UMR Journal -- V. H. McNutt Colloquium Series

Volume 2 Article 1

June 1971

UMR Journal: Alaska -- Its Mineral Potentials and Environmental Challenges

University of Missouri--Rolla

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/umr-journal

Part of the Geology Commons, Geophysics and Seismology Commons, Mining Engineering Commons, and the Petroleum Engineering Commons

Recommended Citation University of Missouri--Rolla (1971) "UMR Journal: Alaska -- Its Mineral Potentials and Environmental Challenges," UMR Journal -- V. H. McNutt Colloquium Series: Vol. 2 , Article 1. Available at: https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/umr-journal/vol2/iss1/1

This Journal is brought to you for free and open access by Scholars' Mine. It has been accepted for inclusion in UMR Journal -- V. H. McNutt Colloquium Series by an authorized administrator of Scholars' Mine. This work is protected by U. S. Copyright Law. Unauthorized use including reproduction for redistribution requires the permission of the copyright holder. For more information, please contact [email protected]. June 1971

V. H. McNutt— Geology-Geophysics Department with Mining-Petroleum-Geological Engineering Department

Num ber 2 UMR JOURNAL

Preface Paul Dean Proctor & Robert E. Carlile Arctic Ecology; A Decade of Experience John F. Schindler Alaska's Possible Petroleum Provinces: George Gryc Geologic Considerations & Solid Mineral Potential of Alaska: A. E. Weissenborn The Environmental Challenges of Alaskan Mineral Development: Earl T. Hayes Mineral Potential of Arctic Canada: R. G. McCrossan & R. M. Procter Oil & Gas Reserves in the Siberian Shelf: A. J. Eardley Drilling Problems Associated with Arctic Minerals: Robert L. Parker Maintenance & Operation of Facilities & Equipment in the Arctic: Charles C. Norris, Charles W. Kelley & Carroll C. Livingston Arctic Pipelining - Tough, Costly, but Feasible: William H. Pearn The Environmental Challenges Facing TAPS: A. V. Cardin Arctic Oil & the S.S. Manhattan: Russell H. Venn Arctic Marine Terminals - Some Environmental & Engineering Con­ siderations: Robert L. McCollom, Jr. & William W. Moore The U.S. Arm y's Experience in Handling Petroleum in an Arctic Environment: Frederic Johnson The Role of the Independent in Alaska's Mineral Development: D. L. Simasko State Regulatory Controls on Oil & Gas Thomas R. Marshall, Jr. The Alaska Business Community's View of the Development of Alaska Wm. H. Scott The Future of Anchorage Claire 0. Banks Acknowledgement of Symposium Moderators

Paul Dean Proctor Alaska— Its Mineral Potentials Robert E. Carlile and Environmental Challenges Editors

University of Missouri-Rolla Founded 1870 as the University of Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy The University of Missouri-Rolla Founded 1870 as the University of Missouri School of Mines & Metallurgy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ...... Paul Dean Proctor & Robert E. Carlile . 3 Arctic Ecology; A Decade of Experience . . John F. Schindler ...... 5 Alaska’s Possible Petroleum Provinces: .. . George G ryc ...... 11 Geologic Considerations & Solid Mineral Potential of A laska:...... A. E. Weissenborn ...... 19 The Environmental Challenges of Alaskan Mineral Development...... Earl T. Hayes...... 27 Mineral Potential o f A rctic C an ad a:...... R. G. McCrossan & R. M. Procter ... 31 Oil & Gas Reserves in the Siberian Shelf:. . A. J. E a rd le y ...... 39 Drilling Problems Associated with Arctic M inerals:...... Robert L. Parker ...... 43 Maintenance & Operation of Facilities & Equipment in the A rctic:...... Charles C. Norris, Charles W. Kelley & Carroll C. Livingston ...... 45 Arctic Pipelining - Tough, Costly, but F e a sib le :...... William H. Pearn ...... 53 The Environmental Challenges Facing T A P S :...... A. V. Cardin ...... 61 Arctic Oil & the S. S. Manhattan: ...... Russell H. Venn ...... 67 Arctic Marine Terminals - Some Environmental & Engineering Robert L. McCollom, Jr. & Considerations:...... William W. M o o re ...... 73 The U.S. Army’s Experience in Handling Petroleum in an Arctic Environment: .. . Frederic Johnson ...... 83 The Role of the Independent in Alaska’s Mineral Development:...... D. L. Simasko ...... 87 State Regulatory Controls on Oil & Gas . . Thomas R. Marshall, Jr.. .. , . 93 The Alaska Business Community’s View of the Development of Alaska ...... Wm. H. Scott ...... 99 The Future of Anchorage ...... Claire O. Banks ...... 103 Acknowledgement of Symposium Moderators ...... 109 UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 3 PREFACE Because this university, formerly under the well known title of Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy, has contributed so much to the nation’s and world’s mineral supplies through the work of its well trained graduates, it was considered appropriate that a major symposium be held during its Centen­ nial Year on one of the last major mineral frontiers of the United States...... Alaska.

Preliminary planning for the symposium on “Alaska, Its Mineral Potentials and Environmental Challenges” began in the fall of 1969. In January, 1970, Robert E. Carlile and Paul Dean Proctor visited Alaska to meet with some of the petroleum and mineral industry personnel. The purpose of the journey was to personally invite some of the experts who could directly relate to this Centennial Symposium. The warm hospitality, graciousness, and suggestions of industry and government leaders gave much impetus to the finalization of the program and the plans.

Formal invitations were extended to various individuals who had in-depth experience in Alaska or direct interest in the Arctic areas to participate in this Centennial Symposium. Objectives were to give platform presentation and audience discussion to important aspects of the petroleum-solid mineral potential of this frontier state of America and the adjacent arctic lands and continental shelf. Because of the unusual climatic setting other speakers were invited to discuss the challenges of this environment in discovering, recovering, and transporting the potential mineral wealth of Alaska. The state consists mainly of public domain and state lands, hence other speakers were invited to present the government’s views on oil and gas developments on these lands and the Alaskan business communities viewpoint on the possible future progress of Alaska.

Special recognition has been given the various authors of the papers, but exceptional efforts were extended by the moderators who so ably assisted in the symposium presentation. Short biographical and alphabetically listed sketches are included for each of the external moderators with our sincere thanks for their considerable help. Similar concise biographical information on each of the authors is included at the end of each of the papers.

The paper presentations includes an introductory paper on Arctic Ecology, by Dr. John Schindler, Assistant Director of the Naval Research Laboratory, Point Barrow, Alaska. Regrettably, Dr. Max Brewer, Director, Naval Research Laboratory was unable to include his presentation on “What We Should Know About the Arctic Environment”. Following the ecological paper, George Gryc and A1 Weissenborn of the U.S. Geological Survey present data on the energy fuels and solid mineral potentials of Alaska. Dr. Earl Hayes, Chief Scientist of the U.S. Bureau of Mines then relates to the environmental challenges of Alaskan mineral resources. Co-authors, Drs. R. G. McCrossan and R. Procter, of the Canadian Geological Survey, review the mineral potential of Arctic Canada. Dr. A. J. Eardley’s paper on Oil and Gas Reserves in the Siberian Shelf extends the prognostications on the Arctic basin. The latter author specifically asked that it be indicated he was substituting for Russian authors who had been invited but could not attend.

With the good potential for petroleum which exists, consideration was then given to physical exploration by drilling and to the unique problems encountered in the handling of equipment under the rigorous arctic conditions. Robert L. Parker, President of the Parker Drilling Company discusses prob­ lems in such an environment. Charles C7 Norris of William Brothers Engineering Company describes the maintenance and operation of facilities and equipment in the Arctic. William Pearn discusses details of “Pipeline Design for Arctic and Subarctic Regions”, and A. V. Cardin, Chief Engineer, TAPS, specifically relates to the environmental challenges facing construction of TAPS. Russell Venn, Vice President, Humble Oil Company, expertly discussed details of the epic voyage of the S. S. Manhattan through the Northwest passage. With the possibility that oil might be transported by ship or submarine from north­ ern Alaska, Robert L. McCollom and William Moore present interesting views on arctic marine terminals and their environmental and engineering considerations.

The practicalities and experience of handling petroleum products under conditions varying from arctic conditions to almost temperate conditions and some of the problems related to pipeline construc­ tion and pumping of oil products is dynamically presented by Colonel Frederic Johnson, Chief, Petro­ leum Supply, U.S. Army. Don Simasko gives his views on the place of the independent operator in this 4 UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) developing region with its attendent problems. Thomas R. Marshall, representing the State of Alaska, succinctly and expertly discusses the regulatory controls on oil and gas in the state.

Mr. W. H. Scott, President of the Alaskan Chamber of Commerce, concisely describes the Alaskan business communities view on the petroleum mineral resource development of his state. The final paper, by C. O. Banks, representing the Anchorage Chamber of Commerce, spells out the optimism of the good people of a great state as it moves into its stride in the 20th century.

These thoughts, views and warnings on “Alaska - Its Mineral Potentials - Its Environmental Challenges” are, therefore, presented in the hope that the reader will gain a deeper appreciation and awareness of Alaska - truly one of the last frontiers of today where, most appropriately, the words of J. Robert Oppenheimer apply: “Both the man of science and the man of action live always at the edge of mystery, surrounded by it.”

Paul Dean Proctor R. E. Carlile

Acknowledgments The directors of the symposium acknowledge others whose efforts helped to make the Alaskan Symposium a success. We are especially appreciative of Mrs. V. H. McNutt, Trustee of the V. H. McNutt Memorial Foundation of the Department of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Missouri-Rolla who made funds available for the publication of this journal. We are also indebted to Dr. T. R. Beveridge, Chairman of the Department of Geology and Geophysics and Dr. Nolan Aughenbaugh, Chairman of the Mining, Petroleum and Geological Engineering Department for their backing of this sym posium .

Without the whole hearted support and enthusiasm of Dr. William Atchley, Director of Centennial Events, his staff and student associates, Jack Leone and A1 Behring, and the yeoman efforts of the Extension Division under G. E. Lorey and the workmanship of John Short, his staff, and our own good secretaries: Mrs. Anson, Mrs. Collier and Mrs. Frankenfield, the symposium would not have been possible. To each of these and many others unmentioned, but not forgotten, we express our sincere thanks. UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 5 ARCTIC ECOLOGY-A Decade of Experience

John F. Schindler Assistant Director Naval Arctic Research Laboratory

A quick glance at the title of this presentation earned a citation in the roll call of Arctic his­ and the reader braces himself for another antipol­ tory....But my point of all this review is that even lution or “save-the-sod” type of discourse that with the scores of people moving north both his­ has become so popular these days. I do not wish to torically and very recently we still know very little detract from the importance or the need for such about our north and it still has a good deal of the efforts but I would like to address myself to the romantic image that prompted the original explo­ the broader meaning of the term. rations. Ecology—the word comes from the Greek What is the Arctic? Where does it start and root “oikos” which means house or household. stop? That is one of the first questions asked in What I’d like to do is to tell you about this any study and I’m guessing will be also one of the “house” I’ve been living in for the past 10 years. last to be answered. The man who focuses his in­ terest beneath the surface of the ground tends to think of the Arctic as that area underlain by permafrost. The man who studies the sky or the HISTORY aurora would probably consider it to be the area Western man’s interest in the north dates from north of 66° 30' North. To the Anthropologist it the travels of the Greek Pytheas who left the Medi­ is the area inhabited by Eskimos... To the biologist terranean in 325 B.C. and sailed north to what is it is everything north of the tree-line. That itself now the northern coast of Norway to a point de­ could only be a definition coined by botanists... scribed as “where the daylight of the summer sol­ they can’t decide on what is a tree and what is a stice lasted 23 hours”. Prior to 1000 A.D. the shrub. I confess to being a biologist and a very Norsemen often sailed to Iceland, Greenland, provincial one at that. When I say Arctic I mean northern Scandinavia and even Nova Zemlya. Both that area north of the Brooks Range in Alaska Cabot and Columbus visited Iceland before they generally known as the North Slope or the Alaskan made their well known westward journeys. A rctic. Modern exploration, especially of the Canadi­ an Arctic, owes a great deal to the famous work of CLIMATE Parry, Ross, and Franklin. On the western side of North America’s Arctic, Beechy and Elson plus The climate of the north slope is best char­ Simpson and Dease in the 1820s and 30s made acterized as severe, with long cold winters and epic voyages and enlarged the limits of our knowl­ short cool summers with frequent fog and persis­ edge. Their names are now part of the Arctic geog­ tent winds. Precipitation is scanty and tempera­ raphy. Franklin’s ill fated expedition in 1845, be­ tures are below freezing for most of the year. At cause of its disappearance and ultimately tragic Barrow the Weather Bureau records minimum tem­ end, probably prompted more interest and subse­ peratures below freezing on 320 or more days a quently more exploration than could otherwise year. Minimum temperature of record at Barrow is have been possible. Lady Franklin’s romantic -56°F, maximum +76°F. As you move inland from image as the lost young widow can be credited Barrow to Umiat the temperature regimes become with at lease two expeditions in search of her markedly more continental. Summers are warmer famous husband. (maximum of +91°F at Umiat) and winters are Twentieth century explorations should in­ colder (minimum of -76 F at Umiat). The warmest clude Fridtjof Nansen’s very successful voyage of month everywhere on the slope is July followed the FRAM at the end of the 19th century. This by August and June. Weather bureau precipitation was really the first completely successful explora­ records reflect low values for Arctic Alaska. The tion both scientifically and in accomplishing the mean annual precipitation for Barrow being only 4 mission—and all, without injury or loss of life. 1 /2 inches. But these measurements are too low Oceanographers today still use the Nansen bottle because thqy do not reflect the extreme density of as a basic tool of research. the snow which can be figured at 4 inches of water We could quote many names....from Amund­ in 10 inches of snow rather than the usual one sen and his Gjoa trip in 1903-07 to the historic inch in tei). Since the average annual snowfall is Manhattan voyage presented in this symposium. about 25 inches the average annual precipitation is Indeed some of the people in this gathering have closer to 12 or 14 inches. 6 John F. Schindler This is the classic way to describe the weath­ continuously above the horizon at Barrow from er... but what is it really like? Weather is cold when May 10th until August 2nd. The extended period the moisture from the stoves and vehicles freezes of darkness—84 days— is the greater cause of out of the air to form a hoare frost on every­ Quonset Fever or Quonsetitis and I note it is also thing...Sometimes covering the powerlines with a the time of the year that Directors and Assistant feathery sheath 3 inches in diameter...Weather is Directors seem to attend the most meetings in the cold when the atmosphere is so dry the static elec­ south-48. (See Figure 1) tricity becomes uncomfortable...when you cross a During this period of descending sun, the room to kiss your wife goodbye and a blue spark character of the light is also different. The autumn jumps across the 4-inch gap as you approach her... sun appears more purple, the snow scenes more well you can fool youself and flatter your ego but blue and darker and colder looking as opposed to the room is simply dry. Weather is cold when a 15 the brighter reds and yellows of a spring sun. This knot wind can mean the difference between walk­ difference is so marked that you can tell from the ing outside or dashing between car and house. We colors in a sunset photograph whether the picture always say our worst weather at Barrow is 20 be­ was taken in the fall or the spring. low and 20 knots. That’s a chill index of -68°F It is a small point, but man’s psychology re­ and that’s cold. Vehicles won’t start, tires are fro­ acts to color and I often think it is this dark blue zen slightly square where they rested overnight, of the Arctic world coupled with the prospect of and plastics and other normally pliable materials the long winter ahead that prompts so many men shatter when dropped or flexed. to quit and head south in the fall and not the first Now I’ve painted a pretty cold picture, but white flakes of “termination dust” that is the gen­ surprisingly most people adjust rather well to erally credited cause. I do not know what causes cold....it is the extended period of darkness that is this difference in light quality—it is a good oppor­ difficult to cope with. At Barrow our sun goes tunity for some research—but theorize that the down on the 18th of November and stays down low angle of the sun in the fall passing through until the 23rd of January. Correspondingly it is moisture rich air, (relatively speaking) is the an-

