Ethers 227 4.2.4.8 Oxidative Cleavage of 1.2-Diols 227 4.3 Oligosaccharides 228 4.3.1 Structure and Nomenclature 228 4.3.2 Properties and Reactions 229 4.4 Polysaccharides 231 4.4.1 Classification, Structure 231 4.4.2 Conformation 231 4.4.3 Properties 234 4.4.3.1 General Remarks 234 4.4.3.2 Perfectly-Linear Polysaccharides 235 4.4.3.3 Branched Polysaccharides 235 4.4.3.4 Linearly-Branched Polysaccharides 235 4.4.3.5 Polysaccharides with Carboxyl Groups 236 4.4.3.6 Polysaccharides with Strongly Acidic Groups 236 4.4.3.7 Modified Polysaccharides 236 4.4.3.7.1 Derivatization with Neutral Substituents 236 4.4.3.7.2 Derivatization with Acidic Substituents 236 4.4.4 Individual Polysaccharides 236 4.4.4.1 Agar 236 4.4.4.2 Alginates 237 4.4.4.3 Carrageenans 238 4.4.4.4 Furcellaran 240 4.4.4.5 Gum Arabic 240 4.4.4.6 Gum Tragacanth 241 4.4.4.7 Guaran Gum 242 4.4.4.8 Locust Bean Gum 242 4.4.4.9 Tamarind Flour 243 4.4.4.10 Arabinogalactan from Larch 243 4.4.4.11 Pectin 244 4.4.4.12 Starch 245 4.4.4.12.1 General Remarks 245 4.4.4.12.2 Amylose Structure and Properties 246 4.4.4.12.3 Amylopectin Structure and Properties 249 XVI Table of Contents

4.4.4.12.4 Utilization 250 4.4.4.13 Modified Starches 250 4.4.4.14 Cellulose 252 4.4.4.15 Cellulose Derivatives 252 4.4.4.16 Xanthan Gum 254 4.4.4.17 Screloglucan 255 4.4.4.18 Dextran 255 4.4.4.19 Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) 256 4.5 Literature 256 5 Aroma Substances 257 5.1 Foreword 257 5.1.1 Concept Delineation 257 5.1.2 Threshold Value 257 5.1.3 Impact Compounds of Natural Aroma 258 5.1.4 Off-Flavors 258 5.2 Aroma Analysis 260 5.2.1 Aroma Isolation 260 5.2.1.1 Distillation, Extraction 260 5.2.1.2 Gas Extraction 261 5.2.1.3 Headspace Analysis 261 5.2.2 Separation 262 5.2.3 Chemical Structure 262 5.2.4 Sensory Properties 264 5.2.4.1 Aroma Value 264 5.2.4.2 Sensory Analysis of GC-Peaks 265 5.2.4.3 Statistical Analysis 265 5.3 Individual Aroma Compounds 266 5.3.1 Nonenzymatic Reactions 267 5.3.1.1 Carbonyl Compounds 267 5.3.1.2 Pyrones 268 5.3.1.3 Furans 268 5.3.1.4 Lactones 271 5.3.1.5 Thiols, Thioethers, Di- and Trisulfides 271 5.3.1.6 Thiophenes 273 5.3.1.7 Thiazoles 274 5.3.1.8 Oxazoles 274 5.3.1.9 Pyrroles 275 5.3.1.10 Pyrazines 275 5.3.1.11 Phenols 278 5.3.2 Enzymatic Reactions 280 5.3.2.1 Carbonyl Compounds, Alcohols 280 5.3.2.2 Esters 282 5.3.2.3 Terpenes 282 5.3.2.4 Volatile Sulfur Compounds 290 5.3.2.5 Pyrazines 291 5.4 Interactions with Other Food Constituents 291 5.4.1 Lipids 291 5.4.2 Proteins, Polysaccharides 292 5.5 Food Aromatization 294 5.5.1 Raw Materials for Essences 294 5.5.1.1 Essential Oils 294 5.5.1.2 Extracts 294 5.5.1.3 Distillates 295 5.5.1.4 Microbial Aromas 295 Table of Contents XVII

5.5.1.5 Synthetic Natural Aroma Compounds 295 5.5.1.6 Synthetic Aroma Compounds 296 5.5.2 Essences 297 5.5.3 Aromas from Precursors 297 5.6 Molecular Structure and Odor 298 5.7 Literature 303

6 Vitamins 305 6.1 Foreword 305 6.2 Fat-Soluble Vitamins 305 6.2.1 Retinol (Vitamin A) 305 6.2.1.1 Biological Role 305 6.2.1.2 Requirement, Occurrence 307 6.2.1.3 Stability, Degradation 307 6.2.2 Calciferol (Vitamin D) 307 6.2.2.1 Biological Role 307 6.2.2.2 Requirement, Occurrence 310 6.2.2.3 Stability, Degradation 310 6.2.3 a-Tocopherol (Vitamin E) 310 6.2.3.1 Biological Role 310 6.2.3.2 Requirement, Occurrence 310 6.2.3.3 Stability, Degradation 310 6.2.4 Phytomenadione (Vitamin K|) 311 6.2.4.1 Biological Role 311 6.2.4.2 Requirement, Occurrence 311 6.2.4.3 Stability, Degradation 311 6.3 Water-Soluble Vitamins 311 6.3.1 Thiamine (Vitamin B]) 311 6.3.1.1 Biological Role 311 6.3.1.2 Requirement, Occurrence 311 6.3.1.3 Stability, Degradation 312 6.3.2 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 313 6.3.2.1 Biological Role 313 6.3.2.2 Requirement, Occurrence 313 6.3.2.3 Stability, Degradation 313 6.3.3 Pyridoxine (Pyridoxal, Vitamin B6) 313 6.3.3.1 Biological Role 313 6.3.3.2 Requirement, Occurrence 313 6.3.3.3 Stability, Degradation 314 6.3.4 Nicotinamide (Niacin) 314 6.3.4.1 Biological Role 314 6.3.4.2 Requirement, Occurrence 314 6.3.4.3 Stability, Degradation 314 6.3.5 Pantothenic Acid 314 6.3.5.1 Biological Role 314 6.3.5.2 Requirement, Occurrence 314 6.3.5.3 Stability, Degradation 315 6.3.6 Biotin 315 6.3.6.1 Biological Role 315 6.3.6.2 Requirement, Occurrence 315 6.3.6.3 Stability, Degradation 315 6.3.7 Folic Acid 315 6.3.7.1 Biological Role 315 6.3.7.2 Requirement, Occurrence 315 6.3.7.3 Stability, Degradation 316 XVIII Table of Contents

