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Copyright by Stefanie Katharine Wichhart 2007 Copyright by Stefanie Katharine Wichhart 2007 The Dissertation Committee for Stefanie Katharine Wichhart certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: INTERVENTION: BRITAIN, EGYPT, AND IRAQ DURING WORLD WAR II Committee: Wm. Roger Louis, Supervisor Judith Coffin Barbara Harlow Abraham Marcus Gail Minault INTERVENTION: BRITAIN, EGYPT, AND IRAQ DURING WORLD WAR II by Stefanie Katharine Wichhart, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2007 For Ryan, who saw this through from beginning to end, and for Benjamin, who joined us along the way. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Department of History at the University of Texas at Austin for funding my research adventure in London and the Center for Middle Eastern Studies for its financial support of my early graduate studies. The National Security and Education Program (NSEP) funded my Arabic studies in Egypt and gave me the chance to visit some of the places I had been writing about. I would also like to thank the staff of the archives and libraries where I had the pleasure of working, in particular Edgar Flacker at the British National Archives for interesting tidbits on Vyvyan Holt, and Debbie Usher, archivist for the Middle East Centre Archive, St. Antony’s College, Oxford. Completing a project such as this affords a special opportunity to reflect on one’s “intellectual genealogy.” It is with great thanks that I acknowledge the influence of three historians and mentors. First, Mr. James Gately, my AP history teacher at Starpoint Central School. It was in Mr. Gately’s class that I first discovered how fascinating historical debates could be, and that historians don’t always agree! William Gohlman served as my mentor and adviser while I was an undergraduate at the State University of New York at Geneseo and sparked my interest in the Middle East. My graduate supervisor Wm. Roger Louis introduced me to the joys and challenges of archival research. As a student and as an assistant to the British Studies program I have had the opportunity to learn the craft of the historian from his fine example. I’d also like to thank the other members of my committee: Judy Coffin, Barbara Harlow, Abraham Marcus, and Gail Minault, for their support throughout my graduate career. I’d like to recognize an individual and an experience that left their special imprint on the themes of this project. My grandmother Mary Ellis was an enthusiastic amateur historian. One day when I was sick as a child she sat on the edge of my bed and told me v our family history, just as her mother had done for her. She weaved together the many strands of the family tree, and made the ordinary extraordinary. From my grandmother I learned that history is, in the end, about people, and it is to her that I attribute my fascination with the personal stories behind the grand narrative. I trace my interest in Embassies as institutions to an internship at the American Embassy in Tunis, Tunisia in 1999. While far removed in time and space from the British Embassies in this study, there are nonetheless some fascinating parallels. After spending a couple of months in an Embassy, observing and participating in the process of political reporting, I could better relate to the challenges facing the officials in this study and the strengths and weaknesses inherent in the modern diplomatic system. During my years at the University of Texas I have come to appreciate the friendly, collegial environment of the Department of History. One of the joys of graduate school is the friendships that form in reading seminars, TA offices, and over endless cups of coffee. The other members of my dissertation writing group, Lauren Apter and Adrian Howkins, provided not only useful feedback on draft chapters, but even more importantly, moral support and encouragement. In my colleagues Maeve Cooney and Kristi Barnwell Wellman I have found life-long friends. On a personal note, I would like to recognize the assistance provided by a special group of friends: Elizabeth Hanawalt, Michelle and Donald Bolin, and Linda Franzen, for baby-sitting at crucial times. Words cannot express my gratitude to my parents, Wright and Jeannine Ellis, for their years of support and encouragement. My father was my first editor, reading endless drafts of school essays. I look forward to hearing his comments on this, my ultimate school project! And lastly, to my husband Ryan, for his unwavering support and good humor, and our son Benjamin, who provided much-needed smiles and comic relief: I lovingly dedicate this project to you. vi Intervention: Britain, Egypt, and Iraq During World War II Publication No._____________ Stefanie Katharine