Figure 1. Point Barrow , A laska

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Arctic Ecology - A Decade of Experience 7

swer. In the spring the angle of the sun is the same theory of Leffingwell which has been summarized but the atmosphere is so dry due to the cold that by Lachenbruch. During the winter, vertical frac­ there is little moisture and hence a different color tures are known to form in the frozen tundra. quality to the light. They are assumed to be caused by the thermal contraction of the tundra. In the spring the waters THE LA ND of the melting snow fills and freezes in these cracks. There is a horizontal compression caused The ground surface of the north slope is often by a re-expansion of the permafrost during the strikingly patterned by the permafrost underneath following summer which results in an upturning of the surface. Permafrost is generally defined as any the material by plastic deformation. In the follow­ natural material that has a temperature below the ing winter this ice cemented crack is a zone of freezing point of fresh water for two or more weakness and renewed thermal contraction re­ years. At the Barrow Camp the depth of perma­ opens the crack and continues the process. This frost is about 400 feet and at the ocean’s edge it cycle acting over centuries of time is thought to increases in depth as you go inward away from the produce the vertical wedge shaped ice form. The ocean. It is approximately 600 feet in depth im­ surface polygon pattern is thought to be the natu­ mediately behind the Camp; 1250 feet in depth 5 ral consequence of the contraction. miles inland in the area of the gas well and ranges Pingos are another surface evidence of ice for­ to the 2000 or 2100 foot depth in the Prudhoe mation. The theory of pingo formation is that Bay region. water under hydrostatic pressure freezes and the There are 3 cryopedalogical phenomena that resulting large volume has no where to go but up produce features so prominent as to deserve men­ to expand and this bulge, slowly formed, raises the tion in this presentation. These are polygonal surface tundra. Pingos can be quite high, some up ground, pingos, and oriented lakes. to 50 feet or more, and the enclosed ice is a gen­ The polygonal ground patterns so vividly evi­ erally clear, sometimes massive, lens shapped dent to the casual observer as he flies across the body. Arctic tundra are a surface manifestation of the ice The phenomena of oriented lakes, so strik­ wedges underneath. Such wedge shaped vertical ingly evident, is found in what we call the Coastal sheets vary in width from 1/4 inch to 10 feet wide Plain Province. This area is usually considered to at the top and 4 to 30 feet deep when seen in be everything north of the 500 foot elevation line vertical section. (See figure 2) and slopes gently to sea level. It varies from a few The general theory for the origin of the ice miles in width on the eastern edge to about 100 wedges now accepted is the thermal contraction miles in width over most of the province. It is an

Figure 2. Polygonal ground patterns, north slope of Alaska.

UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 8 John F. Schindler area of poor surface drainage; waters being con­ ture o f Arctophila fulva, Hippuris vulgaris and fined to the surface by the underlying “cement of Rannunculus pallasii - all good submerged water permafrost”. The lakes have their long axis on a plants. As the pond progresses and becomes drier general north-south orientation. Every theory you will see the mosses such as Drapanocladus or imaginable from prehistoric winds to Paul Bunyon sphagnum species mixed with sedges, carex, etc. stories have been proposed to explain this orienta­ Further in the drainage cycle Poa, Potentilla, Saliz, tion. It is now generally thought to be the result of Saxifraga would be considered dominant. And our present day prevailing NE-SW winds working finally the Poa and other grass species mixed with at right angles to the long axes of the lakes. It is a considerable ground cover of’lichens and mosses well known that the mechanical cutting action of would represent the most xerophytic vegetation cold water is great upon the frozen unconsolidated type of the tundra meadows. sediments which most aptly describes the surface Please notice that until now I didn’t use the material of a large percent of the coastal plain word tundra. This was purposeful to point out the province. TOO general use given the term. Tundra is the When the lake ice begins to thaw in the spring name of a biome just as grassland or forest or a water moat is formed in the shallow area around meadow. When most people say tundra they really the perimeter. The winds blowing this central ice mean the organic mat or the predominant vegeta­ back and forth across the lake, cause the waters of tion and do not mean the entire biome with all of the moat to move around the “ends” of the lake its components of flora and fauna. We are all and subsequently erode those areas. The ice of falling into the habit due to the inconvenience of course protects the long edge of the lake from saying organic mat or plant community. We can most water action. Some work has been done to talk of the grass or the grassland but there is no trace the currents in the lakes during thaw and this convenient general plant to characterize the tundra work generally supports this explanation. because of its diversity of micro communities. When modifiers are added to enlarge the use of the THE PLANTS word such as Alpine tundra, we further cloud the definition. The vegetation of the total north slope area is really not as simple or as easily described as is THE ANIMALS often suggested. In fact the dominant characteris­ tic of the vegetation is variability. The plants of Animal populations in the Arctic are not only the respective provinces can be described and the prone to fluctuate but the fluctuations of certain communities within these provinces identified, species tend to be strongly cyclic. The most out­ generally as reflections of the micro-relief of the standing example is the small microtine - the surface. I do not intend to make that an aim of brown lemming. this paper but will summarize with the following The cycles in lemming numbers are short term major points. periodicities, typically 3 to 4 years and the There is a decline in species numbers that cor­ amplitude of a given cycle is large so that responds to increased latitude and it is a very strik­ lemmings exceedingly scarce in an area one sum­ ing feature of vascular plant distribution in the mer become almost unbelievably abundant there Arctic. The flora is richest in species in the south two or three years later. The lemming is an and poorest near the coast, there are about 250 herbivore consuming not only grasses and sedges species that make up the flora of Umiat but only but also mosses and lichens and the above ground about 150 species when you reach the sea coast. parts of almost any available plant. The extent to This reaches a low of about 110 species in the which they exploit the below ground parts of immediate area of Barrow. Correspondingly there plants is not known though it must be considered is a shift of dominance as you move northward to happen occasionally. from the shrubform unit plants to the graminoid Microtines are active the year round and species - the clumps and cluster forms of grasses. whereas the plant growing season may be only 7 to The genera Carex, Salix, Saxifraga, and P otentilla 10 weeks long it must support the animals are most important vascular plants in terms of the throughout an annual cycle. Moreover during the number of species. Plant populations are con­ nongrowing portion of the year (80 to 85% of the spicuously related to drainage gradients and a dif­ time) with the ground frozen and the available ference of only a few inches in elevation can pro­ portion of the plants killed back to the leaf bases duce an entirely different population. This is strik­ surrounding the growing points the relative pro­ ingly demonstrated by following a shallow pond portion of the total plant that is edible is much through a “life” cycle in which it gets pro­ reduced. As a result, the winter cutting of vegeta­ gressively. drier. tion by lemmings can be quite extensive. Some­ The waters of the pond usually support a mix­ times when the snow melts after a winter in which

U M R Journal 2 (June 1971) Arctic Ecology - A Decade of Experience 9 the animals were numerous, the tundra appears to THE PEOPLE have been mowed and the grasses are arranged by the meltwaters into rows so as to appear as win­ The last section to be discussed in this brief now ed hay. summary is the most difficult of all for it con­ cerns—as the Eskimos say— the Inupiat - or the It is an often cited misconception that the people. Generally the north Alaskan Eskimo was lemming periodically marches into the sea to com­ divided into two groups by their way of life. The mit suicide. As best we can tell the animal does coastal Eskimo who hunted the mammals of the migrate at times of high propulation density and in sea and the inland Eskimo, the Nunamuit or the the flat tundra of the Alaskan Arctic he migrates people of the caribou who lived chiefly on the in 360 degrees of direction. He is an excellent migrating herds. The language is surprisingly simi­ swimmer and somewhat shortsighted, so when he lar over most of the north slope although some approaches a body of water he simply jumps in to dialects do occur. The similarity in language is swim across. He cannot tell whether it is a small probably due to their mobility. The Eskimos were, pond or the ocean. The march to the sea idea has and still are, great travelers. It was not unknown its origins in Scandinavia where the fiords by their for a man or more often a couple of Barrow men very topography channel the animals down to the to pack up their families and go to Barter Island sea; the animals following the greener grass of the over 300 miles away for a week’s visit. Today the valley and ultimately end up in the fiord. This of Eskimo still travels a good deal and does not hesi­ course is also the basis for the childhood story tate to charter a small plane for the same type of “The Pied Piper of Hamlin” social call or to attend a nulakatuk - the whale Estimates place the total population of big festival. game animals in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska It is interesting to note the point on the Col­ at about 750,000 which is a density of 1.50 head ville River that is known as Umiat where the east­ per square mile. Only the south 48 states with ward flowing river makes a sharp bend and flows intensive land use have a lower density, and the north. Umiat is the plural of umiak which is the U.S. as a whole is 3.1 head per square mile. The wooden frame boat of the Eskimo covered with most abundant and the most harvested species is walrus hides. This point on the river, Umiat, is as the caribou. These figures cannot be taken as ac­ far as the coastal people would go on their journey curate but should be considered guides as a good up river. They would beach their umiaks to camp estimate of the size of the caribou herds is not here and trade and socialize with the inland available. All evidence indicates that the herd is people. Hence the name Umiat meaning many almost as large as the previous high in the late 19th um iaks. cen tu ry . Historically the Eskimos covered great dis­ tances by dog teams to hunt the caribou. Today In the first half of this century there was an they still hunt the caribou but do so by snow ma­ almost catastrophic decline in the number of cari­ chine, covering great distances pulling sleds behind bou. Conservative estimates figured the population them, often on the trail for 2 to 3 weeks in all was at 170,000 out of a beginning 1 to 2 million kinds of weather. It is often suggested that Eski­ animals. Causes of the decline are problematical mos have some sort of sixth sense because of then- but range destruction by fire, competition with keen sense of direction. This sixth sense is simply a the introduced reindeer, unfavorable weather and depredation by wolves were probably all con­ very well developed power of observation. On the flat featureless (to us) coastal plain, the curves of tributory. The present increase in numbers can the rivers, a succession of slightly higher sand probably be credited mainly to the bounty hunt­ dunes even when buried under a good deal of ing of wolves which has removed a very major snow, provide guide posts for an Eskimo. He also predator. The numbers problem should be will take his bearings in winter from the stars or watched closely as diseased animals are appearing the sun and then set out in the direction he wants more frequently and the weak and the lame are to go, always striking the snow drifts at the same not culled out by wolves but survive long enough angle. He knows the prevailing winds are very con­ to pass on disease. It is not too uncommon to find stant and the angle of the snow drifts provide di­ whole dead carcasses on the tundra. rectional arrows along the route. When biologists It is not possible to go into much detail on first began working in the north they discovered each animal of Arctic Alaska. Suffice it is to say that the best assistants were the Ifskimos. The Es­ that the north slope is not as barren as often kimo language has separate names for over 90% of thought. It is the natural home of the Arctic wolf, the different species of wildlife which inhabit the the wolverine, dall sheep, (at the edge of the north slope. Few animals escaped their attention. slope), moose, barren land grizzly, fox, Arctic The classic story about the Eskimos keen hare, and ground squirrel. sense of observation and excellent memory con­

U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 10 John F. Schindler

cerns a man named Pete Sovalik who still works at tice that their clothes are loose so not to constrict the Laboratory and is a veritable library of infor­ the circulation of the body. Poor circulation is the mation for many researchers. first step to frostbite. The mukluk or boot fits A few years back, in about 1 963, a scientist at high on the calf, almost to the level of the parka. the Laboratory was studying the geomorphological The old time Eskimo wore caribou socks and processes of change in the Colville River Delta. His stuffed an insulating pad of dried grass in his muk­ first chore was to map the delta which he was luk beneath his foot and changed the pad and the doing and he thought he would try to maintain the socks often. The clothing-and-foot gear- was the Eskimo names for the many islands and called in most important to the hunter and it was the chore Pete to help. Pete was pouring over the map sup­ of his wife each night as they camped on the trail, plying names when he pointed to a blank space to dry out the mukluks over the seal oil lamp and and said there was an island missing. The scientist to sew up any holes or tears in his clothing. sort of chuckled as there are close to 1000 islands It is often said that the Eskimo is a stoic non- in the delta but he pulled out his field notes and emotional person. That is simply not true. He de­ aerial photos to check and sure enough he had velops very deep family relationships and is ex­ missed a small island. He congratulated Pete on his tremely friendly and outwardly cheerful. Eskimos memory and asked him how long since he’d been will often laugh in the face of a minor disaster - over there. Pete thought for awhile and replied - like a broken leg - and usually laugh at themselves. 1922. We can obviously learn much from these This is mainly an effort at making the best of a people about living in the north country. bad situation. Such an adjustment to fate seems The clothing of the Eskimos is another lesson very logical in a people who have learned to live in that can be immediately adapted for our own use. such a harsh environment. When one reads the Their fur clothing is made with the fur-side inside newspapers today it is difficult not to feel that we to provide an air space between the body and the have a lot to learn from these people of the North. outer windproof skin. Parkas are long and tentlike I hope this very hurried, rambling introduc­ with no zippers so that they trap the rising heat. tion to the Arctic has whetted a few appetites and The hood serves not only to keep the head and aroused your curiosity to learn more. The Arctic is face warm but also to close the back of the neck really little known. Koyanuk - Silya Kinngya - again so the trapped heat doesn’t escape. Also no­ Thank you and good day.

John Frederick Schindler

John Schindler was born August 23, 1931, in Chicago, Illinois. He received his B.S. Degree from Michigan State College in 1953 and in 1954 received his M.S. in Botany/Geology from Michigan State University specializing in freshwater algae. As part of his graduate work he was a field instructor for the Montana State Biological Station during the summers of 1953 and 1954. Prior to entering the U.S. Army he and Erna Zethner were married in El Paso, Texas in 1956. They have two daughters Lynn, 14 and Laura, 7. During his military tour of duty, he served at the Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah as a Research-Test Officer for Biological and Chemical Warfare Experiments. Upon completion of his military obligation he became the Superintendent of the Maguarichic Mines in Chihuahua, Mexico in 1958. In 1960 the University of Michigan sent him to Barrow, Alaska to conduct biological studies on the north slope freshwater lakes. At this time he associated with the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory. Following his research project, he was appointed the Assistant Director of the Laboratory; the position he holds today. Mr. Schindler has a wide variety of interests and membership in professional societies and organizations. These include the Scott Polar Research Institute, the Explorers Club, A.I.B.S., A.A.A.S., Arctic Institute of North America and Sigma Xi. He is listed in American Men of Science.