6.3.8 Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12) 316 6.3.8.1 Biological Role 316 6.3.8.2 Requirement, Occurrence 316 6.3.8.3 Stability, Degradation 317 6.3.9 L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) 317 6.3.9.1 Biological Role 317 6.3.9.2 Requirement, Occurrence 317 6.3.9.3 Stability, Degradation 317 6.4 Literature 318

7 Minerals 320 7.1 Foreword 320 7.2 Main Elements 320 7.2.1 Sodium 320 7.2.2 Potassium 320 7.2.3 Magnesium 320 7.2.4 Calcium 321 7.2.5 Chloride 321 7.2.6 Phosphate 321 7.3 Trace Elements 322 7.3.1 General Remarks 322 7.3.2 Essential Trace Elements 322 7.3.2.1 Iron 322 7.3.2.2 Copper 323 7.3.2.3 Zinc 323 7.3.2.4 Manganese 323 7.3.2.5 Cobalt 323 7.3.2.6 Vanadium 323 7.3.2.7 Chromium 323 7.3.2.8 Selenium 323 7.3.2.9 Molybdenum 324 7.3.2.10 Nickel 324 7.3.2.11 Tin 324 7.3.2.12 Silicon 324 7.3.2.13 Fluorine 324 7.3.2.14 Iodine 324 7.3.3 Some Nonessential Trace Elements 325 7.3.3.1 Boron 325 7.3.3.2 Aluminium 325 7.4 Minerals in Food Processing 325 7.5 Literature 325

8 Food Additives 326 8.1 Foreword 326 •? 8.2 Vitamins 327 8.3 Amino Acids 327 8.4 Minerals 327 8.5 Aroma Substances 327 8.6 Flavor Enhancers 327 8.6.1 Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) 327 8.6.2 5'-Nucleotides 327 Table of Contents XIX

8.6.3 Maltol 328 8.6.4 Other Compounds 328 8.7 Sugar Substitutes 328 8.8 Sweeteners 328 8.8.1 Structural Provisions for Sweetness 329 8.8.2 Saccharin 329 8.8.3 Cyclamate 330 8.8.4 Monellin 330 8.8.5 Thaumatins 330 8.8.6 Miraculin 332 8.8.7 Gymnema silvestre Extract 332 8.8.8 Steviosid 332 8.8.9 Osladin 332 8.8.10 Phyllodulcin 332 8.8.11 Glycyrrhizin 332 8.8.12 Nitroanilines 333 8.8.13 Dihydrochalcones 333 8.8.14 Dulcin 333 8.8.15 Oximes 333 8.8.16 Oxathiazinone Dioxides 334 8.8.17 Dipeptide Esters 334 8.8.18 Hernandulcin 335 8.9 Food Colors 335 8.10 Acids 335 8.10.1 Acetic Acid and Its Higher Homologues 335 8.10.2 Succinic Acid 339 8.10.3 Succinic Anhydride 339 8.10.4 Adipic Acid 339 8.10.5 Fumaric Acid 339 8.10.6 Lactic Acid 340 8.10.7 Malic Acid 340 8.10.8 Tartaric Acid 340 8.10.9 Citric Acid 341 8.10.10 Phosphoric Acid 341 8.10.11 Hydrochloric and Sulfuric Acids 341 8.10.12 Glucono-S-lactone 341 8.11 Bases 341 8.12 Antimicrobial Agents 341. 8.12.1 Benzoic Acid 341 8.12.2 PHB-Ester 342 8.12.3 Sorbic Acid 343 8.12.4 Propionic Acid 344 8.12.5 Acetic Acid 344 8.12.6 S02 and Sulfite 344 8.12.7 Diethyl (Dimethyl) Pyrocarbonate 344 8.12.4 Ethylene Oxide, Propylene Oxide 345 8.12.9 Nitrite, Nitrate 345 8.12.10 Antibiotics 345 8.12.11 Diphenyl 346 8.12.12 o-Phenylphenol 346 8.12.13 Thiabendazole, 2-(4-Thiazolyl)benzimidazole 346 8.13 Antioxidants 346 8.14 Chelating Agents (Sequestrants) 346 XX Table of Contents

8.15 Surface-Active Agents 347 8.15.1 Emulsions 347 8.15.2 Emulsifier Action 348 8.15.3 HLB-Value 349 8.15.4 Synthetic Emulsifiers 349 8.15.4.1 Mono-, Diacylglycerols 349 8.15.4.2 Sugar Esters 349 8.15.4.3 Sorbitan Fatty Acid Esters 350 8.15.4.4 Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan Esters 350 8.15.4.5 Stearyl-2-Lactylate 350 8.16 Thickening Agents, Gel Builders, Stabilizers 350 8.17 Humectants 350 8.18 Anticaking Agents 350 8.19 Bleaching Agents 351 8.20 Clarifying Agents 351 8.21 Propellants, Protective Gases 351 8.22 Literature 351

