DOCSLIB.ORG

Solitons and Quantum Behavior Abstract

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Solitons and Quantum Behavior Abstract Solitons and Quantum Behavior Richard A. Pakula email: [email protected] April 9, 2017 Abstract In applied physics and in engineering intuitive understanding is a boost for creativity and almost a necessity for efficient product improvement. The existence of soliton solutions to the quantum equations in the presence of self-interactions allows us to draw an intuitive picture of quantum mechanics. The purpose of this work is to compile a collection of models, some of which are simple, some are obvious, some have already appeared in papers and even in textbooks, and some are new. However this is the first time they are presented (to our knowledge) in a common place attempting to provide an intuitive physical description for one of the basic particles in nature: the electron. The soliton model applied to the electrons can be extended to the electromagnetic field providing an unambiguous description for the photon. In so doing a clear image of quantum mechanics emerges, including quantum optics, QED and field quantization. To our belief this description is of highly pedagogical value. We start with a traditional description of the old quantum mechanics, first quantization and second quantization, showing the tendency to renounce to 'visualizability', as proposed by Heisenberg for the quantum theory. We describe an intuitive description of first and second quantization based on the concept of solitons, pioneered by the 'double solution' of de Broglie in 1927. Many aspects of first and second quantization are clarified and visualized intuitively, including the possible achievement of ergodicity by the so called ‘vacuum fluctuations’. PACS: 01.70.+w, +w, 03.65.Ge , 03.65.Pm, 03.65.Ta, 11.15.-q, 12.20.*, 14.60.Cd, 14.70.-e, 14.70.Bh, 14.70.Fm, 14.70.Hp, 14.80.Bn, 32.80.y, 42.50.Lc 1 Table of Contents Solitons and Quantum Behavior ............................................................................................................................................. 1 Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 1. Chapter: Quantum Mechanics ........................................................................................................................................ 7 1.1. Classical physics .......................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2. Quantum mechanics. .................................................................................................................................................. 7 1.2.1. Old Quantum Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.2. First quantization ................................................................................................................................................ 8 1.2.3. Second quantization.......................................................................................................................................... 11 1.3. Intuitive interpretation ............................................................................................................................................. 13 1.3.1. First quantization .............................................................................................................................................. 13 1.3.2. Second quantization.......................................................................................................................................... 15 1.4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................. 18 2. Chapter: Dirac-Poisson Soliton ..................................................................................................................................... 20 2.1. The Quantum Equations. Traditional Presentation. ................................................................................................ 20 2.1.1. Schrödinger equation ........................................................................................................................................ 20 2.1.1.1. Equation .................................................................................................................................................... 20 2.1.1.2. Hamiltonian ............................................................................................................................................... 20 2.1.1.3. Charge density........................................................................................................................................... 20 2.1.2. Pauli equation: .................................................................................................................................................. 21 2.1.2.1. Spinors ....................................................................................................................................................... 21 2.1.2.2. Equation .................................................................................................................................................... 22 2.1.2.3. Charge density........................................................................................................................................... 23 2.1.2.4. Alternative interpretation, Dipole approximation .................................................................................... 23 2.1.3. Klein Gordon equation ...................................................................................................................................... 24 2.1.3.1. Equation .................................................................................................................................................... 24 2.1.3.2. Hamiltonian ............................................................................................................................................... 24 2.1.3.3. Charge and current density: ...................................................................................................................... 25 2.1.4. Klein Gordon equation in Schrödinger form ..................................................................................................... 25 2.1.4.1. Linearization of energy: ............................................................................................................................ 25 2.1.4.2. Linear Equation ......................................................................................................................................... 27 2.1.4.3. The Feshbach-Villars representation ........................................................................................................ 29 2.1.5. Dirac Equation. .................................................................................................................................................. 29 2.1.5.1. Traditional ................................................................................................................................................. 29 2 2.1.5.2. Decoding the traditional Dirac equation ................................................................................................... 