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WESTERN CAPITALISM AND EASTERN EXOTICISM: IN EDWARD SAID‟S PERSPECTIVES Ronald Maraden Parlindungan Silalahi Universitas Bunda Mulia [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Postmodernism fundamentally supersedes the ideas of modern ages that base their perspective on rationality and objectivity into postmodern thought that aimed at improving awareness of the reality in human life. It is aimed at improving social or cultural conditions or circumstances and to build the forms of awareness about realities that occur in human life in all spheres of life. This conception ultimately awakens Edward Said to a social phenomenon associated with the Western (colonialist) and Eastern (orientalist). Through his writing entitled Orientalism, Edward Said links Western responses and worldviews () which are always based on the nature of preconceived and stereotyped. In this paper, the author will firstly reveal the thoughts of and then associate them with the concept of Orientalism. At the end of this paper, the authors will conduct case studies on two texts that are considered to reflect the issues of orientalism.

Keywords: postmodernism, orientalism, Edward Said

ABSTRAK

Postmodernisme pada dasarnya menggantikan gagasan era modern yang mendasarkan perspektif pada rasionalitas dan objektivitas ke dalam pemikiran postmodern yang bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kesadaran akan realitas dalam kehidupan manusia. Hal ini bertujuan untuk memperbaiki kondisi atau keadaan sosial atau budaya dan untuk membangun bentuk kesadaran tentang realitas yang terjadi dalam kehidupan manusia di semua bidang kehidupan. Konsepsi ini pada akhirnya menyadarkan Edward Said akan sebuah fenomena sosial yang terkait dengan ideologi Barat (kolonialis) dan ideologi Timur (orientalis). Melalui tulisannya yang berjudul Orientalisme, Edward Said menghubungkan tanggapan Barat dan pandangan dunia (Orient) yang selalu didasarkan pada prasangka dan stereotip. Dalam tulisan ini, penulis pertama-tama akan mengungkapkan pemikiran postmodernisme dan kemudian mengaitkannya dengan konsep Orientalisme. Pada akhir makalah ini, penulis akan melakukan studi kasus pada dua teks yang dianggap merefleksikan isu orientalisme.

Kata Kunci: postmodernisme, orientalisme, Edward Said

INTRODUCTION interpreted as a fusion in all fields. Postmodernism, however, does not reject a Background of the Study form of intensification which ultimately leads The term „postmodern‟ was firstly to the expansion of concepts in all fields to coined by Arnold Toynbee (1939) in his renew and revolution as a form of famous book, Study of History. contradiction to every great narrative (meta Postmodernism fundamentally supersedes the narrative) form and to find contemporary ideas of modern ages that base their forms or representations (Lindas, 2013). perspective on rationality and objectivity into In this paper, the author discusses postmodern thought that aimed at improving about Edward Said, one of the famous awareness of the real reality in human life. In postmodern figures with postcolonial theory the context of culture, postmodernism is and issues related to orientalism. At the end always associated with the fusion between of this paper, the author will elaborate Said's low and high cultural areas, performances thoughts in a case study to enlight the and reality, universal and peripheral and conceptual foundations underlying Edward every form of interpretation that emphasizes Said's thoughts and views on Western binary opposition conventionally exalted by hegemony toward the east through his idea of philosophers in the previous era (Irvine, orientalism. 2010). It is clear that modern post can be