9 Food Contamination 352 9.1 General Remarks 352 9.2 Toxic Trace Elements 354 9.2.1 Mercury 354 9.2.2 Lead 354 9.2.3 Cadmium 354 9.2.4 Radionuclides 355 9.3 Toxic Compounds of Microbial Origin 356 9.3.1 Food Poisonings by Bacterial Toxins 356 9.3.2 Mycotoxins 357 9.4 Pesticides 359 9.4.1 General Remarks 359 9.4.2 Insecticides 359 9.4.3 Herbicides 361 9.4.4 Fungicides 361 9.5 Veterinary Medicines and Feed Additives 366 9.5.1 Foreword 366 9.5.2 Antibiotics 1 369 9.5.3 Glucocorticoides 369 9.5.4 Sex Hormones 372 9.5.5 Psychosomatic Agents 372 9.5.6 Thyreostatica 372 9.5.7 Coccidiostatica 372 9.5.8 Other Compounds 372 9.6 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB's) 372 9.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 372 9.8 Nitrosamines 373 9.9 Cleansing Agents and Disinfectants 374 9.10 Literature 376 Table of Contents XXI

10 Milk and Dairy Products 377 10.1 Milk 377 10.1.1 Physical and Physico-Chemical Properties 377 10.1.2 Composition 379 10.1.2.1 Proteins 379 10.1.2.1.1 Casein Fractions 380 10.1.2.1.2 Whey proteins 385 10.1.2.2 Carbohydrates 385 10.1.2.3 Lipids^ 387 10.1.2.4 Organic Acids 388 10.1.2.5 Minerals 388 10.1.2.6 Vitamins 388 10.1.2.7 Enzymes 389 10.1.3 Processing of Milk 389 10.1.4 Types of Milk 392 10.2 Milk Products 392 10.2.1 Fermented Milk Products 392 10.2.1.1 Sour Milk (Buttermilk) 392 10.2.1.2 Yoghurt 392 10.2.1.3 Kefyr and Kumiss 393 10.2.1.4 Taette Milk 393 10.2.2 Cream 393 10.2.3 Butter 393 10.2.3.1 Cream Separation 394 10.2.3.2 Cream Ripening and Souring 394 10.2.3.3 Churning 394 10.2.3.4 Packaging 395 10.2.3.5 Products Derived from Butter 395 10.2.4 Evaporated Milk, Sweetened Condensed Milk 395 10.2.5 Dehydrated Milk Products 395 10.2.6 Ice Creams 396 10.2.7 Cheese 396 10.2.7.1 Curd Formation 397 10.2.7.2 Curing 397 10.2.7.3 Processed Cheese 400 10.2.8 Other Products 400 10.2.8.1 Casein, Caseinates, Coprecipitates 400 10.2.8.2 Whey Products 401 10.2.8.3 Lactose 401 10.3 Literature 402

11 Eggs 403 11.1 Foreword 403 11.2 Structure, Physical Properties and Composition 403 11.2.1 General Outline 403 11.2.2 Shell 404 11.2.3 Albumen (Egg White) 404 11.2.3.1 Proteins 405 11.2.3.1.1 Ovalbumin 406 11.2.3.1.2 Conalbumin (Ovotransferrin) 406 11.2.3.1.3 Ovomucoid 406 11.2.3.1.4 Lysozyme (Ovoglobulin G^ 406 11.2.3.1.5 Ovoglobulins G2 and G3 406 11.2.3.1.6 Ovomucin 407 11.2.3.1.7 Flavoprotein 407 XXII Table of Contents

11.2.3.1.8 Ovoinhibitor 407 11.2.3.1.9 Avidin 407 11.2.3.2 Other Constituents 407 11.2.3.2.1 Lipids 407 11.2.3.2.2 Carbohydrates 407 11.2.3.2.3 Minerals 408 11.2.3.2.4 Vitamins ^ 408 11.2.4 Egg Yolk 408 11.2.4.1 Proteins of Granules 409 11.2.4.1.1 Lipovitellins 409 11.2.4.1.2 Phosvitin 409 11.2.4.2 Plasma Proteins 410 11.2.4.2.1 Lipovitellenin 410 11.2.4.2.2 Livetin 410 11.2.4.3 Lipids 410 11.2.4.4 Other Constituents 410 11.2.4.4.1 Carbohydrates 410 11.2.4.4.2 Minerals 410 11.2.4.4.3 Vitamins 410 11.3 Storage of Eggs 410 11.4 Egg Products 411 11.4.1 General Outline 411 11.4.2 Technically-Important Properties 411 11.4.2.1 Thermal Coagulation 411 11.4.2.2 Foaming Ability 411 11.4.2.3 Emulsifying Effect 412 11.4.3 Dried Products 412 11.4.4 Frozen Egg Products 412 11.4.5 Liquid Egg Products 413 11.5 Literature 414 12 Meat 415 12.1 Foreword 415 12.2 Structure of Muscle Tissue 415 12.2.1 Skeletal Muscle 415 12.2.2 Heart Muscle 417 12.2.3 Smooth Muscle 417 12.3 Muscle Tissue: Composition and Function 417 12.3.1 Overview 417 12.3.2 Proteins 418 12.3.2.1 Proteins of the Contractile Apparatus and Their Function 419 12.3.2.1.1 Myosin 420 12.3.2.1.2 Actin 420 12.3.2.1.3 Tropomyosin and Troponin 420 12.3.2.1.4 Contraction and Relaxation 421 12.3.2.1.5 Actomyosin 422 12.3.2.2 Soluble Proteins 422 12.3.2.2.1 Enzymes 422 12.3.2.2.2 Myoglobin 426 12.3.2.3 Insoluble Proteins 426 12.3.2.3.1 Collagen 430 12.3.2.3.2 Elastin 431 12.3.3 Free Amino Acids 431 12.3.4 Peptides 431 12.3.5 Amines 431 Table of Contents XXIII