31 2.1.6. Maxwell equations ............................................................................................................................................ 37 2.1.6.1. Equations................................................................................................................................................... 37 2.1.6.2. Hamiltonian ............................................................................................................................................... 37 2.2. The Chain Model. ...................................................................................................................................................... 37 2.2.1. Klein Gordon Equation ...................................................................................................................................... 37 2.3. De Broglie’s Guiding Condition and Bohm’s Quantum Potential ............................................................................. 43 2.3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 43 2.3.1.1. Effects of Boundary conditions in the absence of external fields, De Broglie .......................................... 43 2.3.1.2. External fields, Bohm ................................................................................................................................ 47 2.3.2. Schrödinger Equation ........................................................................................................................................ 50 2.3.3. Klein Gordon equation ...................................................................................................................................... 52 2.3.4. Pauli Equation ................................................................................................................................................... 54 2.3.4.1. Pauli Quantum Potential ..........................................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Second Quantized Approach to the Study of Model Hamiltonians in Quantum Hall Regime
    Washington University in St. Louis Washington University Open Scholarship Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations Arts & Sciences Winter 12-15-2016 The Second Quantized Approach to the Study of Model Hamiltonians in Quantum Hall Regime Li Chen Washington University in St. Louis Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds Recommended Citation Chen, Li, "The Second Quantized Approach to the Study of Model Hamiltonians in Quantum Hall Regime" (2016). Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 985. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds/985 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Arts & Sciences at Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY IN ST. LOUIS Department of Physics Dissertation Examination Committee: Alexander Seidel, Chair Zohar Nussinov Michael Ogilvie Xiang Tang Li Yang The Second Quantized Approach to the Study of Model Hamiltonians in Quantum Hall Regime by Li Chen A dissertation presented to The Graduate School of Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2016 Saint Louis, Missouri c 2016, Li Chen ii Contents List of Figures v Acknowledgements vii Abstract viii 1 Introduction to Quantum Hall Effect 1 1.1 The classical Hall effect . .1 1.2 The integer quantum Hall effect . .3 1.3 The fractional quantum Hall effect . .7 1.4 Theoretical explanations of the fractional quantum Hall effect . .9 1.5 Laughlin's gedanken experiment .
    [Show full text]
  • Canonical Quantization of Two-Dimensional Gravity S
    Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics, Vol. 90, No. 1, 2000, pp. 1–16. Translated from Zhurnal Éksperimental’noœ i Teoreticheskoœ Fiziki, Vol. 117, No. 1, 2000, pp. 5–21. Original Russian Text Copyright © 2000 by Vergeles. GRAVITATION, ASTROPHYSICS Canonical Quantization of Two-Dimensional Gravity S. N. Vergeles Landau Institute of Theoretical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Chernogolovka, Moscow oblast, 142432 Russia; e-mail: [email protected] Received March 23, 1999 Abstract—A canonical quantization of two-dimensional gravity minimally coupled to real scalar and spinor Majorana fields is presented. The physical state space of the theory is completely described and calculations are also made of the average values of the metric tensor relative to states close to the ground state. © 2000 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”. 1. INTRODUCTION quantization) for observables in the highest orders, will The quantum theory of gravity in four-dimensional serve as a criterion for the correctness of the selected space–time encounters fundamental difficulties which quantization route. have not yet been surmounted. These difficulties can be The progress achieved in the construction of a two- arbitrarily divided into conceptual and computational. dimensional quantum theory of gravity is associated The main conceptual problem is that the Hamiltonian is with two ideas. These ideas will be formulated below a linear combination of first-class constraints. This fact after the necessary notation has been introduced. makes the role of time in gravity unclear. The main computational problem is the nonrenormalizability of We shall postulate that space–time is topologically gravity theory. These difficulties are closely inter- equivalent to a two-dimensional cylinder.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction to Quantum Field Theory
    Utrecht Lecture Notes Masters Program Theoretical Physics September 2006 INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM FIELD THEORY by B. de Wit Institute for Theoretical Physics Utrecht University Contents 1 Introduction 4 2 Path integrals and quantum mechanics 5 3 The classical limit 10 4 Continuous systems 18 5 Field theory 23 6 Correlation functions 36 6.1 Harmonic oscillator correlation functions; operators . 37 6.2 Harmonic oscillator correlation functions; path integrals . 39 6.2.1 Evaluating G0 ............................... 41 6.2.2 The integral over qn ............................ 42 6.2.3 The integrals over q1 and q2 ....................... 43 6.3 Conclusion . 44 7 Euclidean Theory 46 8 Tunneling and instantons 55 8.1 The double-well potential . 57 8.2 The periodic potential . 66 9 Perturbation theory 71 10 More on Feynman diagrams 80 11 Fermionic harmonic oscillator states 87 12 Anticommuting c-numbers 90 13 Phase space with commuting and anticommuting coordinates and quanti- zation 96 14 Path integrals for fermions 108 15 Feynman diagrams for fermions 114 2 16 Regularization and renormalization 117 17 Further reading 127 3 1 Introduction Physical systems that involve an infinite number of degrees of freedom are usually described by some sort of field theory. Almost all systems in nature involve an extremely large number of degrees of freedom. A droplet of water contains of the order of 1026 molecules and while each water molecule can in many applications be described as a point particle, each molecule has itself a complicated structure which reveals itself at molecular length scales. To deal with this large number of degrees of freedom, which for all practical purposes is infinite, we often regard a system as continuous, in spite of the fact that, at certain distance scales, it is discrete.