U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 11 Alaska’s Possible Petroleum Provinces*

George Gryc U.S. Geological Survey Menlo Park, California

ABSTRACT Petroleum is the major Alaskan source of energy immediately available to the United States. Petroleum accounted for 89 percent or about $219 million of Alaska’s total mineral production in 1969 estimated at nearly $245 million. Alaska’s first oil field was discovered at Katalla in 1902. About 154,000 barrels of oil were produced from 1902 to 1933. From 1945 through 1952, 45 shallow core tests and 36 test wells were drilled in and adjacent to Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 in northern Alaska. Oil deposits with possible reserves of 72 to 112 million barrels and gas deposits with possible reserves of over 300 billion cubic feet were discovered. In 1957 oil and gas were discovered in Cook Inlet. The reserves are estimated at 1.5 to 2.6 billion barrels of oil in place and about 5 trillion cubic feet of gas. The discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay in northern Alaska was announced in 1968 and the reserves were estimated at 5 to 10 billion barrels. Speculative reserve figures as high as 40 billion barrels of oil at Prudhoe Bay and 100 billion in Arctic Alaska have been published. Future prospects for petroleum in Alaska appear to be best in northern Alaska, Cook Inlet, Gulf of Alaska, and continental shelf regions.

The discovery of a giant oil pool near Prudhoe active material are presently minor contributors Bay signifies to many that the vision of Alaska as and probably will remain so for sometime. The “a vast storehouse of minerals” is about to mate­ total mineral production in Alaska in 1969 is rialize. Many Alaskans see the development of estimated at nearly $245 million. Petroleum ac­ North Slope oil as the means to economic growth counted for $219 million dollars or 89 percent. and independence. Explorationists and developers Sand and gravel production totaled slightly more are intrigued by the possibilities of vast petroleum than $15 million or about 6 percent. Of the and other mineral resources throughout the North remaining 5 percent, gold production totaled only American Arctic. Economists and political strate­ $679,000, coal $278,000, and the remaining $10 gists see the possibilities of significant shifts in million included small production of barite, an­ world trade and international relationships. But timony, silver, copper, gem stones, mercury, peat, many, including Alaskans, are concerned by the platinum group metals, building stone and tin. environmental effects and changes that develop­ In considering Alaska’s energy potentials ment will bring to this hitherto remote and iso­ hyroelectric power should not be overlooked but I lated Arctic region. will not discuss this in any detail. Sufficient to That a major symposium has been convened note that the estimated gross theoretical power in Rolla, Missouri on the subject of far northern from Alaska’s potential sites, ranks second only to development illustrates the widespread interest in Washington among the States and is about 12 per­ this subject. On hearing that / was participating in cent of the national total. The present use of this such a meeting here, one of my colleagues ex­ energy source is limited. pressed surprise, but then observed that this fit the The potential energy sources from Alaskan “show me” Missouri tradition. I suspect that there minerals other than petroleum can be summarized are others, also, wondering if the Arctic has been rather briefly. The coal resources of Alaska have truly rediscovered. been estimated by Barnes, of the U.S.G.S., as more Your chairman was very flattering and titled than 130 billion tons including about 19.5 billion my part in this discussion as “Alaska’s potentials in tons of bituminous coal and 110.5 billion tons of energy requirements for the U.S.” Unfortunately, subbituminous coal and lignite. Most of Alaska’s my knowledge and experience is not that all- coal resources are in the Arctic but the production inclusive. I will write mostly on “Alaska’s possible to date, fluctuating between 650,000 and 850,000 petroleum provinces”, a subject in which I have tons, comes mostly from southern Alaska in the been interested for many years. Nenana and Matanuska coal fields along the rail­ Petroleum is certainly the major Alaskan way belt. In view of the vast coal resources of the source of energy immediately available to the rest conterminous U.S., the possible future markets for of the United States. Other possible Alaskan Alaskan coals are the development of a chemical energy sources, including coal, oil shale, and radio­ industry in the State and foreign export. The U.S. Bureau of Mines has reported that some Alaskan *Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological coals are suitable for use in coke blends which are Survey in great demands, especially in Japan. 12 George Gryc

Oil shale extends over a large area of Arctic also cautioned would-be prospectors against the Alaska. Some selected samples have yielded as adverse geographic factors and the consequential much as 150 gallons of crude oil per ton of oil high costs — a caution which is still relevant. shale - very rich, indeed. Small but anomalous Nothing more was done to assess the petro­ amounts of metals are present in some of the oil leum possibilities of northern Alaska until 1944 shale. However, the shale has been caught up in a when the U.S. Navy undertook a vast exploration structurally complex belt along the north front of program utilizing all the modern tools of geology, the Brooks Range and thus is not present in large geophysics, and drilling. In. the period 1945 amounts in any one area. More data are needed on through 1952, 45 shallow core tests and 36 test the geologic setting, tonnage, and bulk grade. wells were drilled mostly within, but a few ad­ Radioactive materials such as uranium and jacent to, NPR-4. Oil deposits were discovered at thorium are present in some Alaskan rocks but do Umiat (60 to 100 million barrels) and at Simpson not appear to be concentrated in large mineable (12 million barrels). A small heavy oil deposit, pos­ deposits. One small deposit of uranium has been sibly a residual oil, was found at Fish Creek. Gas mined at Bokan Mine in southeastern Alaska and fields were found at Barrow (5 to 7 billion cubic another has been recently reported in that region. feet) and Gubik (300 billion cubic feet) and pos­ Our geologic studies to date indicate that large de­ sible gas fields were indicated by drilling at Meade, posits of uranium such as those of the Colorado Square Lake, and Wolf Creek. Plateau are not present in Alaska. The U.S. Geological Survey also participated However, petroelum is quite another story in the 1944 to 1953 Navy exploration program. and one that began early in Alaska’s history. Oil All of the technical data and results have been seepages in Cook Inlet were known to the Russians either published in the series of U.S.G.S. Profes­ as early as 1853 and those along the Arctic Coast sional Papers 301 through 305 or are available have been known since at least 1900. Drilling for through our office in Menlo Park. oil along the Alaska Peninsula and in the Katalla Meanwhile in southern Alaska, drilling con­ area began about 1900 and continued until 1904. tinued sporadically in the 1940’s and early ’50’s This period of exploration, Alaska’s first oil boom, without success. In 1957 the Richfield Oil Corpo­ collapsed because of failure to find large deposits, ration drilled the first wildcat test on the Kenai high cost of exploration, difficulty of obtaining Peninsula and discovered the Swanson River oil title to lands under the placer mining laws in ef­ field. This began Alaska’s latest and most success­ fect, and because of competition from rapidly de­ ful oil boom. Since 1957 six oil fields and about veloping oil fields in California. 16 gas fields have been discovered in the Cook Alaska’s first oil field was discovered at Inlet area. The reserves are estimated at no less Katalla in 1902. About 154,000 barrels of oil were than 1.5 and probably about 2.6 billion barrels of produced from 1902 to 1933 when part of the oil in-place and about 5 trillion cubic feet of gas. refinery was destroyed by fire and the operation The petroleum potential of the upper Cook Inlet was shut down. area is believed by some to be 2 to 3 times that of A description of the Cape Simpson oil seep­ the estimated reserve, but others have expressed ages on the Arctic Coast was first published by the disappointment in the recent slow down of dis­ U.S.G.S. in 1909. Claims under the old mining law coveries in that province. were staked in the area of 1920 and 1921 but were The success at Cook Inlet stimulated petrole­ invalid because of the new leasing laws passed in um exploration throughout the State. After the 1920. close-out in 1953 of the U.S. Navy program no This new oil and gas leasing act and the in­ wells had been drilled on the North Slope until creasing demand for oil started a new Alaskan oil 1963. Seven wells were drilled from 1963 to 1965 boom involving not only the accessible south coast in the general region of the Umiat and Gubik dis­ of Alaska but other more remote areas such as coveries. In 1966 the Atlantic-Richfield Company Arctic Alaska. drilled a dry hole 70 miles east of Umiat and In 1923 about 37,000 square miles in north­ British Petroleum drilled two tests near the Col­ ern Alaska including the known oil seepages at ville Delta that were completed as dry holes but Cape Simpson were set aside as Naval Petroleum with shows of oil. In 1967 ARCO drilled the dis­ Reserve No. 4. The region was explored for the covery well near Prudhoe Bay but the size of the Navy by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1923 to discovery was not published until 1968 when an 1926 and the results were published in 1930 as estimate of 5 to 10 billion barrels was announced. U.S.G.S. Bulletin 815. That report outlined for the The structure was described as very large and very first time the regional geologic setting of the North productive. Soon speculative reserve figures as high Slope and discussed the petroleum potential. Pos­ as 40 billion barrels at Prudhoe Bay and up to 100 sible source rocks of petroleum and structures suit­ billion in Arctic Alaska were being quoted in the able for accumulation were described. The report trade journals.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Alaska's Possible Petroleum Provinces 13 The history and objectives of the several test again reviewed this subject in an AAPG volume. In wells in northern Alaska leading up to the Prudhoe 1959 we published a more complete summary of discovery are discussed in some detail in U.S.G.S. the geologic factors bearing on Alaska’s petroleum Professional Paper 305 and were summarized at a potential. This review was updated in 1964 in a symposium on North Slope geology held in Palo Senate Document on Alaska and in 1968 in AAPG Alto, California, in February, 1970. The pro­ Memoir on the Natural Gases of North America. ceedings of this symposium have been published About a year later the National Petroleum Council by the Pacific Section of the American Association was asked to evaluate the future petroleum of Petroleum Geologists. provinces of the U.S. and again U.S.G.S. geologists So much for a very brief and sketchy history participated. The summary volume has been pub­ of oil exploration in Alaska. Perhaps of greater lished and the detailed papers on provinces will be interest to this symposium is the future petroleum published as an AAPG Memoir. potential of Alaska. To be sure, there is no way of In all of our Alaskan evaluations we have tried knowing with any high degree of accuracy the to assess the several factors which have a high cor­ amount of undiscovered oil and gas in Alaska. Fig­ relation with the occurrence of petroleum in­ ures, even for known reserves in Cook Inlet and cluding presence of oil and gas seepages, possible the North Slope, range by a factor of two or more. source beds, type and volume of sedimentary Statistical projection of future discoveries would rocks including possible reservoir beds, geologic not be reliable because of relatively limited pro­ structure, geologic history, and, of course, de­ duction and short history of development. Most of velopment and productive history. All of these Alaska’s sedimentary basins are in a very early factors were compared with other regions known stage of exploration in spite of the long history of to be petroliferous. activity. Alaska’s petroleum potential can be as­ The definition of Alaska’s possible petroleum sessed best by a study of its geology and by com­ provinces as defined in U.S.G.S. Bulletin 1094 is parison with other known petroliferous regions. now widely used in the literature. I will briefly The general geology of Alaska and compari­ summarize these provinces and give the most re­ sons with other western regions of North America cent evaluation based on the several papers pre­ are summarized in the several papers I have laready pared for the NPC study. (See figure 1) cited and I will discuss them only in general terms The Arctic Slope Province, commonly called here. The geology and geography of Alaska are the North Slope, has not only the largest reserve grossly similar to the western part of the con­ but must be credited at this time with the greatest terminous United States and western Canada. The future potential. It is an area of more than major geologic belts and major mountain systems 100,000 square miles of which at least 70,000 are can be traced across western Canada into Alaska. considered potentially petroliferous. The average The Alaska Range can be compared geologically thickness of sedimentary rocks is about 3 miles with the Sierra Nevada of California; the Kenai- and the total volume about 210,000 cubic miles. Chugach Mountains with the Coast Range; the The future petroleum possibilities of the Cook Inlet-Susitna and Copper River lowlands be­ North Slope can be considered in terms of three tween these mountain ranges with the Great Val­ major structural and stratigraphic belts. The Prud­ ley of California. In both Alaska and California, hoe Bay field is located on an elongated platform Mesozoic rocks in the lowland belts have simple or shelf developed over a basement high that ex­ structures and good reservoir rocks and both are tends from the eastern Brooks Range to Point Bar- petroliferous. row and possibly onto the continental shelf. This The Brooks Range has been compared with Arctic platform as defined by Brosge' and Tailleur the Rocky Mountains of the conterminous U.S. of the U.S.G.S. covers about 20,000 square miles and western Canada. Although there are many sim­ along the Arctic Coast, most of which has a high ilarities, both stratigraphic and structural, recent p o ten tial. work has drawn attention to a possible geologic The Umiat and Gubik fields are in Cretaceous history more closely related to other Arctic re­ sandstones on anticlinal structures about midway gions, particularly the Canadian Arctic Islands and between the Arctic Coast and the front of the Wrangel Island off the coast of Siberia. Brooks Range near the axis of the Mesozoic Col­ Alaska’s petroleum potential has been assessed ville Geosyncline. Similar structures, over an area on the basis of geologic factors several times in the of about 42,000 square miles, are likely prospects past 30 years. The AAPG has sponsored and pub­ for oil and gas deposits of a size comparable to lished several of these studies. In 1941, P.S. Smith, those already discovered. of the U.S.G.S., published a paper in the Bulletin A structurally complex belt of Mesozoic and of AAPG on “Possible future oil provinces of Alas­ Paleozoic rocks covering an area of about 8,000 ka”. Ten years later, Don Miller, Tom Payne, and I square miles adjacent to the north front of the

U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) George Gryc \ 1 V 1 \ . U n ia t __ 13 O IL F IE L D S G A S F IE L D S L^J A 2 #* Northern Alaska s fields below imim ___ S OR IMPORTANT PROSPECT 90 UNDEVELOPED OIL FIELDS UNDEVELOPED GAS FIELDS OR IMPORTANT PROSPECTS . Square Lake 18. Meade important prospecta __ 12. Simpson 10. Fish Creek 17 14. Barrow is. Gubik \ 134* 130 Undeveloped Undeveloped gap fie ld s or Tertiary sedimentary rocks Paleozoic sedimentary rocks __ J J* JUNfeAU EXPLANATION OIL SAS AND FIELDS . SRS Middle Ground . S t e r l i n. g B e l u g a 7 3 6 A* 4> O I L F IE L D S G A S F IE L O S D wm 1 1 Southern Alaska Undeveloped Undeveloped o il fie ld s or important oit prospecta UNDEVELOPED GAS FIELDS OR IMPORTANT PROSPECTS or under development or under development (Separate o il and gas pools) Note: Numbers Note: refer Numbers to lis t of o il end Oil fisld with production Sas fie Dll.and ld with gas production field with'production ADAKn 9V ' ADAKn and upper Kenai State l and l* u . West Fork zones 8. Middle Ground Hssozoic sedimentary rocks . K a t a l l a late Canonic age nary age or volcanic rocks of 1 5* Kenai Shoal State 1 2. Swanson River 4. Swanson-Hemlock Shoal State l 9» Cook inlet 10. Nest Foreland l Unconsol idated sed i wants idated Unconsol ofi sed Quater­ ALEUI»n AUAKn O O . Oil Field o C l & /) v .Prudhoe Bay L __ I I I /! YUKON- PORCUPINE \ A T'TT I INDEX INDEX HAP ___ IOO IOO ISO MILES _l 1964 UNITED UNITED STATES ALASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GEOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT Figure 1. Generalized geologic map of Alaska showing location of oil and fields,gas undeveloped oil fields, and important oil prospects.