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Objectives of the Study identities within him seems to have made Based on the background above, the Said squeezed between the two Western researcher is interested to investigate two (American and Protestant) and Eastern (Arab types of texts which are considered to reflect and Muslim) worlds causing various the ideology of orientalism. This study aims contradictions about who he really is (“Teori at discovering the Western‟s views on postkolonial Edward W. Said,” 2015). orientalism in the comic strips “The However, it further helped him understand Adventure of Tintin.” the living contradictions between Western and Eastern, Religion, , and independence. REVIEW From a number of published works, Issues related to the deprivation of the right Edward W. Said: A History Record of the Palestinian people by became a Edward William Said was born in very prominent issue. In the "the Question of on , 1935 and died on " and "The Politics of September 23, 2003 (Karim, n.d.). Said was Dispossession", Said (2012) criticized Yasser born from a family with a different Arafat's leadership that allowed the Oslo background. His mother, Hilda was a Convention to be signed in 1993 because it -born Palestinian and his father, would prevent the from Wadie Said, was born in Jerusalem. Said returning to their place of origin. started his formal education in GPS or Gezira As a writer, Said is known for his Preparatory School (Prasetyo, 2009). After productivity (Callaghan, 2003). Most of the graduating from GPS, Said continued his published books relate to Middle Eastern education at CSAC ( School for issues, such as Orientalism (1978), The American Children). In 1951, Said left Cairo Question of Palestine (1979), Covering and continued his education at Princeton Islam: How the Media and the Experts University on a literary review. In this place, Determine How We See the Rest of the World Said developed himself and began writing a (1981), The Politics of Dispossession: The number of writings. Struggle for Palestinian Self-Determination, Said's life experience became a 1969-1994 (1994), and Peace and Its strong foundation that was reflected very Discontents: Essays on Palestine in the clearly in his writings (Prasetyo, 2009). Peace Process (1995). Said's Conflict, injustice, oppression and western books are The World, the Text, and the colonialism against the east he experienced Critic (1983), Nationalism, Colonialism, and during his stay in Jerusalem, Egypt, and Literature: Yeats and (1988), while living in the became the Musical Elaborations (1991), and Culture trigger for writing his critical works related to and (1993), and memoirs Out of colonialization and Western perspectives on Place (1999). the East (Prasetyo, 2009). Said realized there were a number of negative-indicated Constructing Edward Said‟s Thoughts: stereotypes communicated by colonizing Orientalism and Hegemonization countries against their colonies. This In his book entitled Orientalism inequality is evident in literary works written (1978), Edward Said describes his analysis of by Western writers. literary works of orientalist countries such as In his book Out of Place, Edward Britain, France and America, which are Sapir reveals personal confessions of his considered to be the cornerstone of other alienation to his own origins, the name he countries (Eastern Countries and Islam) carries, his language, and his constantly (“Orientalism (book),” n.d.). In his mobile environment. It is evident that the presentation, Said began by presenting the bitter experience in Said's life became a whip history of the French Invasion to Egypt and for opposing the forms of western capitalism the rise of turbulence in colonialism (Hamadi, that developed in the scientific world 2014). The etymologically elevated (Prasetyo, 2009). As a people with a "Orientalism" header comes from the word colonized Country background, Said often "orient" and "oriental" which is always experienced humiliation, oppression, and associated with the nation and people of the tension during the war. The variety of East (Marandi, 2009). The East implies Asian

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countries that are considered as "sunrise" thoughts are a form of stereotype. In contrast, countries. low , primitive, and so on are Orientalism, as adopted by Said in some form of western negative perspectives Orientalism, is associated with Western on eastern exoticism that are intrinsically responses and views of the Orient (Alwee, cultured and have been living for hundred n.d.). In Said's perspective, Western years. The above depictions can be seen perceptions and perceptions of the Eastern through the following illustration. Man are always based on the nature of preconceived. So it is very real if these

Figure 1. Orientalism

Figure 1 shows that the has unconsciously legitimized the demands of communicates preconceived messages and countries called oriental. The Oriental not stereotypes. It is used to describe the eastern only refers to the Western world as a whole world. In the end, it builds and strengthens but also the things it contains, such as leaders, the power it possesses in the colonial era. education, literature, literature, and even Alwee (n.d.) states that the West Western art. Indirectly dominated triggered perceives that Orient has the following the existence of economic and political characteristics: control of the countries in colonialization. Edward Said's argumentation base is a) Eastern culture is always monolithic; based on the fact that it found about 60,000 b) Eastern culture is static („stagnant‟) and books written by the West. Through its difficult and cannot even change; cultural hegemony towards the East, the West c) Eastern cultures of low quality and portrays the Near Orient with a negative and simple and irrational; degrading perspective (Karim, n.d.). If we d) Eastern culture is considered backward compare with the East (and include Islam) to and primitive, but exotic and strange. study Western and cultural heritage, we can see that the East tends not to In Orientalism, Said (1978) revealed touch the western world. This exposure a study on history, literature, and art in implies Said's beliefs that regard orientalism European countries (Darry, 2013). Said stated as something always associated with three that the works of the Europeans regard the phenomena. First is Orientalist. Orientalists Eastern nation as something different (the are the specific parties of people who come other) the way the easterners interpret and into contact with the east through the process perceive themselves (Alwee, n.d.). of teaching, production of works, and Orientalism is ultimately interpreted research on the (Said, 1978; as an ideology that positions the west as the Jones, Eliade, & Adams, 2005). These center in relation to the East (Said, 1978; include anthropologists, sociologists, writers, Jones, Eliade, & Adams, 2005). According to researchers, historians, philologists, who have Said (1978), the development of the idea of special knowledge and abilities of the western orientalism in order to build a thought that world and the phenomena associated with it. Journal of English Language and Culture – Vol. 7 No. 2 June 2017 91 FR-UBM-9.1.1.9/R0