    [Show full text]
  • Quantum Droplets in Dipolar Ring-Shaped Bose-Einstein Condensates
    UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE FACULTY OF PHYSICS MASTER THESIS Quantum Droplets in Dipolar Ring-shaped Bose-Einstein Condensates Author: Supervisor: Marija Šindik Dr. Antun Balaž September, 2020 UNIVERZITET U BEOGRADU FIZICKIˇ FAKULTET MASTER TEZA Kvantne kapljice u dipolnim prstenastim Boze-Ajnštajn kondenzatima Autor: Mentor: Marija Šindik Dr Antun Balaž Septembar, 2020. Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Antun Balaž, for his guidance, patience, useful suggestions and for the time and effort he invested in the making of this thesis. I would also like to thank my family and friends for the emotional support and encouragement. This thesis is written in the Scientific Computing Laboratory, Center for the Study of Complex Systems of the Institute of Physics Belgrade. Numerical simulations were run on the PARADOX supercomputing facility at the Scientific Computing Laboratory of the Institute of Physics Belgrade. iii Contents Chapter 1 – Introduction 1 Chapter 2 – Theoretical description of ultracold Bose gases 3 2.1 Contact interaction..............................4 2.2 The Gross-Pitaevskii equation........................5 2.3 Dipole-dipole interaction...........................8 2.4 Beyond-mean-field approximation......................9 2.5 Quantum droplets............................... 13 Chapter 3 – Numerical methods 15 3.1 Rescaling of the effective GP equation................... 15 3.2 Split-step Crank-Nicolson method...................... 17 3.3 Calculation of the ground state....................... 20 3.4 Calculation of relevant physical quantities................. 21 Chapter 4 – Results 24 4.1 System parameters.............................. 24 4.2 Ground state................................. 25 4.3 Droplet formation............................... 26 4.4 Critical strength of the contact interaction................. 28 4.5 The number of droplets...........................
    [Show full text]
  • Second Quantization∗
    Second Quantization∗ Jörg Schmalian May 19, 2016 1 The harmonic oscillator: raising and lowering operators Lets first reanalyze the harmonic oscillator with potential m!2 V (x) = x2 (1) 2 where ! is the frequency of the oscillator. One of the numerous approaches we use to solve this problem is based on the following representation of the momentum and position operators: r x = ~ ay + a b 2m! b b r m ! p = i ~ ay − a : (2) b 2 b b From the canonical commutation relation [x;b pb] = i~ (3) follows y ba; ba = 1 y y [ba; ba] = ba ; ba = 0: (4) Inverting the above expression yields rm! i ba = xb + pb 2~ m! r y m! i ba = xb − pb (5) 2~ m! ∗Copyright Jörg Schmalian, 2016 1 y demonstrating that ba is indeed the operator adjoined to ba. We also defined the operator y Nb = ba ba (6) which is Hermitian and thus represents a physical observable. It holds m! i i Nb = xb − pb xb + pb 2~ m! m! m! 2 1 2 i = xb + pb − [p;b xb] 2~ 2m~! 2~ 2 2 1 pb m! 2 1 = + xb − : (7) ~! 2m 2 2 We therefore obtain 1 Hb = ! Nb + : (8) ~ 2 1 Since the eigenvalues of Hb are given as En = ~! n + 2 we conclude that the eigenvalues of the operator Nb are the integers n that determine the eigenstates of the harmonic oscillator. Nb jni = n jni : (9) y Using the above commutation relation ba; ba = 1 we were able to show that p a jni = n jn − 1i b p y ba jni = n + 1 jn + 1i (10) y The operator ba and ba raise and lower the quantum number (i.e.