U M R journal. No. 2 (Jtine 1971) Alaska's Possible Petroleum Provinces 15 western Brooks Range is comparable to the Alber­ petroleum exploration, the Norton Basin and the ta foothills and may have petroleum possibilities Pribilof and Zemchung depressions. All are be­ similar to this belt in Canada. lieved to be filled with Cenozoic deposits of an By virtue of its known reserves and current average thickness of perhaps 3,000 feet and a max­ production the Cook Inlet petroleum province imum of perhaps 6 to 7,000. must be ranked as second in Alaska. The Cook The Bristol Bay province is largely an offshore Inlet fields are part of a much larger geologic pro­ basin and similar geologically to other Bering Sea vince that extends from the Chitina Valley south- Tertiary basins. However, the province extends westward across Cook Inlet to the tip of the Alaska south and east onshore into a lowland largely cov­ Peninsula. The province includes a long narrow ered by alluvial deposits of Quaternary age. To the wedge of moderately deformed marine clastic north and northwest the province is bordered by rocks of upper Mesozoic age and predominately Cretaceous shale and graywacke and scattered in­ nonmarine rocks of Tertiary age that overlie a se­ trusive rocks. The Bristol Bay province is con­ quence of older Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks. The sidered potentially petroliferous on the basis of a known commercial deposits of oil and gas are in fairly thick sequence of marine and coal-bearing the nonmarine rocks of Tertiary age. Rocks of this nonmarine rocks of Tertiary age, a geologic setting and possibly upper Mesozoic age are believed to somewhat reminiscent of Cook Inlet. The pros­ have the best possibilities for future discoveries in pective area is no less than 7,500 square miles and this province. the average thickness of sedimentary rocks perhaps It should be noted that many of the Cook- 8.000 to 10,000 feet. Inlet deposits are offshore on the continental The Pacific Margin Tertiary Province has re­ shelf. Other sub-sea areas also hold promise for ceived the most attention of all the Alaskan off­ petroleum development. Alaska’s continental shelf shore prospects and has also been a prime onshore is nearly equal in size to the mainland and is larger target. The province as described by Plafker, than that of all of the other states combined. The U.S.G.S., in the forthcoming NPC study extends potential offshore areas described in the National from Chirikof Island on the west to Cross Sound Petroleum Council review as the Pacific Margin in southeastern Alaska. It is 900 miles long and 2 Tertiary Province, the Bristol Bary Tertiary Pro­ to 60 miles wide onshore and according to Von vince, the Bering Sea Shelf, and the Beaufort- Huene, Lathram, and Reimnetz, U.S.G.S., extends Chukchi Sea Shelf. Although all are on the conti­ offshore to the edge of the continental shelf. Plaf­ nental shelf they include a variety of geologic set­ ker estimates that the total land and continental tings and present imposing logistic problems in­ shelf area underlain by Tertiary rocks is about cluding the Polar Icecap. 40.000 square miles. The continetal shelf of the Beaufort and The abundant oil and gas seepages in the Chukchi Seas extending from the Alaska-Canada Katalla, Yakataga, and Malaspina districts, known boundary west to the assumed International Date­ since 1896, have been the major factors encour­ line, 169° west longitude, south to the Seward aging exploration in this province. Seventy-one Peninsula and seaward to the 200 meter bathymet­ test and development wells have been drilled and ric contour is an area of about 200,000 square one oil field was discovered at Katalla. miles. The Arctic Platform structural rise, along Other possible petroleum provinces of Alaska which the Barrow gas field and Simpson and as described in our 1959 paper are on land and Prudhoe Bay oil fields are located probably con­ include the Yukon-Koyukuk, Yukon-Porcupine tinues west onto the shelf and extends north a several interior lowlands, and two small areas in short distance off the coast and then dips seaward. southeastern Alaska, that included relatively un­ Recent work by Grantz, U.S.G.S., in collaboration disturbed sedimentary rocks. More recent geologic with the U.S. Coast Guard indicates a seaward mapping and study suggests that these provinces extension of the folded Cretaceous rocks of the are less likely to be petroliferous than previously Colville geosyncline and an extension of the described. Brooks Range fold belt including the disturbed The Yukon-Koyukuk Province was originally belt. Thus by analogy this shelf region has a thought to be a large single basin of Mesozoic petroleum potential comparable to that of the rocks with relatively simple structure. Two deep land area of the North Slope. tests were drilled in 1960-1 and both were dry. South of the Brooks Range trend on the con­ Recent field studies by Patton, Miller and others tinental shelf in the vicinity of Kotzebue Sound have demonstrated that the Yukon-Koyukuk pro­ there is a basin of probable Tertiary rocks that vince is not one depositional trough but parts of at may have petroleum potential. least two with a complex history of intrusive and On the Bering Sea Shelf, Scholl and Hopkins, extrusive volcanism. The structure of the province U.S.G.S., have described three possible targets for is exceedingly complex and cut by extensive fault

U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 16 George Gryc systems. The petroleum potential of this province Island includes Tertiary coal-bearing beds and this now appears to be limited. conceivably could contain petroleum deposits. Recent field studies by Brabb and Churkin in However, there is no direct evidence of petroleum the Yukon-Porcupine Province indicate a much and the areas are relatively small. smaller prospective area than the 15,000 square That Alaska’s petroleum potential is vast is no miles originally envisioned. However, a thick se­ longer in question. The known and potential re­ quence of sedimentary rocks representing nearly serves at Prudhoe Bay are given by the NPC study every period of geologic time is exposed in the at 31.3 billion barrels of oil-in-place of which 12.5 province. The total aggregate thickness is about billion barrels are considered recoverable. The re­ 37,000 feet and includes oil shales and other or­ serves at Cook Inlet are estimated at 2.6 billion ganic-rich rocks, and reef-like carbonates. How­ and 0.5 billion recoverable crude oil. In addition ever, the structure of the area is complex and only to these known and potential reserves, speculative a very small area appears to worth testing for pe­ reserve estimates by the author of the National troleum . Petroleum Council Summary are quoted as 43.5 An arcuate belt of lowlands in interior Alaska billion barrels of oil-in-place and 17.4 billion bar­ was first included as possible petroleum provinces rels of recoverable oil. The NPC totals for known, in our 1959 bulletin. Indications and arguments potential, and speculative reserves for all of Alaska for possible petroleum accumulations included gas are 82.6 billion in-place and 32.5 recoverable. I shows in some shallow tests, the possibility that believe these estimates are realistic in light of pre­ Tertiary marine rocks or other favorable rocks sent geologic knowledge, but my educated guess is might underlie the Quaternary sediments which fill that they are conservative. The biggest unknown is these topographic basins, and the possibility that the Alaskan continental shelf. Favorable results on some of these basins may be structural as well as the shelf could easily double the estimated petrole­ topographic. Recent evidence, including geologic um resources of Alaska. mapping and geophysical surveys, argues against This rosy picture would be incomplete if I did the possibility of commercial petroleum deposits not at least mention the thorny problems of ter­ in these lowlands except for possible small meth­ rain, arctic environment and the geologic hazards ane gas accumulations. of permafrost and active seismic zones. The U.S. Igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most Geological Survey is collecting data on these prob­ of southeastern Alaska. However two areas, Heceta lems as well as on the mineral resources. The cur­ and Keku Islands, were noted in the 1959 bulletin rent demand for data and evaluation is in danger as being anomalously underlain by unmeta­ of outstripping our capacity to provide this infor­ morphosed Paleozoic or Mesozoic rocks and con­ mation. There is a real danger that land use deci­ ceivably could include petroleum deposits. A third sions will be made without adequate knowledge of area extending from Admiralty Island to Zarembo the geology and terrain.

George Gryc Mr. George Gryc was born July 27, 1919 in St. Paul, Minnesota. He attended public schools in St. Paul and received a bachelor’s degree at the University of Minnesota in 1940. He continued his studies in graduate school at the University of Minnesota from 1940 to 1943 and at the Johns Hopkins University, part-time from 1947 to 1949. He received an M.S. degree in geology in 1941. Mr. Gryc joined the U.S. Geological Survey in May 1943 to participate in the war minerals program in Alaska. In 1944 he began work in and near Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 in support of the U.S. Navy’s oil exploration program. He was chief of the first field teams to traverse and map the geology along the Sagavanirktok, Shaviovik, and Canning Rivers just south and east of Prudhoe Bay. Mr. Gryc continued field work on the North Slope of Alaska to 1950 and in 1950 became Chief, Navy Oil Unit, the geologic exploration arm of the U.S. Navy’s oil exploration program. From 1960 to 1963 he served a tour as Staff Geologist to the Chief Geologist in Washington, D.C. He returned to Alaskan activities in September 1963 as Chief, Branch of Alaska Mineral Resources, Menlo Park, California, his present position. Mr. Gryc is a member of the American Association of Petroleum Geology, the Geological Society of Washington, the Cosmos Club of Washington, D. C., the Paleontological Society, Fellow of Sigma Xi, and a Fellow, Governor, and present Secretary of the Arctic Institute of North America.

REFERENCES Adkinson, W. L., and Brosge', Mary M., editors, 1970, Proceedings of the Geological Seminar on the North Slope of Alaska, American Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Pacific Section.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Alaska's Possible Petroleum Provinces 17

Gates, G. O., and Gryc, George, 1963, Structure and tectonic history of Alaska, in Childs, O. E., and Beebe, B. W., eds., The backbone of the Americas, a Symposium: Tulsa, Okla., American Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Mem. 2, p. 264-277. Gates, G. O., Grantz, Arthur, and Patton, W. W., Jr., 1968, Geology and natural gas and oil resources of Alaska, in Natural gases of North America; Pt. 1, Natural gases in rocks of Cenozoic age: American Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Mem. 9, v. 1, p. 3-48. Grantz, Arthur, and Patton, W. W., Jr., 1964, Petroleum and natural gas in Mineral and Water Resources of Alaska, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, United States Senate, Senate Document 31-068, p. 43-77. Gryc, George, 1970, Alaska and Hawaii, in Otto O. Miller, Chairman, Future petroleum provinces of the United States: A Report of the National Petroleum Council, Washington, D.C., July, 1970. Gryc, George, Miller, D. J., and Payne, T. G., 1951, Alaska in Possible future petroleum provinces of North America: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 35, no. 2, p. 151-168. Miller, D. J., Payne, T. G., and Gryc, George, 1959, Geology of possible petroleum provinces in Alaska, with annot. bibliography by E. H. Cobb: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1094, 131 p. Payne, T. G., and others, 1951, Geology of the Arctic Slope of Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM-126, scale 1:1,000,000, 3 sheets, text. Scholl, D. W., and Hopkins, D. M., 1969, Newly discovered Cenozoic basins, Bering Sea Shelf, Alaska: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 53, no. 10, p. 2067-2078. Tailleur, I. L., 1969, Rifting speculation on the geology of Alaska’s North Slope: Oil and Gas Jour., v. 67, no. 39, p. 128-130.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 19

Geologic Considerations and Solid Mineral Potential of Alaska 1 A. E. Weissenborn U. S. Geological Survey Spokane, Washington ABSTRACT In marked contrast to Alaska’s petroleum industry, production from the State’s mining industry has declined drastically. Despite favorable geologic conditions, mineral exploration and development have been held back by inaccessibility, rugged terrain, severe climate, and scarcity and high cost of labor. Changing economic and political conditions, improved exploration techniques, and the ever increasing demand for minerals have again directed attention to Alaska’s mineral potential. Important discoveries in British Columbia and Yukon Territory have further stimulated exploration in Alaska. The probability that significant discoveries will result is high. The titaniferous iron ores of southeastern Alaska probably will be brought into production soon, but the greatest exploration effort is presently directed to the search for porphyry-copper-molybdenum deposits. Probability of success appears good. Minable lead-zinc deposits may be discovered. Beryllium-fluorite-tin deposits on the Seward Peninsula offer possibilities. Discovery of additional uranium deposits seems likely. Mercury exploration is active; small-scale production of platinum and antimony can be expected. No significant increase in gold mining is anticipated at present prices. Sharply increased production of barite and construction materials should result from developments in the oil fields. Alaska’s mining industry may be approaching a period of considerable expansion.

