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Evaluating the Canadian Law on Surrogacy and Surrogate Motherhood

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Evaluating the Canadian Law on Surrogacy and Surrogate Motherhood REGULATING REPRODUCTION ‐ EVALUATING THE CANADIAN LAW ON SURROGACY AND SURROGATE MOTHERHOOD by Nisha Menon A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Laws Faculty of Law University of Toronto © Copyright by Nisha Menon 2009 Regulating Reproduction Evaluating the Canadian Law on Surrogacy and Surrogate Motherhood Nisha Menon Master of Laws Faculty of Law University of Toronto 2009 ABSTRACT Certain provisions of the Assisted Human Reproduction Act 2004 appear to have been enacted as a legislative response to the objections to surrogacy noted by the Royal Commission on New Reproductive Technologies in 1993. However, the legislation may not be successful in tackling concerns generated by recent developments in assisted reproductive technologies. This thesis identifies the shortcomings of the AHRA provisions that impact its ability to effectively regulate the surrogate act in Canada. The discussion suggests shifting the existing regulatory framework away from the imposition of legislative prohibitions on commercial surrogacy and towards a model that is more effective in dealing with the current reality of the surrogate arrangement. Upon consideration of regulatory regimes in Israel and the United Kingdom, a framework for surrogacy is suggested that balances the reproductive rights of the individuals who participate in such an arrangement, while minimizing the potentially exploitative aspects of the surrogate act. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It has been a tremendous privilege to work on this subject under the supervision of Professor Bernard Dickens. My deepest gratitude to him for all the advice, attention and encouragement he has given me and the knowledge he has shared with me in this field. I have truly been honoured to have been guided through this dissertation by a venerable doyen of reproductive health law and policy. I also extend my gratitude to Professor Trudo Lemmens for engaging me in many spirited discussions on the development of surrogacy legislation internationally and providing me with constant encouragement this academic year. My interest in reproductive health law was piqued and developed by Professor Therese Murphy of the University of Nottingham who continues to inspire me well into my Masters in the field she introduced me to in my undergraduate studies. My especial thanks to the CIHR Training Program in Health Law and Policy for the exposure and encouragement they extended to me throughout this year. This thesis could not have been completed without the cavalry of support I received from friends and family. My father and mother, LTC (Retd) Prasad Menon and Mrs KP Nirmala were my first teachers and remain my unconditional pillars of love, support and strength. I owe them everything. My thanks to my oldest friend and brother Dr Raj Kumar Menon, whose tireless and selfless practice of medicine continues to motivate my involvement in the area of health care. My deepest gratitude also to my uncle Mr Jayaram Menon and aunt Mrs MB Shailaja for their time and input in early drafts of this dissertation. Mr Ismail Ibrahim and Mr Ubaka Ogbogu provided astute and detailed legal observations and spent many hours proofreading the document. My father and mother here in Toronto, Mr Chandradasan and Mrs Ragini Nair, my grandparents and my best friend Ms Koh Boon Kee were constant sources of support and encouragement. My thanks and appreciation to them. Finally, my love and gratitude to my husband Mr Mohan Nair whose support saw me through this dissertation to its conclusion and whose faith in me was my sustenance during one of the most challenging years of my life. iii DEDICATION This thesis is offered to Lord Guruvayoorappan And dedicated to my daughter Arya Shree Nair who was born during the writing of this thesis in the hopes that it inspires a lifelong pursuit of learning. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: ENACTING THE ASSISTED HUMAN REPRODUCTION ACT 2004 ..................................... 1 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1 2. REGULATION OF SURROGACY IN CANADA ......................................................................................... 1 2.1. OBJECTIONS TO SURROGACY ............................................................................................................... 3 2.1.1. Moral Objections ....................................................................................................................... 3 2.1.2. Economic and social objections ................................................................................................ 5 2.2. GENESIS OF THE ASSISTED HUMAN REPRODUCTION ACT 2004 .............................................................. 11 2.2.1. Background to surrogacy legislation ....................................................................................... 11 2.2.2. Shifts in legislative policy ........................................................................................................ 13 2.3. THE ASSISTED HUMAN REPRODUCTION ACT 2004 ............................................................................... 15 3. IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH ......................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER 2: CANADIAN REGULATORY MODEL ON SURROGACY ................................................... 18 1. POTENTIAL SHORTCOMINGS OF THE AHRA ..................................................................................... 18 1.1. NO DEFINITION OF SURROGACY ......................................................................................................... 19 1.2. NO GUIDELINES TO REGULATE ALTRUISTIC SURROGACY .......................................................................... 19 1.3. FAILURE TO CONSIDER IMPACT OF GESTATIONAL SURROGACY ................................................................. 20 1.3.1. Gestational surrogacy as a service agreement ....................................................................... 21 1.3.2. Benign account of surrogacy ................................................................................................... 23 1.3.3. Probability of fewer custodial battles ..................................................................................... 24 1.3.4. Lack of moral panic ................................................................................................................. 24 1.4. FAILURES OF LEGISLATIVE PROHIBITIONS ............................................................................................. 25 1.4.1. Impracticality of statutory prohibitions .................................................................................. 28 1.4.2. Inflexibility of statutory prohibitions ...................................................................................... 29 1.4.3. Driving activities underground ................................................................................................ 30 1.4.4. Lack of social consensus on prohibition of surrogacy ............................................................. 33 1.4.5. Constitutional challenges to federal regulation on surrogacy ................................................ 34 1.4.6. Susceptibility of prohibitions to Charter challenges ............................................................... 40 2. NECESSITY OF SURROGACY LEGISLATION ........................................................................................ 51 2.1. ARGUMENTS FOR A REGULATORY FRAMEWORK ON SURROGACY ............................................................. 52 2.1.1. Advantages of a regulatory regime ......................................................................................... 52 2.1.2. Disadvantages of a regulatory regime .................................................................................... 54 2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF A REGULATORY REGIME ...................................................................................... 56 3. LOOKING AHEAD ....................................................................................................................... 57 v CHAPTER 3: REGULATORY MODEL ON SURROGACY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND ISRAEL ......... 58 1. UNITED KINGDOM ..................................................................................................................... 58 1.1. SURROGACY LEGISLATION ................................................................................................................ 59 1.1.1. The Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985 .................................................................................. 60 1.1.2. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 and Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008 ................................................................................................................................................. 61 1.2. ENFORCEMENT OF THE LAW ............................................................................................................. 63 1.3. ALLEVIATING THE COMMERCIALIZATION AND EXPLOITATION OF SURROGACY ............................................. 63 1.4. BEST INTERESTS OF THE CHILD .......................................................................................................... 67 1.5. ACQUISITION OF LEGAL PARENTHOOD ................................................................................................ 70 1.5.1. Adoption .................................................................................................................................
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