12.3.6 Guanidine Compounds 432 12.3.7 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 432 12.3.8 Purines and Pyrimidines 432 12.3.9 Organic Acids 432 12.3.10 Carbohydrates 432 12.3.11 Vitamins 433 12.3.12 Minerals 433 12.4 Post-Mortem Changes in Muscle 433 12.4.1 Rigor Mortis 433 12.4.2 Defects (PSE and DFD Meat) 434 12.4.3 Aging of Meat 435 12.5 Water Holding Capacity of Meat 435 12.6 Kinds of Meat; Storage; Processing 437 12.6.1 Kinds of Meat; By-Products 437 12.6.1.1 Beef 437 12.6.1.2 Veal 437 12.6.1.3 Mutton and Lamb 437 12.6.1.4 Goat Meat 437 12.6.1.5 Pork 437 12.6.1.6 Horse Meat 437 12.6.1.7 Poultry 438 12.6.1.8 Game 438 12.6.1.9 Variety Meats 438 12.6.1.10 Blood 438 12.6.1.11 Glandular Products 439 12.6.2 Storage and Preservation Processes 439 12.6.2.1 Cooling . . . .' 439 12.6.2.2 Freezing 439 12.6.2.3 Drying 440 12.6.2.4 Salt and Pickle Curing 441 12.6.2.5 Smoking 441 12.6.2.6 Heating 441 12.7 Meat Products 441 12.7.1 Canned Meat 441 12.7.2 Ham, Sausages, Pastes 442 12.7.2.1 Ham, Bacon 442 12.7.2.2 Sausages 442 12.7.2.3 Meat Paste (Pate) 445 12.7.3 Meat Extracts and Related Products 445 12.7.3.1 Beef Extract 445 12.7.3.2 Whale Meat Extract 446 12.7.3.3 Poultry Meat Extract 446 12.7.3.4 Yeast Extract 446 12.7.3.5 Hydrolyzed Vegetable Proteins 446 12.8 Meat Aroma 446 12.9 Meat Analysis 448 12.9.1 Meat 448 12.9.1.1 Animal Origin 448 12.9.1.2 Differentiation of Fresh and Frozen Meat 449 12.9.1.3 Pigments 449 12.9.1.4 Treatment with Proteinase Preparations 449 12.9.1.5 Anabolic Steroids 449 12.9.1.6 Antibiotics 450 12.9.2 Processed Meats 450 12.9.2.1 Main Ingredients 450 Table of Contents

Added Water 450 Lean Meat Free of Connective Tissue 451 Connective Tissue Protein 451 Added Protein 451 Nitrosamines 452 Literature 452

Fish, Whales, Crustaceans, Mollusks 454 Fish 454 Foreword 454 Food Fish 454 Sea Fish 454 Sharks ' 454 Herring 455 Cod Fish 458 Scorpaemids 459 Perch-like Fish 459 Flat Fish 459 Freshwater Fish 459 Eels 459 Salmon , 459 Skin and Muscle Tissue Structure 460 Composition 461 Review I] 461 Proteins 461 Sarcoplasma Proteins 461 Contractile Proteins 461 Connective tissue Proteins 461 Serum Proteins 461 Other N-Compounds 462 Free Amino Acids, Peptides 462 Amines, Amine Oxides 462 Guanidine Compounds 462 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 462 Purines 462 Urea 462 Carbohydrates 462 Lipids 463 Vitamins 463 Minerals 463 Other Constituents 463 Post-mortem Changes 464 Storage and Processing of Fish and Fish Products 464 General Remarks 464 Cooling and Freezing 464 Drying 466 Salting 466 Smoking 467 Marinated, Fried and Cooked Fish Products .... 467 Saithe 468 Anchosen 468 Pasteurized Fish Products 468 Fish Products with Extended Shelf Life 468 Other Fish Products 468 Fish Eggs and Sperm 468 Some Other Fish Products 469 Table of Contents XXV

13.2 Whales 469 13.3 Crustaceans 469 13.3.1 Shrimps 469 13.3.2 Crabs 469 13.3.3 Lobsters 470 13.3.4 Crayfish, Crawfish 470 13.4 Mollusks 470 13.4.1 Mollusks (Bivales) 470 13.4.2 Snails 471 13.4.3 Octopus, Sepia, Calmar 471 13.4.4 Turtles 471 13.4.5 Frogdrums 471 13.5 Literature 471

14 Edible Fats and Oils 472 14.1 Foreword 472 14.2 Data on Production and Consumption 472 q14.3 Origin of Individual Fats and Oils 472 14.3.1 Animal Fats 472 14.3.1.1 Land Animal Fats 472 14.3.1.1.1 Edible Beef Fat 472 14.3.1.1.2 Sheep Tallow 474 14.3.1.1.3 Hog Fat (Lard) 474 14.3.1.1.4 Goose Fat 475 14.3.1.2 Marine Oils 475 14.3.1.2.1 Whale Oil 476 14.3.1.2.2 Seal Oil 476 14.3.1.2.3 Herring Oil 476 14.3.2 Oils of Plant Origin 476 14.3.2.1 Fruit Pulp Oils 476 14.3.2.1.1 Olive Oil 476 14.3.2.1.2 Palm Oil 477 14.3.2.2 Seed Oils 477 14.3.2.2.1 Production 477 14.3.2.2.2 Oils High in Laurie and Myristic Acids 477 14.3.2.2.3 Oils High in Palmitic and Stearic Acids 478 14.3.2.2.4 Oils High in Palmitic Acid 479 14.3.2.2.5 Oils Low in Palmitic Acid and High in Oleic and Linoleic Acids .... 479 14.4 Processing of Fats and Oils 481 14.4.1 Refining 481 14.4.1.1 Removal of Vegetable Lecithin 482 14.4.1.2 Degumming 482 14.4.1.3 Removal of Free Fatty Acids (Deacidification) 482 14.4.1.4 Bleaching 482 14.4.1.5 Deodorization 483 14.4.1.6 Product Quality Control 483 14.4.2 Hydrogenation 483 14.4.2.1 General Remarks 483 14.4.2.2 Catalysts 484 14.4.2.3 The Process 485 14.4.3 Interesterification 485 14.4.4 Fractionation 486 14.4.5 Margarine - Manufacturing and Properties 486 14.4.5.1 Composition 487 Table of Contents