Alaska’s considerable reputation as a mineral- cury, copper, gemstones, platinum group minerals, rich State dates back to the early gold rush days and stone totaled only $10.7 million. and to the discovery of the bonanza copper de­ Mining, particularly metal mining, currently is posits of the Kennecott mine. Recent events have at a very low level. In 1969, gold mining, once a again focused attention on the potential wealth of leading industry in Alaska, yielded only $679 the State’s mineral resources. In 1968, the last thousand. Mining of copper virtually ceased by year final figures are available, Alaska, with a min­ 1933, and only small amounts have been produced eral production valued at $221.7 million ranked since. It is a shocking fact that in 1 969 there was 25th in the list of mineral-producing States. This not a single major lode mine in operation in production compares favorably with the values Alaska. Coal production has declined, and pro­ derived from its other natural resource industries duction of industrial minerals continues to be in the same year — $5.5 million from agriculture, relatively minor. Thus, on the basis of the value of $217.5 million from fisheries, and $91.0 million minerals other than petroleum products, Alaska from forest products. Preliminary figures show must be ranked very low in the list of mineral- that in 1969 the State’s mineral production in­ producing States. creased to about $244.5 million. This value will Do these gloomy facts mean that after a increase dramatically as the vast petroleum re­ spectacular beginning and a few brief decades of sources of the Arctic Slope become available for relative prosperity Alaska’s metallic mineral re­ use. Alaska will then become one of the country’s sources have become exhausted? Is its metal leading mineral producing States. mining industry on its last legs? Perhaps, but I, for These pleasant figures tend to disguise the un­ one, do not believe it. To the contrary, I think it is happy fact that not all segments of Alaska’s min­ possible that metal mining in the State may be on eral industry have fared equally well. In 1969, 89 the verge of a period of great expansion. Alaska is percent of Alaska’s total mineral production, or widely recognized geologically as a likely place to $218.7 million2 was derived from crude oil and search for mineral deposits. Major geologic and natural gas in the Kenai Peninsula and the offshore physiographic belts can be traced northward from Cook Inlet fields; $15.1 million came from the the conterminous United States through western production of sand and gravel. The value of all Canada and westward into Alaska. These belts other mineral products produced in the State, in­ contain important mineral deposits in the western cluding bituminous coal, barite, gold, silver, mer- United States and Canada and may well enclose equally important deposits in Alaska. In Alaska we don’t know as much about the geologic details 1 Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological within these belts as we would like. Only about 1 Survey. percent of Alaska has been mapped geologically in detail, 40 percent has been mapped at a scale of Figures from U.S. Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook 1:250,000, 60 percent has not been mapped at all 20 A. E. Weissenborn or has been mapped only in the roughest recon­ terrain have increased immensely the effectiveness naissance. Nevertheless, we do know enough to of exploration. Under these circumstances and state with some confidence that there are in with the ever-increasing demand for minerals by a Alaska large relatively unexplored areas where the metal-hungry world, prospects in Alaska that were geology is favorable for the discovery of important of little interest only a few years ago now appear mineral deposits. (See figure 1) more and more attractive. If this is true, why has not Alaska’s mineral Further stimulation of interest in mineral. potential been more thoroughly utilized? The exploration in Alaska has beert created by impor­ truth is that exploration and development of tant mineral discoveries in northern British Colum­ Alaska’s metallic and non-metallic mineral re­ bia and in Yukon Territory. At least 43 mines are sources have been retarded by many factors. in production in British Columbia and Yukon Among these are inaccessibility; high transporta­ Territory, several more are in the development tion costs; the extreme ruggedness of much of the stage, and there are numerous active prospects. terrain; severe climatic conditions; the large areas The rapid development of the mineral industry in that are covered by gravel, muskeg, or ice; and the this part of western Canada shows that exploration scarcity and high cost of labor. All of these have and mining can be done successfully in areas as combined to make mineral exploration in Alaska remote and under climatic conditions as severe as difficult and costly. Bringing a prospect into in Alaska. It seems pertinent to review briefly production once it is found is also expensive. some of the more significant developments that Consequently, the search for minerals has not been have taken place in western Canada in the last few pursued as vigorously in Alaska as it has elsewhere. years. With some exceptions, the mining industry has In recent years, mineral production in British preferred to direct its search for new deposits to Columbia has grown steadily, rising from a total of other areas, including many foreign countries, $186.3 million in 1960 to $422.8 million in 1969. where conditions are less rigorous than in Alaska. (Figure 2) In constrast to Alaska, much of the This situation is changing. I feel confident increase has been in the production of metals, that important new deposits will continue to be which rose from $131.7 million to $247.7 million found in the “Lower Forty-Eight” for a long time in the same period, an increase of 116.0 million or to come. Nevertheless, few geologist will question 190 percent. Most of this can be attributed to the the statement that most of the undiscovered discovery of important copper or molybdenum deposits in the conterminous United States are mines at Highland Valley, Endako, and elsewhere. well hidden. They are going to be difficult and Mineral production in Yukon Territory shows expensive to find, and many of them are going to the same upward trend, though on a smaller scale. be of lower grade than we have been accustomed Output has increased almost 300 percent from to mine in the past. Thus, there is now more $13.2 million in 1960 to $37.7 million in 1969 incentive to look to Alaska as a source of our (Figure 3). Seven mines are in production in the m inerals. Territory. Probably the two most important are Added to this is the fact that with increasing Cyprus Mines’ Anvil property near Ross River and nationalism throughout many areas of the world Cassiar Asbestos Company’s Clinton Creek mine. the friendlier and more stable political climate of The Anvil mine began production in the fall of Alaska is a powerful inducement to look to the 1970. When operating at full capacity it will ship North for mining investment. 1000 tons of concentrate a day to Skagway. An additional favorable factor is the increas­ Cassiars’ Clinton Creek property began production ing Japanese demand for minerals. According to in 1967. By the end of 1968 it had produced the September 1969 issue of Engineering and 60,000 tons of fiber, and plans were underway to Mining Journal, the Japanese market for British boost its capacity to 80,000 tons per year. The Columbia minerals is about $150 million a year mine is only 7 miles from the Alaskan boundary. and is expected to expand to $550 million a year. These developments have stimulated a wave of Mineral deposits in Alaska are geographically in a prospecting and exploration in Western Canada. good position to share in this market. Finally, if The British Columbia Chamber of Mines estimates the pipeline to bring oil from the Arctic Slope to that during the next 5 years the mining industry Valdez is built, it will open up country that has will spend $670 million on exploration and de­ been difficultly accessible. velopment in British Columbia and Yukon Terri­ For these reasons, Alaska is beginning to look tory. Of this, $175 million, or $35 million a year more and more attractive as a field for mineral will be spent on exploration; the remainder will be discovery. The availability of modern geophysical spent bringing into production properties that and geochemical exploration techniques and the have already been discovered. widespread use of helicopter support in difficult The pace of exploration has likewise quick-

U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Geologic Considerations and Solid Mineral Potential of Alaska 21

Figure 1. Major physiographic divisions in Alaska.

Figure 2. Value of mineral production in British Columbia, 1960-69

U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 22 A. E. Weissenborn

ened on the Alaskan side of the International mined and where will they come from? Our crystal Boundary. The Alaska State Division or Mines and ball is cloudy on details, but I think that we know Geology stated that in 1969 at least 13 major enough so that we can make some intelligent mining companies were actively exploring in guesses. Let’s briefly review what we know of Alaska, the greatest number in many years. The some of the commodities that Alaska might Division estimated that expenditures for solid produce and see what we can come up with. minerals exploration amounted to as much as $6 Alaska’s future mineral production must come million and are expected to increase. This is an largely from deposits that have yet to be found. encouraging increase over previous years but it still But changing technologies may permit bringing is a long way from matching expenditures in into production resources that are already known western Canada. but could not be exploited economically in the In this connection, a statement made by Paul past. The high titanium iron ores of southeast C. Henshaw, then Vice-President of Exploration, Alaska provide an instructive example. Immense Homestake Mining Company, seems pertinent. In a deposits of low-grade titaniferous magnetite have paper delivered in October 1969 at the American long been known at Port Snettisham, Klukwan, Mining Congress in San Francisco, he estimated and elsewhere. The Klukwan deposits alone are that exploration costs in British Columbia and estimated to contain several billion tons averaging Yukon Territory were at the rate of $20 million to 15 to 20 percent iron and 4 percent titania. Both $30 million a year and that, on the average, two the Port Snettisham and the Klukwan deposits are major deposits were being discovered a year. Thus, located near tidewater; they could be mined in western Canada it costs between $10 million cheaply and the ore upgraded by magnetic meth­ and $15 million to. discover a major deposit. Mine ods but their high titanium content has made them exploration in Alaska has not yet reached this unattractive to most users. However, a segment of level, but with the similarity of geologic and the Japanese iron and steel industry is equipped to climatic conditions there is no reason to believe treat_ high titanium ores — and actually desires that exploration in Alaska will be any less costly them. In November 1969 the Engineering and than it is in western Canada — or any less Mining Journal reported that discussions have rewarding. Given time and a continued exploration taken place between the Marcona Company and effort it seems certain that minable deposits will Japanese steel makers with a view to bringing the be found in Alaska, as they have in Canada. The Port Snettisham deposit into production. Develop­ future, therefore, seems hopeful. ment hinges on the negotiation of a satisfactory What will Alaska’s mining industry look like sales agreement. Should these negotiations be in the next 10 to 20 years? What minerals will be successful, E&MJ reports that production would

Figure 3. Value of mineral production in Yukon Territory, 1960-69.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Geologic Considerations and Solid Mineral Potential of Alaska 23 be at the rate of 30 million tons of crude ore per ditions, although it compares favorably with that annum. The Alaska Division of Mines and Geology being mined at the Brenda deposit in British reports that the U.S. Steel Company, which Columbia. It is reported that two well-known already has large holdings in the Klukwan area has mining companies are planning additional drilling negotiated a lease for additional acreage on the at Orange Hill. It is also reported that several Klukwan Indian Reservation. It seems possible companies have combined in a joint venture to that one or both of these deposits may be brought drill a promising porphyry-copper prospect at into production in the not-too-distant future. Horsfeld on the northeast flank of the Wrangell In the long run, the best opportunities for the M ountains. revival of Alaska’s solid minerals industry appear There are numerous other places in Alaska to be in the discovery and development of its where granitic intrusive rocks are known and copper resources. Copper deposits of several types where porphyry-type deposits are likely to occur. are abundant in Alaska and the possibilities of The Alaska Range is a promising place and is finding and developing them seem excellent. Ken- receiving much attention by exploration com­ necott’s Ruby Creek deposit in Brooks Range is an panies. Porphyry-copper-type deposits may also be example. The deposit, which consists of chalcocite found in the rugged and little explored Coast and bornite in a dolomitic reef breccia, has all the Range. Large areas of probable granitic terrane in appearances of being capable of production, but is the Wrangell Mountains have been little pro­ awaiting transportation facilities and the solution spected. Other potential areas are in the Talkeetna of some mining problems. Mountains, the eastern part of the Chugach Range, All of the State’s former copper-producing and possibly a few in the Yukon-Tanana Upland. districts are being re-examined and re-evaluated by Deposits in these areas may well be of higher grade the exploration companies. These include the than the Orange Hill deposit. It seems very Nizina district —the locale of the famed Kennecott probable that persistant exploration efforts will be mine, the Prince William Sound area—the site of rewarded with the discovery of minable porphyry- the Latouche and Ellamar mines, and the mag- copper deposits in Alaska. netite-chalcopyrite skarn deposits of Prince of The porphyry-type deposits may contain ap­ Wales Island. The Sumdum prospect, 50 miles preciable molybdenum as a coproduct; in some of south of Juneau, is being drilled by Humble Oil. them, molybdenum may be the most valuable Also receiving attention are the copper-nickel constituent. Occurrences of molybdenum are dis­ deposits associated with mafic or ultramafic rocks tributed profusely in southeastern Alaska but are in the northern part of southeastern Alaska. These also known in the Alaska Range and in the deposits have never been successfully worked, but Wrangell Mountains. The deposit that probably has exploration companies are taking another look. attracted the most attention is the Nunatak Deposits in Glacier Bay National Monument, deposit near Muir Inlet in Glacier Bay National on Yacobi Island, and on Chichagof Island were Monument. The molybdenum content is low but investigated in the summer of 1969. Numerous the deposit contains many tens of millions of tons bodies of mafic and ultramafic rocks with which of molybdenum-bearing rock. It has been investi­ this type of deposit is typically associated are gated on several occasions by different mining known in Alaska. Few have been thoroughly companies. Testing by deep diamond drilling has prospected. It is highly probable that other occur­ been done during the past three or four years, but rences of these rocks may be found in geologically the results have not been announced. unmapped parts of Alaska. Copper-nickel ore With one exception, Alaska’s small production could be associated with some of them. of lead and zinc has been derived as a by-product The biggest exploration effort in Alaska, from mining of other metals. A number of the however, is concentrated on the search for so- known deposits contain rock of possible ore grade, called porphyry-copper deposits. The successful but established tonnages are relatively small. How­ development of important porphyry-copper de­ ever, some of the larger ones may offer some posits in British Columbia has aroused great promise. Much of the area adjacent to the coast interest in exploring the probable northern con­ Range batholith in southeastern Alaska provides a tinuation in Alaska of the British Columbia por­ favorable environment for lead and zinc deposits. phyry-copper trend. Assuming a continuing future demand for zinc, it The best known of the Alaskan porphyry- is not improbable that minable deposits of zinc copper prospects are the Orange Hill and Bond and lead will be discovered in Alaska. Creek properties near the head of the Nabesna Alaska’s entire production of uranium has River. Both are known to contain very large come from the Ross-Adams deposit on Prince of tonnages of copper-bearing rock. The grade is Wales Island. Numerous other radioactive oc­ probably too low to mine under present con­ currences are known in Alaska. Now that a market

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 24 A.E. Weissenborn

for uranium is again developing, additional dis­ Asbestos is reported to have reached an agreement coveries seem probable. with the prospectors who staked the occurrence. During the Government-sponsored mercury However, under Public Law 4582, the land has program of the 1950’s, Alaska was a substantial been withdrawn from location for nonmetallic mercury producer, mostly from the Red Devil minerals until January 1, 1971. Until title to the mine in the Kuskokwim area. The Red Devil is property can be established, nothing can be done. reported to have been reopened by Japanese Alaska has large reserves of coal and has interests, the Cinnabar Creek and White Mountain produced a substantial amount, most of it from deposits are working, and prospecting is said to be Matanuska and Nenana fields. In 1967, production active in the Kuskokwim area. reached a peak of 940,000 tons valued at $7.3 Practically all of the small United States million. Coal, however, faces severe competition production of tin has come from the placer and from oil and gas. Tending to offset this is the lode mines on the Seward Peninsula. However, the possibility of building large thermal power plants known deposits are small, and grade is low close to the coal mines and distributing power considering the remote location. Some recent through transmission lines. If these developments prospecting is reported but the area must be should materialize, the future of the coal industry considered a marginal producer of tin. More will be more favorable. promising are the chrysoberyl deposits of the In view of developments in the oil fields, Seward Peninsula. These were first recognized a construction activity in Alaska should increase, few years ago by Sainsbury of the U.S. Geological and an increased demand for sand and gravel can Survey and were the subject of a lively staking be expected. Alaskan petroleum activity likewise rush. There has beien no attempt at production has created a local market for barite for use as pending a brisker demand for beryllium and the drilling mud. The Castle Island barite deposit is solution of metallurgical problems, but the de­ currently in production. Increased activity in posits constitute a valuable resource for the future. barite prospecting is likely for these and similar Fluorite associated with the deposits may also be materials that will be used locally. recoverable. Gold resources of Alaska are very large, SUMMARY particularly placer resources. It is estimated that as To summarize, I believe that if mineral ex­ much placer gold remains as has been mined. ploration in Alaska is pushed vigorously, impor­ Except for the Hog River placer and a few other tant discoveries will follow. The greatest potential small properties, no gold mines are presently in seems to be with respect to copper. I believe that operation. No significant revival of gold mining some very significant discoveries will be made in can be anticipated unless there is a substantial the extension into Alaska of the copper belt now increase in the price of gold. partly defined in British Columbia. If so, Alaska Alaska in the past has produced small will take its place within the next 10 to 20 years as amounts of antimony, chromite, platinum, tung­ an important producer of this metal. Molybdenum sten, and some other metals. Goodnews Bay is the also seems to have a good potential for production major U.S. producer of primary platinum. Time in view of its close association with the porphyry does not permit me to discuss these deposits. coppers. The next few years may also see the Production of these commodities is likely to titaniferous magnetite deposits of southeastern remain small. Alaska come into production. Discovery of lead- In the nonmetallic field, some interesting zinc deposits is also a distinct possibility. Under developments are possible. Alaska is well supplied existing circumstances the future of gold mining with deposits of limestone, many of them con­ looks dim. In the nonmetallic field, important venient to tidewater. With the increasing indus­ discoveries of asbestos are possible, and the estab­ trialization of the State, the time may come when lishment of a cement industry is possible. Coal a cement plant will be built. faces an uncertain future because of increasing Asbestos minerals have been found in widely competition from petroleum products, but this scattered localities in Alaska but until recently may be offset by the construction of pit-mouth none appeared to offer much promise. A recent power plants. Production of sand and gravel, discovery of cross-fiber chrysotile asbestos resulted barite, and other commodities used in connection from U.S. Geological Survey mapping in 1968 in with the petroleum industry should increase. None the Eagle C-4 quadrangle. It may be of real of these developments will take place easily or interest. The deposit is about 55 miles west- overnight. Many natural difficulties must be over­ northwest of Cassiar Asbestos Corporation’s pro­ come, and mining companies will have to conduct perty at Clinton Creek, Yukon Territory. The their operations in such a way that they will do potential of the occurrence is not known. Cassiar minimum damage to the environment. Develop­

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Geologic Considerations and Solid Mineral Potential of Alaska 25 ment of Alaska’s mineral industry will also be control. In my opinion, in time these difficulties affected by worldwide economic events which will be overcome. Alaska’s mineral resources are neither Alaska nor the mineral industry can too valuable not to be utilized.