Secondly, Orientalism is a way of thinking influence the interpretation behind the and thinking that affirms a significant text. In essence changing constantly, between the Orient and the events that ever happened (history) are Occident (Said, 1978; Jones, Eliade, & not completely the basis for a thorough Adams, 2005). In a broader view, Orientalism understanding of current events can be interpreted and viewed as a e) It does not emphasize the social legitimated institution for dealing with the approach in understanding the East (Said, 1978; Jones, Eliade, & Adams, phenomena occurring in eastern society. 2005). They provide a view of the eastern Western thinkers emphasize the search world, justifying the stereotype of the East for data that is compatible with the that has not yet been tested. concepts of hegemony to be conveyed in the text and heed the proper method Orientalism in Global Context approach that should be used. Understanding Orientalism cannot be f) Not lifting the phenomenon of culture seen in a narrow context. Fundamentally holistically. Cultures assessed as having orientalism lives and remains for the duration high value tend not to be raised or of the colonial process. The imperialists build delivered. This confirms the existence of their strength by discrediting the colonialized. efforts to strengthen Western capitalism This has happened all the time and history of and undermine the noble values of the human life. East. Alwee (n.d.) reported that the Orientalists studied and looked at the East The issue of Orientalism basically with some trends or ideas that can be broadly has its place in humanities and social studies. divided as follows: To understand the phenomena associated with orientalism, a researcher must a) Looked at the 'ahistorical' issue. In this understand the underlying context of the case, the changes that occur in the issue. For example, to dissect Orientalism in environment and culture from time to China it is necessary to conduct historical time are not a matter of concern. tracing related to the occupation. In this case, Western thinkers are always prejudiced the issue of orientalism would certainly be that the orientation remains the same associated with British colonization and its from before, now, and to the future. This occupation. The resulting literature will is certainly contrary to post-modern certainly be the basis for building the thinking that rejects permanent and static analysis. forms. In his presentation, Said (1978) b) The works of colonial era are rich in asserted a very strong relationship between negative stereotypes and prejudices to the East and the Islam. Asia is regarded as a the East. For example, natural disasters center for the spread of Islam. In a number of occurring in Asia that are always Western literature; This hatred can be clearly associated with Islamic beliefs; or even seen from orientalist works that describe and statements that undermine the physical associate the teachings of Islam with negative nature of the small, yellow-skinned mystical things associated (Prasetyo, 2009). Chinese society that is always associated Even in other literature can be seen a number with the prisoners and the weak. of orientalists who describe the Prophet c) The reductionist explanation which links Muhammad, Islam, and the Qur'an certain conditions with other negatively. scientifically illogical factors. Factors In his analysis, Said presents a that inhibit the development of society critical analysis with a new way to analyze that is always associated religion and the the history and social phenomena that have attributes attached to the culture. For occurred. Based on the method of example, the economic downturn in Asia , Said is able to show and is often associated with the character of explain the ways in which some , the eastern society. values, and knowledge reconstruct facts d) Focuses on analyzing transitory texts and through an independent approach (Susanto, not appealing to the context (time, place, 2008). The incorporation of methods used in and history) that fundamentally literary studies by focusing on critical