Manufacturing 487 Varieties of Margarine 487 Mayonnaise 487 Fat Powder 488 Analysis 488 Scope 488 Determination of Fat in Food 488 Identification of Fat 489 Chemical Constants 489 Color Reactions 490 Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Fatty Acid Composition 490 Unsaponifiable Constituents 490 Meltin Points 490 Determination of Quality 491 Lipolysis 491 Oxidative Deterioration 491 Oxidation State 491 Shelf-Life Prediction Test 492 Heat Stability 493 Literature 493

Cereals and Cereal Products 494 Foreword 494 Introduction 494 Origin 494 Production 495 Anatomy - Chemical Composition, a Review. 497 Special Role of Wheat - Gluten Formation .. 497 Celiac Disease 499 Individual Constituents 499 Proteins 497 Differences in Amino Acid Composition 499 A Review of the Osborne Fractions of Cereals 499 Gluten Proteins 500 Wheat Prolamines 501 Wheat Glutelins 502 Gluten Formation 504 Enzymes 504 Amylases 504 Proteinases 504 Lipases 504 Phytase 504 Lipoxygenases 505 Peroxidase, Catalase 505 Glutathione Dehydrogenase 505 Carbohydrates 506 Starch 506 Polysaccharides other than Starch 506 Pentosans 507 P-Glucans 507 Glucofructans 507 Cellulose 508 Sugars 508 Lipids 508 Table of Contents XXVII

15.3 Cereals-Milling 510 15.3.1 Breadmaking Cereals 510 15.3.1.1 Storage 510 15.3.1.2 Milling 510 15.3.1.3 Milling Products 511 15.3.1.4 Starch Flours 511 15.3.2 Non-Breadmaking Cereals 512 15.3.2.1 Corn 512 15.3.2.2 Hull Cereals 512 15.3.2.2.1 Rice 513 15.3.2.2.2 Oats 513 15.3.2.2.3 Barley 513 15.4 Baked Products 513 15.4.1 Raw Materials 513 15.4.1.1 Wheat Flour 514 15.4.1.1.1 Chemical Assays 514 15.4.1.1.2 Physical Assays 515 15.4.1.1.3 Baking Tests 516 15.4.1.2 Rye Flour 517 15.4.P.3 Storage 518 15.4.1.4 Influence of Additives/Minor Ingredients on Baking Properties of Wheat Flour 518 15.4.1.4.1 Ascorbic Acid 519 15.4.1.4.2 Bromates, Azodicarbonamide 520 15.4.1.4.3 Lipoxygenase 520 15.4.1.4.4 Cysteine 520 15.4.1.4.5 Proteinases 520 15.4.1.4.6 Salt 521 15.4.1.4.7 Emulsifiers, Shortenings 521 15.4.1.4.8 a-Amylases 522 15.4.1.4.9 Milk and Soy Products 522 15.4.1.5 Rye Flour Baking Quality as Influenced by Some Additives 522 15.4.1.5.1 Pregelatinized Flour 523 15.4.1.5.2 Acids 523 15.4.1.6 Dough Leavening Ingredients 523 15.4.1.6.1 Yeast 523 15.4.1.6.2 Chemical Leavening Agents 523 15.4.2 Dough Preparation 523 15.4.2.1 Addition of Yeast 523 15.4.2.1.1 Direct Addition 523 15.4.2.1.2 Indirect Addition 524 15.4.2.2 Sour Dough Making 524 15.4.2.3 Kneading 524 15.4.2.4 Fermentation 526 15.4.2.5 Events Involved in Dough Making 526 15.4.3 Baking Process 528 15.4.3.1 Conditions 528 15.4.3.2 Chemical and Physical Changes 528 15.4.3.2.1 Texture 528 15.4.3.2.2 Aroma 529 15.4.4 Changes During Storage 530 15.4.5 Bread Types 531 15.5 Pasta Products 532 15.5.1 Raw Materials 532 15.5.2 Additives 532 15.5.3 Production 533 15.6 Literature 533 XXVIII Table of Contents

16 Legumes 536 16.1 Foreword 536 16.2 Individual Constituents 536 16.2.1 Storage Proteins 536 16.2.2 Enzymes 539 16.2.3 Proteinase Inhibitors ( 539 16.2.4 Hemagglutinins (Lectins) 542 16.2.5 Carbohydrates 542 16.2.6 Cyanogenic Glycosides 543 16.2.7 Lipids 544 16.2.8 Vitamins and Minerals 544 16.2.9 Coumestrol 544 16.2.10 Saponins 545 16.3 Processing 545 16.3.1 Soybeans and Peanuts 545 16.3.1.1 Individual Products 546 16.3.1.1.1 Soy proteins 546 16.3.1.1.2 Soy milk 546 16.3.1.1.3 Tofu 546 16.3.1.1.4 Soy sauce (Shoyu) 547 16.3.2 Peas and Beans 547 16.4 Literature 547

17 Vegetables and Their Products 549 17.1 Vegetables 549 17.1.1 Foreword 549 17.1.2 Composition 549 17.1.2.1 Nitrogen Compounds 549 17.1.2.1.1 Proteins 549 17.1.2.1.2 Free Amino Acids 549 17.1.2.1.3 Amines 555 17.1.2.2 Carbohydrates.... 555 17.1.2.2.1 Mono-and Oligosaccharides, Sugar Alcohols 555 17.1.2.2.2 Polysaccharides 557 17.1.2.3 Lipids 562 17.1.2.4 Organic Acids 562 17.1.2.5 Phenolic Compounds 562 17.1.2.6 Aroma Substances 563 17.1.2.6.1 Fungi 563 17.1.2.6.2 Parsley roots 564 17.1.2.6.3 Potatoes 564 17.1.2.6.4 Celery tubers 564 17.1.2.6.5 Radishes 564 17.1.2.6.6 Red beets 565 17.1.2.6.7 Onions and Garlic 565 17.1.2.6.8 WaterCress 566 17.1.2.6.9 White Cabbage, Red Cabbage and Brussels Sprouts 566 17.1.2.6.10 Cauliflower 567 17.1.2.6.11 Green Peas 567 17.1.2.6.12 Cucumbers 567 17.1.2.6.13 Tomatoes 567 17.1.2.7 Vitamins 567 17.1.2.8 Minerals 567 17.1.2.9 Other Constituents 569 17.1.2.9.1 Chlorophyll 569 Table of Contents XXIX