A. E. Weissenborn A. E. Weissenborn was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad, British West Indies. He was educated in the public schools of Montclair, New Jersey, and at Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. From 1925 to 1943 he was employed by various mining and exploration companies in Arizona, Mexico, Panama, Newfoundland, and Chile. He joined the United States Geological Survey in 1943 at Rolla, Missouri, as Assistant Regional Geologist of the Central Region. In 1946 he was transferred to Spokane, Washington, as Regional Geologist, Pacific Northwest Region. He has been in the Pacific Northwest ever since except for temporary assignments in Alaska, Liberia, Dahomey, Guyana, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey. From 1951 to 1958 he also served as Executive Officer, Defense Minerals Exploration Administration for the Northwest Region. For several years this included responsibility for DMEA activities in Alaska. His present title is Research Geologist. Mr. Weissenborn has written extensively on the mineral resources of Washington, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon. In 1969, in cooperation with geologists of the U. S. Geological Survey’s Branch of Alaskan Mineral Resources, he was responsible for compiling a report for the Alaska Power Administration on the resource potential of a large part of Alaska Mr. Weiseenborn is a Fellow of the Geological Society of America, and a Member of the Society of Economic Geologists, the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, the Geochemical Society, the Northwest Scientific Association, and several other scientific and technical societies.

REFERENCES Barnes, F.F., 1967, Coal resources of Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1242-B, p. B1-B36. Berg, H.C., and Cobb, E.H., 1967, Metalliferous lode deposits of Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1246, 254p. British Columbia and Yukon Chamber of Mines, 1969, Location map of mining properties in British Columbia and the Yukon Territory (including part of Northwest Territories): McElhanney Surveying and Engineering Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. Clark, A. L., and Hawley, C. C., 1968, Reconnaissance geology, mineral occurrences, and geochemical anomalies of the Yenta district, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 64 p. Cobb, E. H., and Kachadoorian, Reuben, 1961, Index of metallic and nonmetallic mineral deposits of Alaska compiled from published reports of Federal and State agencies through 1959: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1139, 363 p. Foster, H. L., 1969, Asbestos occurrence in the Eagle C-4 quadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Cir. 611, 7 p. Kennedy, G. C., 1953, Geology and mineral deposits of Jumbo Basin, southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 251,46 p. MacKevett, E. M., Jr., 1963, Geology and ore deposits of the Bokan Mountain uranium-thorium area, southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1154, 125 p. MacKevett, E. M., Jr., and Blake, M. C., Jr., 1964, Geology of the Sumdum copper-zinc prospect, southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1108-E, 31 p. MacKevett, E. M., Jr., Brew, D. A., Hawley, C. C., Huff, L. C., and Smith, J. G., 1967, Mineral resources of Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file rept., 176 p. Moffit, F. H., 1954, Geology of the Prince William Sound region, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 989-E, p. 225-310. Noble, J. A., 1970, Metal provinces of the western United States: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 81, no. 6, p. 1607-1624. Roehm, J. C., 1946, Some high calcium limestone deposits in southeastern Alaska: Alaska Dept. Mines Pamph. 6, 85 p. Rossman, D. L., 1963, Geology and petrology of two stocks of layered gabbro in the Fairweather Range, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1121-F, p. F1-F50. Sainsbury, C. L., 1963, Beryllium deposits of the western Seward Peninsula, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 479, 18 p.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 26 A. E. Weissenborn

Wahrhaftig, Clyde, 1965, Physiographic divisions of Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 482, 52 p. Warner, L. A., Goddard, E. N., and others, 1961, Iron and copper deposits of Kasaan Peninsula, Prince of Wales Island, southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1090, 136 p. Wright, F. E., and Wright, C. W., 1908, Ketchikan and Wrangell mining districts, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 347, 210 p.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 27

The Environmental Challenges of Alaskan Mineral Development

Dr. Earl T. Hayes Chief Scientist, U.S. Bureau of Mines

ABSTRACT To meet the challenges and to develop Alaska as a source of mineral and fuel resources that are essential to all of us, we must conduct the research and planning necessary to see that the environment is not abused. We cannot allow ourselves the luxury of thinking that we alone know what is best for Alaska. We must strive for cooperation — cooperation between government and industry; between Federal and State governments; between the doer and the dreamer; and between the engineer and the ecologist. Remember, the quality of what we do today will determine the quality of Alaska in the future — and the future is as near as tomorrow.

Development of Alaska’s mineral and mineral about the environment itself. In the past two years fuel resources poses a monumental challenge to we have seen much evidence of this concern. man’s ingenuity. For Alaska, seen through the eyes President Nixon has established a Council on the of a generation that has become acutely “environ­ Environment; The Congress has passed the En­ ment-conscious,” is a land both forbidding and vironmental Quality Act of 1969; and on April fragile. 22nd of this year of 1970— on Earth Day—the Anyone who has read the poetry of Robert public, itself, expressed its concern and sense of Service understands the frustrations experienced urgency over the condition of our environment. by the thousands of prospectors and miners who This sense of urgency governs our approach to “moiled for gold” in Alaska’s frozen wastes. And mineral development in Alaska. Alaska is still theirs were not the only hardships to be experi­ largely untouched and before we commit ourselves enced in a land whose size and geographic location to a path of haphazard exploitation, before con­ combine to give it three distinct climate zones: ditions are created that can tip the balance of Pacific, Continental, and Arctic. Southern and nature, we must learn to understand as thoroughly southeastern Alaska has the wet Pacific climate as possible an environment which we know only with up to 150 inches of rain a year. The casually. I hope that this meeting will help all of us Continental climate in the Interior is colder and toward such an understanding. Such knowledge is rainfall only measures about 32 inches maximum. imperative if we are to develop Alaska’s vast The Arctic climate, from the Brooks Range north mineral resource potential without seriously dam­ is very cold and rainfalls are many times less than aging its fragile environment. four inches a year. Take the discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay—it This is Alaska—the Alaska we know today— provides challenge unlike any faced in the past. the scene of one of the greatest gold rushes in The oil resources must not only be developed history in 1898 and the scene of one of the under severe climatic conditions but must be greatest oil finds in the world in 1968 at Prudhoe transported to markets under circumstances which Bay on the north slope of the Brooks Range. do not defile the arctic environment. The arctic Alaska’s heritage has evolved from minerals, man’s land surface, particularly the tundra, has a very search for these minerals, and the difficulties that limited capacity to recover from environmental arise from a severe and unrelenting environment. damage, and this will not mend from any un­ In the past the environmental challenges to the planned development. Tracked vehicles leave scars development of Alaskan natural resources have on the tundra that degenerate into meandering been summed up as “Man Against Nature.” Those water courses. Construction projects, such as large who would claim Alaska’s mineral wealth would pipelines, if improperly planned and constructed, have to attack nature head on. Sometimes they can disrupt completely the migratory cycle of won; sometimes they lost. And, when they won, major animal populations, such as that of the sometimes Alaska lost. caribou. The uncontrolled taking of gravel, already A new dimension, however, has recently been a scarce commodity in the Arctic, from stream- added to this environmental challenge. As a beds for road construction, airstrips, camps, pipe­ nation, we no longer are concerned only with lines, and . other facilities can destroy the overpowering the physical environment in the spawning beds for salmon and char which provide quest for the materials that can satisfy our important food supplies for native Alaskans. It can expanding mineral needs. Today, we are concerned also lead to siltation and stream pollution. 28 Earl T. Hayes Because the frigid climate and attendant ice designs and environmental studies develop specifi­ fog restrict air travel and the economics of oil cations to assure that the pipeline will never transportation will require the use of surface or become an environmental mistake or an undue risk marine transportation, such facilities must be to the ecological balance of the area. planned with care. Due to the fragile character of Corings to determine the nature and depth of the terrain, roadway locations and pipeline rights the permafrost soils have been made along the of way must carefully be determined and their 800-mile proposed route of the line. This is the numbers limited to those that are absolutely only way that safeguards ean be designed into the essential. Industry has an opportunity to develop system. Appropriate designs and specifications for the crude oil resources so vital to our economy. pipelines above and below ground have been Industry also has the opportunity, with proper developed. There is no longer a question of operational planning, to preserve the wild beauty “if”—the question is “how” the pipeline will be of Alaska for all of us. The wildlife, vegetation, built. We know that there will be a substantial and scenery of the Arctic are—like its minerals— portion of the line above ground to avoid areas of resources that are irreplaceable. The Federal Gov­ high-ice-content permafrost, and we know that the ernment has an obligation, as owner and trustee of pipeline specifications will insure that migratory public lands, to insist that maximum possible patterns, such as those of caribou, will not be protection is given to environmental values. The seriously disturbed. The problems are complex and companies who obtain from the public domain the expensive to resolve, but it appears that incentives raw materials required to serve the public need are adequate and progress to date indicates that must and will provide methods for extracting the satisfactory solutions will be developed and the mineral resources of Alaska in ways that serve the project conducted in a way that will prove that the public interest. environment can be protected. The new criteria under which industry must Before the opening of the northern portion of operate have little precedent, since operations in the Kenai National Moose Range on Kenai Penin­ the Arctic environment have been limited. Both sula in southeastern Alaska, to oil and gasleasing, industry and government have expanded research the area was essentially a true wilderness in every on the Alaskan ecology and on proposed methods sense of the word. When leasing was proposed, of operation to provide needed data concerning wildlife associations and sportmen’s groups voiced the problems that can be anticipated. They are strong concern for the moose and other wildlife in seeking, for example, methods to minimize the the area. Oil companies and the Alaska Bureau of environmental disturbance of transportation sys­ Sport Fisheries and Wildlife agreed that certain tems, ways to prevent, detect, and contain oil precautions were necessary to protect the wildlife. pollution, methods for disposing of both solid and Access roads were maintained, borrow pits and fluid wastes, and methods for quickly restoring excavated areas were seeded and revegetated, and damaged vegetation. Fish and wildlife protection seismic trails were planted with birch, willow, and and environmental protection can be achieved by other browse favored by moose, and each well appropriate operating standards and by the appli­ complex was seeded with grasses, clover, and other cation of appropriate regulations. Solutions to vegetation. Better access resulted in increased transportation problems are the key to the de­ hunting pressure and concern was then raised that velopment of the mineral wealth of the Arctic there would be an overkill. The reverse was true, area. Thousands of tons of materials and supplies increased feed and easier access to browse resulted must be moved into the North Slope area to in an increase in the number of moose rather than support drilling and producing operations, building a d ecrease..... another example of how enlightened of a pipeline requires the use of roads. Hundreds development and wise conservation practices can of miles and millions of dollars of pipe, con­ go hand-in-hand. struction equipment, and materials and supplies I have tried to give you some insight into a for the men building the line must be moved into few of Alaska’s environmental conditions and the areas where road networks are now inadequate. challenges they present. Some of these problems The operational date of a 48-inch-diameter we have solved, at least in part; we are on the verge piepline extending from Prudhoe Bay, on the of solving others; and still others will remain to Arctic coast of the Beaufort Sea to Valdez, a deep stimulate and challenge our imagination and in­ water port approximately 800 miles to the south, genuity for generations. on the Prince William Sound, has been delayed by If we are to meet the challenges and if we are at least two years because of problems related to to develop Alaska as a source of mineral and fuel the laying of a pipeline without adversely affecting resources that are essentail to all of us, we must permafrost areas. The cost of delays is recognized, conduct the research and planning necessary to see but construction authorizations have been with­ that the environment is not abused. We cannot held and will be given only after engineering allow ourselves the luxury of thinking that we

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The Environmental Challenges of Alaskan Mineral Development 29 alone know what is best for Alaska. We must strive between the engineer and the ecologist. Re­ for cooperation—cooperation between government member, the quality of what we do today will and industry; between Federal and State govern­ determine the quality of Alaska in the future—and ments; between the doer and the dreamer; and the future is as near as tomorrow.

Earl T. Hayes As Chief Scientist, Dr. Hayes has primary responsibility for coordination of Bureau of Mines research and de­ velopment programs with other Government agencies. Prior to this appointment in September 1970 he had served four years as part of top management of Bureau activities in the capacity of Deputy or Acting Director. He has been with the Bureau of Mines most of his professional career except for a four year tour (1962-1966) in the Department of Defense as Assistant Director—Materials in the Office of Defense Research and Engineering. In this position he had responsibility for coordination of all materials research and development programs of the Air Force, Army and Navy. Prior to this Dr. Hayes had spent 20 years with the Bureau of Mines rising to the position of Chief Metallurgist. Dr. Hayes was born in Wallace, Idaho. He holds a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in metallurgical engineering from the University of Idaho (1935 and 1936) and a doctorate in chemical engineering from the University of Maryland (1940). Before joining the Bureau of Mines for the first time at College Park, Md., in 1938, he was employed in mine leasing of lead-silver-zinc ores in Idaho’s Coeur d’Alene mining district. Author of approximately 40 technical publications, mostly in the rare and refractory metals field, Hayes also was active in Bureau of Mines' efforts at Salt Lake City, Utah, and Albany, Oregon, that developed a technology for production of titanium and zirconium metals. He has served on numerous Government and technical society committees concerned with materials technology. A registered professional engineer, he also belongs to the American Society of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, the American Society for Metals, Sigma Xi, Phi Kappa Phi and the Cosmos Club. Dr. Hayes and his wife, the former Carlene Smith of Wallace, Idaho, have lived in the Washington, D. C. area since 1956 and their home is presently at 517 Gilmoure Drive, Silver Spring, Md. They have three children, all married.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 31 Mineral Potential of Arctic Canada

R. G. McCrossan and R. M. Procter Geological Survey of Canada Calgary, Alberta

ABSTRACT Canada is on the threshold of a major new phase in the development of its Arctic resources. The Prudhoe Bay discovery triggered a boom in northern petroleum exploration that is just getting into high gear this year. Mining activity also has greatly expanded in the last few years with some 73 active exploration programs underway and several large new mines just coming into production. The size of these ventures is indicated by ore reserves of two lead-zinc mines to the value of 900 million dollars at Pine Point in southern Northwest Territories, and 1.2 billion dollars at the Anvil property in the southern Yukon Territory. Other properties with very large reserves are currently under development. Approximately 465,000 sq. miles of the 1.5 million square miles of Canada north of the 60th parallel are underlain by sedimentary rocks. A volumetric estimate of petroleum potential on the basis of rather scanty evidence is made at 54 billion barrels. With the current activity in the area it should be possible to improve this estimate considerably in the next 2 or 3 years. The two most promising areas are the Arctic Coastal Plains containing large volumes of young sedimentary rock and large structures, and the Mesozoic Sverdrup Basin also with many potential hydrocarbon traps. The Interior Plains of the mainland and the Arctic lowlands, as well as the fold belts of the Franklinian miogeosyncline indicate lesser potential.