    [Show full text]
  • Robert Simha Jamieson, Alexander M.; Otterness, Ivan; Utracki, Leszek A
    NRC Publications Archive Archives des publications du CNRC Robert Simha Jamieson, Alexander M.; Otterness, Ivan; Utracki, Leszek A. This publication could be one of several versions: author’s original, accepted manuscript or the publisher’s version. / La version de cette publication peut être l’une des suivantes : la version prépublication de l’auteur, la version acceptée du manuscrit ou la version de l’éditeur. For the publisher’s version, please access the DOI link below./ Pour consulter la version de l’éditeur, utilisez le lien DOI ci-dessous. Publisher’s version / Version de l'éditeur: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3047699 Physics Today, 61, 12, p. 69, 2008-12-01 NRC Publications Record / Notice d'Archives des publications de CNRC: https://nrc-publications.canada.ca/eng/view/object/?id=d1535643-a1df-480c-967a-d5d7f2740786 https://publications-cnrc.canada.ca/fra/voir/objet/?id=d1535643-a1df-480c-967a-d5d7f2740786 Access and use of this website and the material on it are subject to the Terms and Conditions set forth at https://nrc-publications.canada.ca/eng/copyright READ THESE TERMS AND CONDITIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE USING THIS WEBSITE. L’accès à ce site Web et l’utilisation de son contenu sont assujettis aux conditions présentées dans le site https://publications-cnrc.canada.ca/fra/droits LISEZ CES CONDITIONS ATTENTIVEMENT AVANT D’UTILISER CE SITE WEB. Questions? Contact the NRC Publications Archive team at [email protected]. If you wish to email the authors directly, please see the first page of the publication for their contact information. Vous avez des questions? Nous pouvons vous aider.
    [Show full text]
  • QUANTUM THEORY of SOLIDS Here A+ Is Simply the Hermitian Conjugate of A
    1 QUANTUM THEORY OF SOLIDS Here a+ is simply the Hermitian conjugate of a. Using these de¯nitions we can rewrite the Hamiltonian as: Version (02/12/07) ~! H = (aa+ + a+a): (6) 2 SECOND QUANTIZATION We now calculate (aa+ ¡ a+a)f(x) = [a; a+]f(x), f any function In this section we introduce the concept of second quantization. Historically, the ¯rst quantization is the = 1 ¢ f(x) , since p = ¡i~@x: (7) quantization of particles due to the commutation rela- Hence tion between position and momentum, i.e., [a; a+] = 1; (8) [x; p] = i~: (1) which is the Boson commutation relation. In addition, Second quantization was introduced to describe cases, [a; a] = [a+; a+] = 0. Using this commutation relation we where the number of particles can vary. A quantum ¯eld can rewrite the Hamiltonian in second quantized form as such as the electromagnetic ¯eld is such an example, since the number of photons can vary. Here it is necessary H = ~!(a+a + 1=2): (9) to quantize a ¯eld ª(r), which can also be expressed in terms of commutation relations In order to solve the Hamiltonian in this form we can write the wave function as [ª(r); ª+(r0)] = ±(r ¡ r0): (2) (a+)n Ãn = p j0i; (10) However, there is only one quantum theory, hence n! nowadays ¯rst quantization refers to using eigenval- and aj0i = 0, where j0i is the vacuum level of the system. ues and eigenfunctions to solve SchrÄodingerequation, We now show that Ãn de¯ned in this way is indeed the whereas in second quantization one uses creation and an- solution to SchrÄodinger'sequation HÃn = EnÃn.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 11 the Relativistic Quantum Point Particle