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analytical methods confirms the assertiveness reporter and adventurer who is always and purpose of the writings that are striving accompanied by a loyal dog type fox terrier for humanitarian endeavors. named snowy. The first strip comic of the series "The Adventure of Tintin" was "The Land of Soviet" on January 10, 1929 until RESEARCH METHOD May 8, 1930. The series "The Blue Lotus" was In order to understand orientalism in written in August 1934 and colored 1945. depth, the author will try to apply the Simply put, this comic tells Tintin a concepts and basics associated with journalist's journey to China after receiving orientalism to analyze these issues in two news that one gets word about the enemy published texts and in colonial and post who wants to avenge Tintin. colonial times. The two texts that were raised In the comic strips in Figure 2, it can were comic "The adventure of Tintin" written be seen that a fakir does the walking and by Herge. dancing on a pile of nails. The reaction given by Tintin in the above comic through the "He's Quite Extraordinary" speech shows FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Tintin's admiration for what the Fakir did. However, the reaction also shows a rejection In this section, the author will apply of irrational action to be performed. Edward Said's thoughts to analyze a famous In the context of Fakir culture, the act comic book entitled "The Adventure of of putting out the body shows acceptance and Tintin" written by a famous Belgian comic concession to God. Fakir itself is a form of artist named Georges Prosper Remi or better self-purification so it is very reasonable to be known as Herge. As for the comics that will interpreted as a form of high value culture. be of concern in this case is the comic series Herge in the above comics shows how "The Blue Lotus" written and published in irrational the Indian culture is. It is also very 1934. Figure 2 and 3 are parts of the comic visible on the third line, the needy is asked to that explicitly shows the orientalism imagery sit in a comfortable chair to be able to convey that is reflected in this comic. his prophecy to Tintin. Comfort provided In order to understand the issue of through the sofa just means suffering for the orientalism as reflected in the text above, it is poor. Therefore, the fakir asks to sit in the necessary to understand the context behind pile of nails because they are not accustomed this paper holistically. From this comic came to living in comfort. the character of Tintin. Tintin is a young

Figure 2. 1st Comic Strips of “The Adventure of Tintin” in “The Blue Lotus” (1934)

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Figure 3. 2nd Comic Strips of “The Adventure of Tintin” in “The Blue Lotus” (1934)

Discrimination against orientals is response that shows the western view of the clearly visible in every part of this comic. In Chinese people. In this case, the Chinese are some columns Herge can clearly see the viewed as being dirty and looking Western view of the East. inappropriate. In Figure 4, it can be seen a rickshaw Herge in this comic also affirms the dancer who is described as similar to the superiority of western society if compared Chinese (marked by a thin eye shape and the with the community. The western society is "China-man" clothing) that hit a Westerner considered to have a higher culture than the who was symbolized with a jacket, a stick, a eastern counterparts. This is clearly recorded hat, and a newspaper. in Figure 5. Responding to the accidents, people who have a symbol of the West provide a

Figure 4. 1st Comic Strips of “The Adventure of Tintin”

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Figure 5. 2nd Comic Strips of “The Adventure of Tintin”

The quotation above illustrates the Postmodern thoughts are clearly western way of thinking of the eastern reflected in Edward Said's writings. The truth people. The rabble word 'common man' (on that has been so far conveyed through the first line), 'primitive' savages (on the first classical is built on untested line), and scum 'mud or referring to a lowly untruth. Power allows for a message bending. man' (on the second line) indicate that Colonialism, imperialism, domination westerners view the eastern man as Primitive. reinforce the mastery of texts within society. This is communicated to western participants This mastery ultimately does not only lead to so as to affirm the agreement between each the wrong communication process. In a 'western' participant for the statement. higher level the mastery of this text leads to a In a conversation between Western negative perspective, sentiment, and hatred. participants, the statement "Our Superb According to Said, Orientalism refers to an Western Civilization" can be seen. This unexamined point of view. The western world shows the recognition of Western superiority controlled by colonialists strengthens its that is considered civilized to the Eastern power by using texts. In addition to mastering culture. In essence culture in a more humble the economy and politically the orientalists view cannot be superior to other cultures. build bad sentiments over their colonies. Each culture has its own uniqueness and Primitive, different, and exotic are the uniqueness that can not be compared or number of labels assigned to the eastern assessed with a single cultural perspective. countries. This seems to imply that the colonial state is not as human as the western world. This negative sentiment not only leads CONCLUSION to the perspective of a particular culture. At a more complex level the negative sentiment Postmodern thought provides a builds negative stereotypes on the cultures picture of reality that cannot be seen directly. and religions owned by the colonized. This Reality cannot be seen the process of deep untested Orientalist thought is reinforced by analysis of a text. In the context of his orientalists who master the academic sphere. presentation, ideology is in line with Throughout the history of colonialism the imperialism. The power of the text may affect western literatures are filled with unfounded communication. Therefore, the meaning stereotypes. found in the text cannot be seen as an absolute reality. Journal of English Language and Culture – Vol. 7 No. 2 June 2017 95 FR-UBM-9.1.1.9/R0