INTRODUCTION I will first comment briefly on the metallic deposits and then will devote somewhat more We would first like to acknowledge the help attention to petroleum, since Prudhoe Bay is of several of our colleagues in the Geological Survey in selecting a few highlights from a vast probably why we are here. amount of information available on this subject, especially W.W. Heywood for the data on metallic METALLIC MINERALS m inerals. The Yukon and Northwest Territories com­ It would be an understatement to say that the prise about 40 per cent of the land area of Canada mineral potential of Arctic Canada is untapped. (1.5 million sq. mi.) but, at present these regions Observations on both petroleum and metallic contribute less than 5 per cent of the metallic and mineral resources were made by early explorers. non-metallic mineral production. The small num­ Indeed Indians made use of oil from seeps, were ber of producing mines compared to the total area aware of many of the larger ore deposits, and suggests a promising future for mineral ex­ ploration. Eskimos used native copper deposits at Copper- Gold was the first mineral to be mined in the mine river in prehistoric times. north and has been the mainstay for development The first commercial exploitation of petro­ in the Territories. Discoveries have been made in leum was at Norman Wells, which was discovered most greenstone belts and occurrences in meta­ in 1920 but not developed until World War II. sediments are of considerable interest. Since the discovery at Prudhoe Bay there has been Large deposits of metamorphosed iron forma­ an enormous increase in petroleum exploration in tion are associated with Archean volvanic rocks on northern Canada. Placer mining in the Yukon Eastern Arctic Islands. Extensive studies have Territory of course goes back to the Gold Rush in indicated several billion tons of high grade ore. the 1890’s and this led to the finding of lode Cherty magnetite-hematite iron formations are present in Proterozoic rocks of the eastern Yukon deposits soon after. The remoteness of the area where an estimated 40 billion tons of ore are made exploitation of anything but the precious present in one deposit. metals unattractive until very recently. Concentrations of lead and zinc commonly There are some 13 producing mines in the occur in veins in Proterozoic and Cambrian sedi­ Territories as well as 73 active exploration and ments or as stratiform replacement deposits. development programs in progress, some of which Native copper and various copper minerals will soon achieve production. occur widely in the Coppermine lavas and associ­ 32 R. G. McCrossan and R. M. Procter ated sediments. Recent exploration has indicated a likely that there would be a good deal more oil possible 4 million tons of 3 per cent copper in one found in this area. deposit and one million tons of 2.5 per cent Industry estimates of activity over the next copper ore in another. five years indicate 360 wells for the area south of Copper and molybdenum are common as­ Norman Wells, 220 wells for the area north' of sociates in porphyry type deposits such as a Norman Wells to the Arctic Coast, and 75 wells for deposit near Whitehorse with more than one the Arctic Islands. billion tons grading 0.38 per cent copper. A major strike in any one of these areas would Extensive exploration programs for the above of course require significant upward revision of mentioned minerals as well as uranium, nickel, these estimates. molybdenum, silver, rare earths, asbestos, coal and others are being carried out also and commercial Oil and Gas Shows deposits of some of these already are known to exist. Some of the more important indications of From what we know now it is reasonably hydrocarbon potential in Arctic Canada are shown certain that many large mines will be found like on figure 2. Starting in the southwestern part of the Pine Point lead-zinc deposit with 32 million the Northwest Territories, the Pointed Mountain tons reserves of Pb-Zn ore valued at $900,000,000 and Beaver River gas fields have already proved up and 8,000 tons per day production or the Anvil important gas reservoirs in Middle Devonian lime­ Pb-Zn deposit in the southern Yukon of 50 million stones. One of the most significant indications is tons valued at 1.2 billion dollars. Gigantic reserves the occurrence of the oil sands in the Bjorne of iron ore are indicated already and only await Formation in the lower Triassic on Melville Island favourable economics for exploitation. in the west-central Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though the deposit is not commercial it is on the PETROLEUM updip southern edge of the Sverdrup basin and, therefore, must be considered an extremely signifi­ A ctiv ity cant indicator of potential. Perhaps the most exciting recent discovery was Imperial’s Atkinson One of the clearest indications of the favour­ Point well located on the Arctic Coast, east of the able potential of Arctic Canada for petroleum has Mackenzie delta. This well flowed a medium been given by the oil industry itself. The land rush gravity sweet crude to the surface from a drill stem that has developed since the Prudhoe Bay dis­ test at about 5,700 feet. Production is from a covery is almost unprecedented. Subsequent to the lower Cretaceous sand. announcement of the discovery the number of Another very significant show was the large permits jumped from around 4,000 to almost flow of gas from Panarctic’s Drake Point Well on 7,000 and increased the coverage by 132 million Melville Island. This well blew wild for over a year acres to a total of 322 million before the end of before the gas zones were cut off by a relief well the year. Now almost every acre of the sedimen­ which indicated 10 mmcf/d from one zone and 13 tary basins of Arctic Canada is under permit mmcf/d from another with 5 feet of gassy oil. In for exploration. Perhaps the change in activity can addition there have been many smaller indications best be shown by a graph of drilling activity (Fig. of oil and gas throughout the Territories. 1). There is an obvious jump after Prudhoe Bay Having examined what has gone on up until from an almost static footage of around 125,000 now let us attempt to see what the future holds. feet to about 175,000 the following year and by the end of 1970 it may well be off the graph. Geology There is also a clear trend towards deeper holes. Only about 80 of the 432 wells to the end of 1969 Some 465,000 square miles of Canada, north are in excess of 5,000 feet in depth and most of of the 60th are underlain by sedimentary rocks; these were drilled in the Great Slave Plains near about half in the mainland and half in the islands. the Alberta border. Some concept of the degree to Figures 2 and 3 show the Precambrian Shield which the area has been tested can be obtained by flanked both to the west and to the north by the comparing numbers of exploratory wells drilled Interior Plains and the Arctic Lowlands. Beyond per cubic mile of sediments. For Continental these he the Cordilleran and Franklinian geosyn­ U.S.A. it is 1 well per 7 cubic miles, for northern clines. On a very broad scale the geology to the Canada it is 1 well for 2,000 cubic miles. north is similar to that of the Western Canada The Middle Devonian Norman Wells reef oil Sedimentary Basin to the south. Cratonic deposits pool (Fig. 2), discovered in 1920 through the wrap around the Shield grading westward and evidence of an oil seep, remains the only com­ northward through miogeosynclinal to eugeosyn- mercial producing field in the Territories. It seems clinal.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Mineral Potential of Arctic Canada 33

WELLS AND FOOTAGES DRILLED

(to July 31) RM170______GSC

Figure 1. Drilling, northern Canada, showing a marked increase in deeper holes in 1970.

The sediments deposited during the Paleozoic syncline have little or no potential for petroleum were dominantly carbonates and evaporites on the and will be discussed no further. cratonic shelves and in the miogeosynclines, grad­ Interior Plains. The Interior Plains may be ing to elastics northward and westward into the considered similar, in a broad, way to the cratonic eugeosynclines. The Franklinian geosyncline was type of sedimentation and in potential to the affected by both Caledonian and Variscan defor­ plains of Alberta (Fig. 4). This area has some mations the latter terminating its depositional 225,000 square miles exclusive of the Coastal Plain history. The Cordilleran geosyncline was involved underlain by some 300,000 cubic miles of sedi­ only with local Variscan deformation and it wasn’t mentary rock some parts of which, unlike the until Laramide time that it was regionally de­ plains farther south, have been involved in rather formed. The Mesozoic sedimentation was domi­ complex structures. nantly elastics with minor carbonates. The Canadian Petroleum Association’s poten­ One can see from figure 3 that the older rocks tial reserves committee uses a figure of 45,000 in the section are exposed by erosional bevelling in Bbls per cubic mile as an average for the Western the Arctic just as they are in southern Canada Canada Sedimentary Basin. If we use this factor towards the Shield area. Northern Canada can be we might expect something in the order of 13.5 divided into several geological provinces (Fig. 4) billion barrels of oil and, using their gas to oil including the Precambrian Shield, the Interior reserves ratio, 81 trillions of cubic feet are Plains and the Arctic Lowlands flanking it to the estimated for the Yukon and Northwest Ter­ west and north, the western Cordilleran area, the ritories mainland. The bulk of this probably will Franklinian geosyncline (indicated in the figure by be found in Paleozoic rocks. The potential for this the fold belts), the Sverdrup Basin, and the Arctic area can therefore be rated as fair. Coastal Plain. Of these the Precambrian Shield, the Arctic Coastal Plain. A belt of dominantly Cordilleran geosyncline and the Franklinian eugeo- Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks fringes the north

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 3 4 R. G. McCrossan and R. M. Procter

Figure 2. Generalized geological map and significant oil and gas shows.

Figure 3. Schematic cross-section through Arctic Islands Basins, R. L. Christie.

coast of the mainland and the Arctic Islands, this Some of the features can be seen on figures 5 sequence thickens in a seaward direction. In and 6 from a paper by A. E. Pallister given to the Canada, the area of the Coastal Plain exposed on annual AAPG meeting in June of this year. These the mainland is about 20,000 square miles with an are from the Mackenzie Bay area midway along additional 25,000 or so offshore. The thickness of the coast between Prudhoe Bay and the Atkinson the section is rather inperfectly known at present, Point discovery. Figure 5 is a seismic depth section though recent estimates place it as high as 30,000 and 6 is an interpretation. A wedge of upper feet in the Mackenzie Delta area and thicker Cretaceous and Tertiary strata can be seen to offshore. Probably the main limitations in this area thicken offshore and to overly unconformably an will be the possible depth of penetration of wells older sequence deformed by large open folds and rather than the total thickness of section. diapirs. All of the 'attributes characteristic of the

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Mineral Potential of Arctic Canada 35

Figure 4. Arctic Basins

Figure 5. Seismic depth section. Mackenzie Bay area, Arctic coast. (From paper by A. E. Pallister given to 1970 AAPG annual meeting.

major oil deposits in other parts of the world are pack ice and very soft bottoms. At this point the present. These include great thicknesses of rela­ geologist usually shrugs his shoulders and says that tively young rocks mostly of nearshore marine he has every confidence that the engineers will origin, burial without metamorphism, probable solve these problems when the need arises. If we diapirs and other large structures especially in the use Mason’s yield given in the NPC Future offshore, as well as demonstrated porosity. How Petroleum Provinces Volume or average Gulf Coast much of this potential will be fully realized will of 80,000 Bbls/mile3as an analogy, we would have probably depend upon the rate of development of about seven billion barrels using an average thick­ offshore drilling technologies suitable for moving ness of two miles.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 36 R. G. McCrossan and R. M. Procter

4 SECONDS S t

21)

THOUSANDS OF FEET Figure 6. Interpreted seismic section, Mackenzie Bay area. (From paper by A. E. Pallister, 1970 AAPG annual meeting).

The part of the Coastal Plain bordering the Ellesmere Island and the part lying at great depth Arctic Archipelago has an area of some 100,000 beneath the Sverdrup Basin is not likely to have square miles of which about 10% is above present any potential whatsoever. The miogeosynclinal sea level. The geology is probably similar to the portion, however, which is cut by the Parry Island mainland coast but no estimate is made for this fold belt, has possibilities. The Variscan structures area although the potential could be increased include long, sublinear, symmetric, gently plung­ correspondingly if there is a reasonable hope of ing, east trending folds which gradually decrease in exploration in the foreseeable future. amplitude to the south. One unsuccessful well has Arctic Lowlands. The Arctic Lowlands of the been drilled on one of these anticlines. The Arctic Archipelago he between the Canadian potential for this area, however, must be con­ Shield and the folded belts of the Franklinian sidered relatively low since the section is Devonian geosyncline. This area is made up of several and older. If we use the volume of 416,800 mi3 shallow basins (Fig. 4) each with a different mentioned above for the combined areas and use history, but in general the geology is similar to an arbitrary yield of somewhat less than that given parts of the lowlands bordering the shield in to the Interior Plains of 30,000 B/mi^ we would southern Canada though larger structures are have 12.5 billion barrels for this area. present. The rocks are dominantly carbonates with Sverdrup Basin. The Sverdrup Basin lies to some elastics, mostly Lower Paleozoic in age but the north and west of the Franklinian miogeo­ with some strata as young as Mesozoic and syncline and contains an aggregate of possibly Tertiary. The total reported thickness is more than 40,000 feet of strata from Carboniferous to early 18,000 feet, but the complete section over most of Tertiary age. This sequence probably did not all the area is less than 10,000 feet. There are accumulate in one place and it seems that the axis numerous indications of hydrocarbons in these of maximum deposition has moved westerly across rocks, but the overall general potential for major the basin with time. Carbonates occur in the petroleum is not as great as in some of the other Carboniferous but the upper part of the section is northern basins. This area could be grouped with dominantly clastic. The major deformation was the Interior Plains, but because of thinness of the Laramide and produced typically large folds with section, the greater age of the rocks and the curving axes and moderate depths. A number of remoteness of the area, it cannot be considered as diapiric structures have developed some of which attractive. The area has been grouped together by have penetrated very thick parts of the basin Landes with the Franklinian miogeosyncline and coming from Carboniferous evaporites at depth. In assigned an area of 226,700 square miles and a view of the large volume of sediment in the basin, volume of 416,800 cubic miles. the ample evidence of source rock and the variety Franklinian Geosyncline. The eugeosynclinal of structural-stratigraphic combinations, and facies part of the geosyncline outcropping on northern variations with reef-shale and sand-shale sequences,

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Mineral Potential of Arctic Canada 37 the petroleum potential of the area must be The 54 billion barrels that we have assigned considered high, at least as good as the Arctic rather arbitrarily to Arctic Canada is based on Coastal Plain. This basin according to Landes scanty evidence. Half of this is attributed to older contains 262,000 cubic miles of potential sedi­ shelf-type deposits and may be widely dispersed in mentary rock and is about 1 13,000 square miles in relatively small pools and so not usable until area. We have used the same yield factor for this communications are greatly improved. The other basin that we used for the Arctic Coastal Plains of half from the Arctic Coastal Plain and the Sver­ 80,000 B/mi^. Although there is no geological drup Basin will probably be harboured in pools of similarity between the two we chose this number much larger average size. We feel that these simply as being representative of a better than estimates tend to the conservative and fall 10 average basin. It would then give us a potential of billion barrels below those of the Canadian Petro­ 21 billion for the Sverdrup basin. leum Association for the Arctic Islands. As soon as we gain an idea of the geological nature of the traps in these basins from the first few discoveries Conclusions and an insight into source potential from our Exploration and development of metallic min­ current geochemical program we will be in a much erals and solid fuels is far enough along in northern better position to put meaningful ratings on them. Canada to indicate clearly a very large potential. I think it is safe to say even at this very early stage The rate at which the potential will be realized will of exploration that major petroleum discoveries depend on world metal prices, changes in tech­ will be made within the next five years in Arctic nology of extraction, and improvements in com­ Canada; probably within two or three at the munications. currently anticipated rate of exploration.

R. G. McCrossan Dr. R. G. McCrossan is presently head of the Geology of Petroleum Section, Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Geological Survey of Canada, in Calgary. He was granted a B.A. in Honours Geology by the University of British Columbia, S.M. in Geology by the University of Chicago, and Ph.D. also by the University of Chicago. He was employed by the Seaboard Oil Company of Delaware in Calgary as a subsurface geologist from 1949 to 1959. During this period he obtained leaves of absence to complete his graduate work at the University of Chicago. In 1959 he joined the Exploration Research Department of Imperial Oil Limited, also in Calgary, where he remained until 1969. In that year he joined the Geological Survey of Canada to form the new Geology of Petroleum Section at the recently created Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology. His responsibilities include advising the Geological Survey in matters related to petroleum exploration, the study of oil occurrence, and geochemistry. He is also responsible for advising the basin study group at the Institute. Dr. McCrossan has current outside professional responsibilities as Editor and Coordinator of the study of the future petroleum potential of Canadian basins, which study is intended to relate to the similar work being done for the National Petroleum Council by the AAPG in the United States; coconvenor of the program for Mineral Fuels Section of the of the 24th International Geological Congress; chairman, Petroleum Exploration Geochemistry Symposium, 1970, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy; member, Council of the Association of Professional Engineers, Geologists and Geophysicists of Alberta. Dr. McCrossan is affiliated with the following technical and professional organizations: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Geological Society of America, Society of Economic Paleontologists- and Mineralogists, Alberta Society of Petroleum Geologists, Association of Professional Engineers of Alberta. 38 R. G. McCrossan and R. M. Procter

Richard M. Procter Dr. Procter is presently the coordinator of the Northern Basins Analysis Program at the Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, which is a Division of the Geological Survey of Canada, in Calgary. He received a B.Sc. Honours Geology (1953), and M.Sc. in Geology (1957) at the University of Kansas. Prior to joining the permanent staff of the Geological Survey of Canada in 1960, he was employed by Mobil Oil of Canada, Imperial Oil Ltd., and the Geological Survey of Canada in field and well-site capacities. Dr. Procter’s research interests with the Geological Survey have included subsurface stratigraphy of Late Paleozoic and Triassic rocks of northeastern British Columbia, and clay mineralogy studies. Current responsibilities are directed toward a series of integrated analyses of the sedimentary basins of northern and Arctic Canada, including evaluation of the oil and gas potential of the region.