    Chapter 11 The Relativistic Quantum Point Particle To prepare ourselves for quantizing the string, we study the light-cone gauge quantization of the relativistic point particle. We set up the quantum theory by requiring that the Heisenberg operators satisfy the classical equations of motion. We show that the quantum states of the relativistic point particle coincide with the one-particle states of the quantum scalar field. Moreover, the Schr¨odinger equation for the particle wavefunctions coincides with the classical scalar field equations. Finally, we set up light-cone gauge Lorentz generators. 11.1 Light-cone point particle In this section we study the classical relativistic point particle using the light-cone gauge. This is, in fact, a much easier task than the one we faced in Chapter 9, where we examined the classical relativistic string in the light- cone gauge. Our present discussion will allow us to face the complications of quantization in the simpler context of the particle. Many of the ideas needed to quantize the string are also needed to quantize the point particle. The action for the relativistic point particle was studied in Chapter 5. Let’s begin our analysis with the expression given in equation (5.2.4), where an arbitrary parameter τ is used to parameterize the motion of the particle: τf dxµ dxν S = −m −ηµν dτ . (11.1.1) τi dτ dτ 249 250 CHAPTER 11. RELATIVISTIC QUANTUM PARTICLE In writing the above action, we have set c =1.Wewill also set =1when appropriate. Finally, the time parameter τ will be dimensionless, just as it was for the relativistic string.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 2 the Quantized Field
    Chapter 2 The quantized field We give here an elementary introduction to the quantization of the electromag- netic field. We adopt the Coulomb gauge and a canonical framework. We then discuss examples for the quantum states of the field and the properties of vacuum fluctuations. A few general remarks. The procedure followed here is also called “second quantization”. This refers, taken literally, to the quantum mechanics of a many- body system where “first quantization” corresponds to introducing operators xˆ, pˆ for a single particle (or equivalently: introducing a wave function ψ(x)). The second-quantized theory then promotes the wave function to an operator ψˆ(x). We see this procedure at work in electrodynamics where the starting point is a “classical field theory”. The result is the same: the fields E(x, t), B(x, t) will be replaced by operators (denoted with carets = “hats”). In the modern language of quantum field theory, any physical object is de- scribed by a suitable field operator. Photons appear in the quantized Maxwell fields. For electrons, the Schrodinger¨ equation is quantized (either in its rel- ativistic form, the Dirac equation, to describe high-energy electrons, or in the non-relativistic form, to describe a many-electron system like in a solid). There is an analogue of “first quantization” (or its “reverse” = going to the classical limit) in electrodynamics: the passage to geometrical optics. Statements from Cohen-Tannoudji, Dupont-Roc and Grynberg. The electro- magnetic field is not the wave function for the photon because the equation of motion contains a source term = photons can be created and annihilated.
    [Show full text]
  • Second Quantization of the Klein-Gordon Equation
    Kapitza Spring 2018 Second Quantization of the Klein-Gordon Equation Ben Saltzman Q.F.T. TERM PAPER Professor Sarada Rajeev April 20th 2017 1 Introduction The Schr¨odinger equation, successful as it is for describing non-relativistic quantum particles, fails in the relativistic regime. By using special relativity, one can derive a relativistic version of the Schr¨odingerequation, known as the first quantization of the Klein-Gordon equation. Unfortunately, this has its own problems: negative energy and probability solutions, nonphysical entities that could spell the end for a theory. Moving from quantum theory to quantum field theory, fields are introduced as fundamental. Quantizing the Klein-Gordon equation in quantum field theory leads to a model known as the second quantization, which avoids many of the problems of the first quantization. 2 Second Quantization of the Klein-Gordon Equation 2.1 The Klein-Gordon Field We can write the Klein-Gordon field operator as 3 ( ik x) (ik x) φ(x)=C d k e − · a(k)+e · a†(k) (1) Z ✓ ◆ where 1 C = (2) 2k0(2⇡)3 0 and k = Ek. The field operator satisfiesp the Klein-Gordon equation, i.e. µ 2 (@µ@ + m )φ =0 (3) This can be split into positive and negative energy components as follows: (+) ( ) φ(x)=φ (x)+φ − (x) (+) 3 ( ik x) φ (x)=C d ke− · a(k) (4) Z ( ) 3 (ik x) φ − (x)=C d ke · a†(k) Z The conjugate momentum for the field operator is therefore ⇧(x)=φ˙(x) 0 3 = ik C d k exp( ik x)a(k) exp(ik x)a†(k) (5) − − · − · Z ✓ ◆ 1 Inverting equations 1 and 5 and solving for the annihilation and creation operators a and