REFERENCES Said, E. W. (1981). Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how Alwee, A. I. (n.d.). Malay studies and we see the rest of the world. New York, orientalism. Retrieved from NY: . http://www.thereadinggroup.sg/Article Said, E. W. (1983). The world, the text, and s/Malay%20Studies%20&%20Oriental the critic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard ism.pdf University Press. Callaghan, C. (2003). Selected Bibliography Said, E. W. (1988). Nationalism, colonialism, of Work about and of Edward Said's and literature: Yeats and Texts. CLCWeb: Comparative decolonization. Derry: Field Day. Literature and Culture, 5(4), 7. Said, E. W. (1991) Musical elaborations. Darry, M. (2013, May 21). Orientalisme. New York, NY: Retrieved from http:// mohammad- Press. darry-fisip12.web. Said, E. W. (1993) Culture and imperialism. unair.ac.id/artikel_detail-79327- New York, NY: Knopf/Random Ide%20%20Ide%20Politik%20Alternat House. if-Orientalisme.html Said, E. W. (1994). The politics of Hamadi, L. (2014). Edward Said: The dispossession: The struggle for Postcolonial Theory and the Literature Palestinian self-determination, 1969- of Decolonization. European Scientific 1994. New York, NY: Pantheon Journal, ESJ, 10(10). Books. Irvine, M. (2010). „The Said, E. W. (1995). Peace and its discontents: Postmodern,‟„Postmodernism,‟„Postmo Essays on Palestine in the Middle East dernity‟: Approaches to Po- peace process. New York, NY: Mo. Georgetown. edu. Website, 11. Vintage Books. Jones, L., Eliade, M., & Adams, C. J. (2005). Said, E. W. (1999). Out of place: A Memoir. Encyclopedia of religion. Detroit: New York, NY: Knopf. Macmillan Reference Said, E. W., Eagleton T., & Jameson, F. Karim, A. R. (n.d.). Edward W. Said. (1990). Nationalism, colonialism, and Retrieved from http://www. literature. Minneapolis: U of academia.edu/21798822/EDWARD_W Minnesota P ._SAID. Siegel, K. (n.d.). Introduction to Modern Lindas, J. (2013). Engaging with . Retrieved from Postmodernism: An Examination of http://www.kristisiegel.com/theory.htm Literature and the Canon. Susanto, H. (2008, May 8). Membongkar Marandi, S. M., & Pirnajmuddin, H. (2009). Hegemoni Wacana Sosiologi Barat. Constructing an Axis of Evil: Iranian Retrieved from Memoirs in the 'Land of the Free'. The http://www.averroes.or.id/membongkar American Journal of Islamic Social -hegemoni-wacana-sosiologi- Sciences, 26(2), 23-47. barat.html Orientalism (book). (n.d.). Retrieved from Teori postkolonial Edward W. Said. (2015, https://www.revolvy.com/ January 5). Retrieved from main/index.php?s=Orientalism%20(bo https://linguag3.wordpress. ok)&item_type=topic com/?s=edward+said Prasetyo. (2009, August 25). Edward Said: Toynbee, A. (1939). A study of history (5th Menembus barat dan timur. Retrieved Volume). London: Oxford University from https:// Press. tokohbangsa.wordpress.com/2009/08/2 5/edward-said-menembus-barat-dan- timur/ Remi, G. P. (1983). The blue lotus. London: Mathuen Publishing. Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York, NY: Pantheon Books. Said, E. W. (1979). The question of Palestine. New York, NY: Times Books.

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