Wichhart, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2007 Supervisor: Wm. Roger Louis This comparative study examines the various forms of British intervention in Egypt and Iraq during World War II, and the nature of Britain’s informal empire in the Middle East. The focus is on the British Embassies which served as the local point of contact between Britain and these two countries. Britain hoped to have, in the words of one Foreign Office official, a “quiet time” in the Middle East during World War II, and pursued an official policy of nonintervention in Egyptian and Iraqi internal affairs. Yet this status quo policy often conflicted with the parallel goal of maintaining Britain’s prestige and influence in the region. In fact, the war saw an increased level of British involvement in the local affairs of both countries in the interest of the Allied war effort, culminating in the British military occupation of Iraq after the 1941 Rashid Ali coup, and the 1942 Abdin Palace incident in Egypt. This study also examines the development of vii the Political Advisory system in Iraq and its role in the Mulla Mustafa Kurdish uprising from 1943-1945, the movement for Arab unity in Egypt and Iraq culminating in the 1945 founding of the Arab League, and the role that local intermediaries played in Britain’s informal empire in these two countries. The local focus of this study highlights the complex motives of those who worked both for and against the British, moving beyond simplistic definitions of nationalists versus collaborators. While portrayed as a hegemonic power in the region, British influence and freedom of action was often limited due to the constraints of wartime. Local actors were able to use opportunities provided by the war to advance their own interests. World War II also served as incubator for the development and growth of movements that gained increasing significance in the post- war period. viii Table of Contents Abbreviations .....................................................................................................xi Introduction .........................................................................................................1 PART I: BRITISH ADMINISTRATION IN EGYPT AND IRAQ: MAINTAINING THE STATUS QUO, 1939-1940 12 Chapter 1 British Embassies and Diplomatic Structure.......................................12 Chapter 2 The Oriental Secretariat and Embassy Information Networks............41 Chapter 3 The Middle East on the Eve of War ...................................................70 PART II: "PUBLIC ENEMY NUMBER 1" 105 Chapter 4 The Rashid Ali Administration in Iraq and the 1941 Coup ...............105 Chapter 5 The Ali Maher Administration in Egypt and the 1942 Abdin Palace Incident ........................................................147 PART III: THE PRO-BRITISH GOVERNMENTS OF NURI AND NAHAS 188 Chapter 6 A "well-run" Iraq or a "happy" Iraq? The "Second British Occupation", 1941-1945 .........................................188 Chapter 7 "Let us stand by our friends": The Black Book Affair in Egypt, 1943 ....................................................225 Chapter 8: "Considerations of Force" and the Rhetoric of Opposition in Egypt, 1943-1945 ...............................253 PART IV: NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE END OF THE WAR 289 Chapter 9 A "New Deal" for the Kurds: The Mulla Mustafa Revolt in Iraq, 1943-1945.........................................289 Chapter 10 Egyptian and Iraqi Foreign Relations and the Movement for Arab Unity...........................................................324 Chapter 11: Quitting the Arena: The Post-War Transition ................................366 Conclusion.......................................................................................................406 ix Bibliography....................................................................................................420 Vita…..............................................................................................................429 x Abbreviations Archival sources: The National Archives (formerly Public Record Office), London: FO Foreign Office Middle East Centre Archive, St. Antony’s College, Oxford: Killearn Diaries. Diaries of Lord Killearn (Sir Miles Lampson) Edmonds Diaries. Diaries of C.J. Edmonds Edmonds Papers. Papers of C.J. Edmonds Kinch Papers. Papers of E. Kinch. Frequently cited documents Hourani 1943 Report. Albert Hourani, “Great Britain and Arab Nationalism,” June 1943, FO371/43958 Published sources: Lampson Diaries. Yapp, Malcolm E., ed. Politics and Diplomacy in Egypt: The Diaries of Sir Miles Lampson, 1935-1937. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the British
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