17.1.2.9.2 Betalains 570 17.1.2.9.3 Goitrogenic Substances 571 17.1.3 Storage 572 17.2 Vegetable Products 572 17.2.1 Dehydrated Vegetables 572 17.2.2 Canned Vegetables 573 17.2.3 Deep-Freezing of Vegetables 573 17.2.4 Pickled Vegetables 574 17.2.4.1 Pickled Cucumbers (Salt and Dill Pickles) 574 17.2.4.2 Other Vegetables 575 17.2.4.3 Sauerkraut 575 17.2.4.4 Faulty Processing of Pickles 575 17.2.5 Vinegar-Pickled Vegetables 575 17.2.6 Stock Brining of Vegetables 576 17.2.7 Vegetable Juices 576 17.2.8 Vegetable Puree (Paste) 576 17.2.9 Vegetable Powders 576 17.3 Literature 576

18 Fruits and Fruit Products 578 18.1 Fruits 578 18.1.1 Foreword 578 18.1.2 Composition 578 18.1.2.1 N-Containing Compounds 578 18.1.2.1.1 Proteins 578 18.1.2.1.2 Free Amino Acids 578 18.1.2.1.3 Amines 588 18.1.2.2 Carbohydrates 580 18.1.2.2.1 Monosaccharides 580 18.1.2.2.2 Oligosaccharides 586 18.1.2.2.3 Sugar alcohols 587 18.1.2.2.4 Polysaccharides 587 18.1.2.3 Lipids 589 18.1.2.3.1 Fruit Flesh Lipids (other than Carotenoids and Triterpenoids) 589 18.1.2.3.2 Carotenoids 589 18.1.2.3.3 Triterpenoids 590 18.1.2.3.4 Fruit Waxes 592 18.1.2.4 Organic Acids 592 18.1.2.5 Phenolic Compounds 592 18.1.2.5.1 Hydroxycinammic acids, Hydroxycoumarins and Hydroxybenzoic Acids 593 18.1.2.5.2 Catechins (3-hydroxyflavanes) and Leucoanthocyanidins (3,4-dihydroxyflavanes) 596 18.1.2.5.3 Anthocyanidins 596 18.1.2.5.4 Flavanones 599 18.1.2.5.5 Flavones, Flavonols 602 18.1.2.5.6 Flavonoid Biosynthesis 602 18.1.2.5.7 Technological Importance of Phenolic Compounds 602 18.1.2.6 Aroma Compounds 603 18.1.2.6.1 Bananas 603 18.1.2.6.2 Grapes 603 18.1.2.6.3 Citrus Fruits 603 18.1.2.6.4 Apples 604 18.1.2.6.5 Raspberries 604 18.1.2.6.6 Apricots 604 Table of Contents / Peaches 605 Passion Fruit 605 Strawberries 605 Vitamins 605 Minerals 607 Chemical Changes during Ripening of Fruit 607 Changes in Respiration Rate 607 Changes in Metabolic Pathways 608 Changes in Individual Constituents 609 Carbohydrates 609 Proteins, Enzymes 609 Lipids 610 Acids 610 Aroma Compounds 610 Ripening as Influenced by Chemical Agents 610 Compounds with Retarding Effects 610 Compounds Promoting Fruit Ripening 611 Storage of Fruits 613 Cold Storage 613 Storage under a Controlled (Modified) Atmosphere 614 Fruit Products 614 Dried Fruits 614 Canned Fruits 615 Deep-Frozen Fruits 615 Rum Fruits, Fruits in Sugar Syrup, etc 615 Fruit Pulps and Slurries 616 Marmalades, Jams and Jellies 616 Plum Sauce (Damson Cheese) 616 Thickened Fruit Syrups 616 Fruit Juices 617 Fruit Nectars 618 Fruit Juice Concentrates 619 Fruit Syrups 619 Fruit Powders 620 Alcohol-Free Beverages 620 Fruit Juice Beverages 620 Lemonades, Cold and Hot Beverages 620 Caffeine-Containing Beverages 620 Other Pop Beverages 620 Literature 620

Sugars, Sugar Alcohols and Honey 622 Sugars, Sugar Alcohols and Sugar Products 622 Foreword 622 Processing Properties 622 Nutritional/Physiological Properties 626 Individual Sugars and Sugar Alcohols 627 Sucrose (Beet Sugar, Cane Sugar) 627 General Outline 627 Production of Beet Sugar 627 Production of Cane Sugar 630 Other Sources for Sucrose Poduction 630 Packaging and Storage 630 Types of Sugar 631 Composition of Some Sugar Types 631 Table of Contents XXXI