    [Show full text]
  • Geometric Quantization of N= 2, D= 3 Superanyon
    Geometric quantization of N = 2, D = 3 superanyon I.V.Gorbunov1 and S.L.Lyakhovich Department of Physics, Tomsk State University, Lenin Ave. 36, Tomsk, 634050 Russia hep-th/9801148 Accepted by Physics Letters B Abstract A classical model of N = 2, D = 3 fractional spin superparticle (superanyon) is presented, whose first-quantization procedure combines the Berezin quantization for the superspin de- grees of freedom and the canonical quantization for the space-time ones. To provide the supersymmetry for the quantised theory, certain quantum corrections are required to the N = 2 supersymmetry generators as compared to the Berezin procedure. The renormalized generators are found and the first quantised theory of N = 2 superanyon is constructed. PACS numbers: 11.30.Pb, 71.10.Pm Keywords: geometric quantization, anyons, supersymmetry, constrained dynamics. Anyons, particles with fractional spin and statistics in (1+2)-dimensional space-time, made theirs appearance twenty years ago [1]. In the middle 80’s, the anyon concept was applied to the explanation of the fractional quantum Hall effect [2] and to the high-Tc superconductivity arXiv:hep-th/9801148v1 22 Jan 1998 models [3]. From the group-theoretical viewpoint, a possibility of fractional spin emerges from the or- dinary classification of the Poincar´egroup irreps. Spin is not quantised in D = 1 + 2 because the little group of the massive irrep SO(2) is an abelian group. Fractional spin describes an appropriate representation of the universal covering group ISO↑(1, 2). The investigations of anyons in the field-theory [4, 5] are supplemented by the study of the mechanical models and the corresponding first quantised theories [6, 7, 8].
    [Show full text]
  • Aspects of the Quantum Hall Effect
    Aspects of the Quantum Hall Effect S. A. Parameswaran Slightly edited version of the introductory chapter from Quixotic Order and Bro- ken Symmetry in the Quantum Hall Effect and its Analogs, S.A. Parameswaran, Princeton University Ph.D. Thesis, 2011. Contents I. A Brief History, 1879-1984 2 II. Samples and Probes 6 III. The Integer Effect 8 A. Single-particle physics: Landau levels 9 B. Semiclassical Percolation 10 IV. Why is the Quantization Robust? 12 A. Laughlin’s Argument 12 B. Hall Conductance as a Topological Invariant 15 V. The Fractional Effect 17 A. Trial Wavefunctions 18 B. Plasma Analogy 21 C. Neutral Excitations and the Single-Mode Approximation 22 D. Fractionally Charged Excitations 23 E. Life on the Edge 25 F. Hierarchies 27 1. Haldane-Halperin Hierarchy 28 2. Composite Fermions and the Jain Hierarchy 29 VI. Half-Filled Landau Levels 30 A. Composite Fermions and the Halperin-Lee-Read Theory 31 2 B. Paired States of Composite Fermions 36 VII. Landau-Ginzburg Theories of the Quantum Hall Effect 39 A. Composite Boson Chern-Simons theory 40 B. A Landau-Ginzburg Theory for Paired Quantum Hall States 41 C. Off-Diagonal Long Range Order in the lowest Landau level 44 VIII. Type I and Type II Quantum Hall Liquids 46 IX. ν =1 is a Fraction Too: Quantum Hall Ferromagnets 47 A. Spin Waves 49 B. Skyrmions 49 C. Low-energy Dynamics 50 D. Other Examples 53 X. Antiferromagnetic Analogs and AKLT States 53 References 56 I. A BRIEF HISTORY, 1879-1984 In 1879, Edwin Hall, a twenty-four-year-old graduate student at Johns Hopkins Univer- sity, was confounded by two dramatically different points of view on the behavior of a fixed, current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field.
    [Show full text]