19.1.4.1.8 Molasses 631 19.1.4.2 Sugars Produced from Sucrose 631 19.1.4.3 Starch Degradation Products 631 19.1.4.3.1 General Outline 631 19.1.4.3.2 Starch Syrup (Glucose or Maltose Syrups) 631 19.1.4.3.3 Dried Starch Syrup (Dried Glucose Syrup) 632 19.1.4.3.4 Glucose (Dextrose) 633 19.1.4.3.5 Glucose-Fructose Syrup (High Fructose Syrup) 633 19.1.4.3.6 Starch Syrup Derivatives 633 19.1.4.4 Milk Sugar (Lactose) and Derived Products 633 19.144.1 Milk Sugar 633 19.1.4.4.2 Products from Lactose 634 19.1.4.5 Fruit Sugar (Fructose, Levulose) 634 19.1.4.6 Sorbitol 634 19.1.4.7 Sorbose 634 19.1.4.8 Xylitol 634 19.1.4.9 Mannitol 634 19.1.5 Candies 634 19.1.5.1 General Outline 634 19.1.5.2 Marzipan 635 19.1.5.3 Persipan 635 19.1.5.4 Other Raw Candy Fillers 635 19.1.5.5 Nougat Fillers 635 19.1.5.6 Croquant 635 19.1.5.7 Licorice and its Products 635 19.1.5.8 Roasted Almonds 636 19.1.5.9 Chewing Gum 636 19.1.5.10 Effervescent Lemonade Powders 636 19.2 Honey 636 19.2.1 Honey 636 19.2.1.1 Foreword 636 19.2.1.2 Production and Types 637 19.2.1.3 Processing 637 19.2.1.4 Physical Properties 638 19.2.1.5 Composition 638 19.2.1.6 Storage 642 19.2.1.7 Utilization 642 19.2.2 Artificial Honey 642 19.2.2.1 Foreword 642 19.2.2.2 Production 642 19.2.2.3 Composition 643 19.2.2.4 Utilization 643 19.3 Literature 643

20 Alcoholic Beverages 644 20.1 Beer 644 20.1.1 Foreword 644 20.1.2 Raw Materials 644 20.1.2.1 Barley 644 20.1.2.2 Other Starch- and Sugar-Containing Raw Materials 645 20.1.2.2.1 Wheat Malt 645 20.1.2.2.2 Adjuncts 645 20.1.2.2.3 Syrups, Extract Powders 646 20.1.2.2.4 Malt Extracts, Hop Concentrates ' 646 20.1.2.2.5 Brewing Sugars 646 20.1.2.3 Hops 646 XXXII Table of Contents

20.1.2.3.1 General Outline 646 20.1.2.3.2 Composition 646 20.1.2.3.3 Processing 648 20.1.2.4 Brewing Water 648 20.1.2.5 Brewing Yeasts 648 20.1.3 Malt Preparation 649 20.1.3.1 Steeping../. 649 20.1.3.2 Germination 649 20.1.3.3 Kilning 649 20.1.3.4 Continuous Processes 649 20.1.3.5 Special Malts 649 20.1.4 Wort Preparation 650 20.1.4.1 Ground Malt 650 20.1.4.2 Mashing 650 20.1.4.3 Lautering 650 20.1.4.4 Wort Boiling and Hopping 650 20.1.4.5 Continuous Processes 651 20.1.5 Fermentation 651 20.1.5.1 Bottom Fermentation 651 20.1.5.2 Top Fermentation 651 20.1.5.3 Continuous Processes, Rapid Methods 651 20.1.6 Bottling 651 20.1.7 Composition 651 20.1.7.1 Ethanol 651 20.1.7.2 Extract 652 20.1.7.3 Acids 652 20.1.7.4 Nitrogen Compounds 652 20.1.7.5 Carbohydrates 652 20.1.7.6 Minerals 652 20.1.7.7 Vitamins 652 20.1.7.8 Aroma Substances 652 20.1.7.9 Foam Builders 652 20.1.8 Kinds of Beer 653 20.1.8.1 Top Fermented Beers 653 20.1.8.2 Bottom Fermented Beers 653 20.1.8.3 Diet Beers 653 20.1.8.4 Export Beers 653 20.1.9 Beer Flavor and Beer Defects 654 20.2 Wine 654 20.2.1 Foreword 654 20.2.2 Grape Cultivars 654 20.2.3 Grape Must 658 20.2.3.1 Growth and Harvest 658 20.2.3.2 Must Production and Treatment 658 20.2.3.3 Must Composition 661 20.2.4 Fermentation 661 20.2.5 Cellar Operations after Fermentation; Storage 662 20.2.5.1 Racking, Storing and Aging 663 20.2.5.2 Sulfur Treatment 663 20.2.5.3 Clarification 663 20.2.5.4 Amelioration 664 20.2.6 Composition 664 20.2.6.1 Extract 664 20.2.6.2 Carbohydrates 664 20.2.6.3 Ethanol 665 20.2.6.4 Other Alcohols 665 20.2.6.5 Acids 665 Table of Contents XXXIII

20.2.6.6 Phenolic Compounds 665 20.2.6.7 Nitrogen Compounds 665 20.2.6.8 Minerals 665 20.2.6.9 Aroma Substances 665 20.2.7 Spoilage 668 20.2.8 Dessert Wines 669 20.2.9 Sparkling Wines 670 20.2.9.1 Bottle Fermentation ("Methode Champenoise") 670 20.2.9.2 Tank Fermentation Process ("Produit en Cuve Close") 670 20.2.9.3 Carbonation Process 670 20.2.9.4 Various Types of Sparkling Wines 670 20.2.10 Wine-Like Beverages 671 20.2.10.1 Fruit Wines 671 20.2.10.2 Malt Wine; Mead 671 20.2.10.3 Other Products 671 20.2.11 Vine-Containing Beverages 610 20.2.11.1 Vermouth 672 20.2.11.2 Aromatic Wines 672 20.2.11.3 Prescription or Medicinal Wines 672 20.2.11.4 May Wines and Punches 672 20.2.11.5 Wine Punch 672 20.3 Spirits 672 20.3.1 Foreword 672 20.3.2 Liquor 672 20.3.2.1 Production... 672 20.3.2.2 Alcohol (Spirit) Production 673 20.3.2.3 Liquor from Wine, Fruit, Cereals and Sugar Cane .673 20.3.2.3.1 Wine Liquor (Brandy) 673 20.3:2.3.2 Fruit Liquor (Fruit Brandy) 674 20.3.2.3.3 Gentian Liquor („Enzian") 674 20.3.2.3.4 Juniper Liquor (Brandy) 675 20.3.2.3.5 Rum 675 20.3.2.3.6 Arrack 675 20.3.2.3.7 Liquors from Cereals 675 20.3.2.3.8 Volatile Ingredients in Liquor 676 20.3.2.4 Miscellaneous Alcoholic Beverages 678 20.3.3 Liqueurs (Cordials) 678 20.3.3.1 Fruit Sap Liqueurs 678 20.3.3.2 Fruit Aroma Liqueurs 678 20.3.3.3 Fruit Brandies 679 20.3.3.4 Other Liqueurs 679 20.3.4 Punch Extracts 679 20.3.5 Mixed Drinks 679 20.4 Literature 679

21 Coffee, Tea, Cocoa 681 21.1 Coffee and Coffee Substitutes 681 21.1.1 Foreword 681 21.1.2 Raw Coffee 681 21.1.2.1 Harvesting and Processing 681 21.1.2.2 Raw Coffee Varieties 682 21.1.2.3 Composition of Raw Coffee 683 21.1.3 Roasted Coffee 683 21.1.3.1 Roasting 683 21.1.3.2 Storing and Packaging 684 21.1.3.3 Composition of Roasted Coffee 684 XXXIV Table of Contents

21.1.3.3.1 Proteins 684 21.1.3.3.2 Carbohydrates 685 21.1.3.3.3 Lipids 685 21.1.3.3.4 Acids 685 21.1.3.3.5 Caffeine 686 21.1.3.3.6 Trigonelline, Nicotinic Acid 686 21.1.3.3.7 Volatile Constituents 686 21.1.3.3.8 Minerals 688 21.1.3.3.9 Other Constituents 688 21.1.3.4 Coffee Beverages 688 21.1.4 Coffee Products 690 21.1.4.1 Instant Coffee 690 21.1.4.2 Decaffeinated Coffee 691 21.1.4.3 Treated Coffee 691 21.1.5 Coffee Substitutes and Adjuncts 691 21.1.5.1 Foreword 691 21.1.5.2 Processing of Raw Materials 692 21.1.5.3 Individual Products 692 21.1.5.3.1 Barley Coffee 692 21.1.5.3.2 Malt Coffee 692 21.1.5.3.3 Chicory Coffee 692 21.1.5.3.4 Fig Coffee 692 21.1.5.3.5 Acorn Coffee 692 21.1.5.3.6 Other Products 693 21.2 Tea and Tea-like Products 693 21.2.1 Foreword 693 21.2.2 Black Tea 693 21.2.3 Green Tea 694 21.2.4 Grades of Tea 694 21.2.5 Composition 694 21.2.5.2 Phenolics 695 21.2.5.2 Enzymes 695 21.2.5.3 Amino Acids 696 21.2.5.4 Caffeine 696 21.2.5.5 Carbohydrates 696 21.2.5.6 Lipids 696 21.2.5.7 Pigments (Chlorophyll and Carotenoids) 696 21.2.5.8 Volatile Compounds 697 21.2.5.9 Minerals 699 21.2.6 Reactions Involved in the Processing of Tea 699 21.2.7 Packaging, Storage, Brewing 701 21.2.8 Mate (Paraguayan Tea) 701 21.2.9 Products from Cola Nut 701 21.3 Cocoa and Chocolate 702 21.3.1 Foreword 702 21.3.2 Cacao 703 21.3.2.1 General Information 703 21.3.2.2 Harvesting and Processing 703 21.3.2.3 Composition 704 21.3.2.3.1 Proteins and Amino Acids 704 21.3.2.3.2 Theobromine and Caffeine 705 21.3.2.3.3 Lipids 705 21.3.2.3.4 Carbohydrates 705 21.3.2.3.5 Phenolic Compounds 705 21.3.2.3.6 Organic Acids 706 21.3.2.3.7 Volatile Compounds and Flavor Substances 706 21.3.2.4 Reactions Occurring During Curing 707 Table of Contents XXXV

21.3.2.5 Production of Cocoa Liquor 707 21.3.2.6 Production of Cocoa Liquor with Improved Dispersability 708 21.3.2.7 Production of Cocoa Powder by Cocoa Mass Pressing 708 21.3.3 Chocolate 708 21.3.3.1 Foreword 708 21.3.3.2 Chocolate Production 708 21.3.3.2.1 Mixing and Kneading 708 21.3.3.2.2 Refining (Fine Disintegration) 708 21.3.3.2.3 Final Ennobling (Conching) 708 21.3.3.2.4 Tempering and Molding 709 21.3.3.3 Kinds of Chocolate 709 21.3.4 Storage of Cocoa Products, and Associated Changes 710 21.4 Literature 711 22 Spices, Salt and Vinegar 712 22.1 Spices 712 22.1.1 Composition 712 22.1.1. r" Essential Oils 712 22.1.1.2 Glucosinolates, Pyrazines 713 22.1.1.3 Substances with Pungent Flavors 717 22.1.1.4 Pigments 717 22.1.1.5 Antioxidants 717 22.1.2 Products 717 22.1.2.1 Spice Powders 717 22.1.2.2 Spice Extracts or Concentrates 717 22.1.2.3 Blended Spices 717 22.1.2.4 Spice Preparations 717 22.2 Salt (Cooking Salt) 718 22.2.1 Composition 718 22.2.2 Occurrence 718 22.2.3 Production 718 22.2.4 Special Salt 719 22.2.5 Salt Substitutes 719 22.3 Vinegar 719 22.3.1 Production 719 22.3.1.1 Microbiological Production 719 22.3.1.2 Chemical Synthesis 719 22.3.2 Composition 720 22.4 Literature 720 Appendix: Selected References to the Literature of Food Chemistry and Related Fields 721 Subject Index 727