REFERENCES Canadian Petroleum Association, 1969, Potential Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas and Associated Sulphur in Canada, report by potential reserves committee, Calgary. Collins, G. M., 1966, 13 billion - bbl. potential for Beaufort Sea area, Oilweek Aug. 22 *66, pp. 43-46. Dept, of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 1969, Oil and Gas north of 60 for 1968. Douglas, R. J. W., et al. 1963, Geology and petroleum potentialities of northern Canada, Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 63-31. Heise, H., 1968, Northern Canada prospects big, Oilweek Sept. 30, pp. 49-55. Landes, R. W., 1968 Geosciences in the Petroleum Industry, Royal Society of Canada, Special publication No. 11, pp. 129-185. Mason, B. B., 1970, Western Gulf Coast, in Future Petroleum Provinces of United States, pp. 57-63, published by the National Petroleum Council. Oilweek, 1968, U.S. oil pond about fished out? Feb. 19, pp. 51-55. Pallister, A.E., 1970, Operation Arcticquest - An application of the multidiscipline, multi-participant exploration concept, paper given at AAPG annual meeting Calgary. Weeks, L. G., 1965, Industry must look to continental shelves, Oil and Gas Journal, June 21, pp. 127-148.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 39 Oil and Gas Reserves in the Siberian Shelf

A.J. Eardley, Professor Emeritus University of Utah

ABSTRACT The Arctic region must be the world’s largest storehouse of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, and the vast Siberian region, both “on land” and “off shore” must be considered with envy by the free-world’s geologists for its oil and gas potential. It is here estimated that the off shore continental shelf of U.S.S.R. Siberia contains a reserve of 200 billion barrels of oil and 500 trillion cut. ft. of gas. These very approximate figures come from meager data obtained from the literature on oil and gas discoveries in the Siberian Arctic, the basin location of these discoveries, and the projection of the petroliferous basins off shore to the continental shelf.

OIL AND GAS RESERVES located north of the small city of Tyumen on the IN THE SIBERIAN SHELF Trans-Siberian Railroad. A thick Cenozoic and Mesozoic deposit fills the basin and overlies mostly By reserves is meant the amount of oil and gas older fold belts. Exploration is actively going on in that lies buried, is as yet undiscovered, and which the northern part of the basin. It is here estimated may be produced ultimately. Ultimate production that this basin spreads northward off shore to the implies that methods of exploration and drilling extent of 100,000 sq. mi. will be achieved in this forbidding region of the West of the northern Urals and east of the Siberian Shelf, that the major accumulations wifi Timan Mountains is the Pechora Basin with a be tapped, and that production efficiency in the number of oil and gas fields, most of them unforeseeable future will be the same as now in probably discovered soon after World War One. the United States. It must be understood, how­ They have been connected to Leningrad by pipe ever, that other factors than production efficiency lines. Exploration is reported to be active in the are more important in the highly speculative northern part of the basin both on land and off process of estimating reserves. Production ef­ shore. The geology of the Pechora basin is similar ficiency is mentioned because the reserves of the to that of the Ob-Yenisei, and the basin extends U.S. given for comparative purposes reflect the off shore in an area of about 70,000 sq. mi. amounts that will eventually be produced - not the The Russians report a total of 40 oil and gas amounts in place. fields now discovered north of Tyumen, sup­ The land areas of the Siberian Arctic are posedly in the Ob-Yenisei Rivers Basin and the divided info probable and improbable oil and gas Pechora Basin. Only a few of these have been areas, and then the oil and gas fields are located as shown on Fig. 1 because of lack of information in far as the literature available to the writer permits. the available literature. The Soviet geologists es­ Then the probable oil and gas areas (basins) are timate that 75 billion barrels of oil and 176 trillion projected into the shelf region with the help of all cu. ft. of gas in these fields have been proved up. geological literature available to the writer. The off The gross area in which these fields occur is about shore basin extensions are then evaluated on the 140,000 sq. mi. basis of the sedimentary rocks comprising them, Another off shore region regarded as having their structural features, and especially on the excellent oil and gas possibilities is here called the basis of the size and volume of the known Arctic Slope Province. It is believed to be an hydrocarbons accumulations on land. Two classes extension of the Alaskan north slope province of probable oil and gas provinces are designated, where large oil and gas accumulations have re­ one good to excellent, and one possible with cently been found. The U.S. Geological Survey scattered and less prolific accumulations. For report on Alaska in Future Petroleum Provinces of approximate calculations the good to excellent the United States (A Summary) of the National provinces or basins were estimated to contain 90% Petroleum Council proposes the extension of the of the oil and gas, and the possible province 10%. Brooks Range fold belt to Wrangel Island on the The major established, on shore province of basis of geophysical observations, and if so, the Siberia is here called the Ob-Yenisei Rivers Basin. Arctic Coastal Plain Province with its Arctic It lies between the Ural Mountains on the west and Platform (very favorable for oil and gas accumula­ the Central Siberian Platform on the east, and tion) may extend under a large area of the Siberian according to Russian reports, contains both the Shelf. (See Fig. 1.) The report above referred to largest oil field and gas field yet discovered in the gives the “on land” area of the Alaskan Coastal Siberian Arctic. These are new discoveries and are Plain as 20,000 sq. mi. and the oil discovered as O A. J. Eardley

Figure 1-Siberia and the Siberian Shelf showing major tectonic features. The oil fields are in black ovals and the gas fields in open ovals. The shelf isobaths are in meters.

UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Oil and Gas Reserves in the Siberian Shelf 41

5-50 billion barrels (here a figure of 20 billion will It is rumored that a region of oil and gas be assumed for computational purposes). Thus a production has been discovered on the Lena River billion barrels of oil per each 1000 sq. mi. might near Yakutsk, even more significant than the be projected for the province off shore. This region north of Tyumen. This rumored discovery compares with the ratio for the Ob-Yenisei Basin may occur in the Mesozoic fold belt, but again possibly it may lie on the edge of the Central productive region ( ^o ^ O O ^m i^ of 0 54 bilIion Siberian Platform. barrels per 1000 sq. mi. The Alaskan figure is The off shore area of the Mesozoic fold belt larger than the Siberian, and for conservative province, according to the writer’s deductions purposes the smaller will be used for the calcula­ comprises 300,000 sq. mi. It is arbitrarily assigned tion of the possible oil in the Siberian Arctic Slope 20 billion barrels of oil and 40 trillion cu. ft. of gas province of the continental shelf. The Siberian (about 1/10th of the more favorable off shore Arctic Slope region on the shelf measures about areas). Thus the prospective reserves of the Si­ 180,000 sq. mi. berian Shelf region are O il...... 210 billion barrels (rounded to 200) The favorable off shore areas may thus be G a s ...... 485 trillion cu. ft. (rounded to 500) item ized: These figures may be compared with those Pechora Basin ...... 70,000 sq. mi. suggested by the National Petroleum Council for the United States (proposed final report, June 20, Ob-Yenisei B asin...... 100,000 ” ” 1970). Arctic Slope Basin...... 180,000 ” ”

Total Area 350,000 ” ” OIL U.S. - Production through 1968 - 86 billion bbl. And if these favorable off shore areas should Ultimate recovery of the fields contain 0.54 billion barrels per each 1000 sq. mi. now discovered - 176 of recoverable oil, then some 190 billion barrels of oil must be considered as available in them, once Estimated recovery of oil yet to the problems of exploration and drilling have been be discovered - 258 surmounted. Siberian on shore discovered to date 75 billion bbl. Likewise for gas, the ratio on land north of .176 trillion cu. ft. , . .... Siberian off shore, estimate this report 200 ” ” Tyumen 15 140,000 sq. mi. = 125 trllhon Cu’ ft‘ per 1000 sq. mi. If this ratio is used for the favorable under-water areas, then for 350,000 sq. GAS mi. some 435 trillion cu. ft. of gas should be U.S. - Production to date - 632 trillion cu. ft. contained there. A large region yet unconsidered is the one Estimated recovery of gas yet labeled “Fold belt of Mesozoic Strata” on Fig. 1. undiscovered - 600 ” ” ” It is here regarded as less favorable than the Siberian on shore discovered to date - 176 ” ” ” Pechora. Ob-Yenisei, and Arctic Slope basins. The fold belt as here shown is made up mostly of Siberain off shore estimated this re­ Jurassic and Cretaceous strata with numerous port (rounded off in the abstract to 500) -500 ” ” ” scattered intrusions. A Cenozoic coastal plain is largely lacking, so the off shore projections should involve the folded Jurassic and Cretaceous forma­ CONCLUSIONS tions with a thin Cenozoic cover. The location of only two fields, one oil and one gas, has come to The Arctic region must be the world’s largest the writer’s attention in this province. They are storehouse of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, near the estuary mouth of the Kheta River at the and the vast Siberian Arctic land regions, com­ southeast end of the Taymyr Peninsula. (See Fig. parable in area to the United States, must be 1.) Judging from the geological maps these fields considered with envy by the free world geologists produce from Cretaceous or Jurassic strata, and for its oil and gas potential. In addition to the “on seem to be in the extreme west end of the land” potential is a vast off shore reserve that may Mesozoic fold belt as here labeled. Production eventually be tapped. The estimates here used for figures are not known. Active exploration in this Arctic Siberia are probably conservative and much region is proceeding. less than they should be.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 4 2 A. J. Eardley

Armand J. Eardley Dr. Eardley was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, on October 25, 1901. He received his B.A. in 1927 from the University of Utah and his Ph.D. in 1930 from Princeton University. He also has an Honorary Sc.D. from the University of Utah. His professional experience includes petroleum exploration with various oil companies and also research pertaining to oil and gas exploration. He has been a professor at the University of Michigan, and Head of the Department of Geology and Dean of the College o f Mines, University of Utah. Many distinguished awards have been given to Dr. Eardley, and he has served as President of the National Association of Geology Teachers, 1962-63; and President of the American Geological Institute, 1965. Dr. Eardley is also the author of some sixty technical publications and four books. His fields of competence are the Geology of the Rocky Mountain region and the Tectonics of the North American Continent.

REFERENCES Anonymous, Soviet icebox yields treasure; Business Week, June 21, 1969. Anonymous, Russia uncovers Arctic reserves; World Oil, Dec. 1969, p. 66-67. AP, Salt Lake Tribune, Alaska, Russ may vie in oil market, Aug. 30, 1970. Miller, Otto N., Chairman, Future petroleum provinces of the United States - A Summary: Prepared by the National Petroleum Council’s Committee on Possible Future Petroleum Provinces of the U.S., July, 1970. Puminov, A.P:, A chart of Recent tectonics of the Arctic; Defense Research Board, Canada, Nov. 1967. Sobotka, Rudolf, Eastern bloc offshore pace is set by Russia; World Oil, July 1970, p. 108. Tectonic Map of U.S.S.R.; Moscow, 1957, Scale 1:500,000. Winkler, Jack, Siberia’s gas and oil fields are tougher than Alaska’s; Power Magazine of Energy Systems Engineering, Sept. 1969.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 43 Drilling Problems Associated with Arctic Minerals Robert L. Parker Parker Drilling Company Tulsa, Oklahoma

ABSTRACT With major involvements in Alaska, the experience gained from these operations reflect the success of talented personnel in meeting the challenges of climate, equipment, logistics, perma-frost, etc. Real concern stems from present delays in the Arctic program due to financing involved as well as increasing dependency of the United States upon these reserves in today’s market and supply situation.

It is difficult to conceal our enthusiasm for special procedures to prevent pollution or con­ Alaska. Drilling people are independent, aggressive, tamination of the area. The drilling operations are adventuresome, exciting - so are Alaskans. We have affected by the seasons involved. During the freeze found the State of Alaska and its people to our up or winter months, it is quite simple to move liking and we hope very much to be a part of its long distances in nearly every direction. Such a future. Our company has been drilling for the long move usually requires five to ten days of time Atomic Energy Commission on Amchitka Island before spudding. This compares to 24-hour moves far out in the Aleutian chain for several years. We on drilling pads. These operations can normally be also have five drilling rigs on the North Slope of carried out between the approximate dates of Alaska. We are interested in the total state of November 15 and June 1. During the summer Alaska and not just in these specific areas, and we months the drilling equipment must depend upon own a substantial interest in Alaska Airlines as the road systems presently being developed, or be well. These investments commit our company’s on a new location prior to the thaw, on a multiple future to that of Alaska’s quite strongly. These pad location for summer drilling, or utilization of represent over one-third of the assets of our total helicopters, etc. company when you consider our equipment, our As in most cases, economics are a major factor personnel and our support equipment involved. We in determining your pre-planning and scheduling suspect that proportionately to our total worth, for these periods of the year. The drilling tech­ our company is committed to Alaska as much or niques themselves vary somewhat with the differ­ more than any other oil industry company we ent operators and the more specific details of these know. Obviously we have been substantially af­ techniques are still restricted. In general, however, fected by the delays in these programs of Alaska in we set 250 feet of 20 inch casing and then drill recent months because of the size of our invest­ through the permafrost with extremely high vis­ ments there. cosity mud (150 viscosity) at a very low tempera­ Challenge is the best way to describe the ture (35 to 40 degrees) to 2,250 feet where we run drilling problems involved. The climatic conditions 13-3/8 inch casing. The 9-5/8 inch casing is usually on the North Slope almost seem to resent human set around 6,000 feet, and 7 inch casing to total beings. The bitter cold, strong winds, flat barren depth, if required. Of course this is just one typical land, ice and snow, combine in many forms to pattern of which there are many variations. The produce white-outs and other conditions that are development programs now require about thirty not conducive to efficient operations. In the days drilling time to 10,000 feet, which is a winter it is frequently impossible to determine tremendous improvement in the last few months. where the horizon is as well as to distinguish the The average time to 11,000 feet runs from 30 to sea from the land since all is white and all is ice. 45 days. A recent well to 16,000 feet required For these and other reasons the companies only 1 50 drilling days, which is faster than most operating there chose from their ranks their top drilling in the lower states. There are very few hard personnel. This includes drilling contractors as well rock conditions encountered and there are no as operators. The problems simply demand the special new tricks employed to drill on the Slope. best people, and Alaska has benefited from the Basically we simply utilize the latest type of capabilities of this talent tremendously. drilling bits, the best hydraulics available, with The equipment and facilities required for good drilling rigs. We run about 40,000 pounds of drilling in these conditions involve basic hydraulic weight on the bit at 50 to 75 RPM. Without a systems for soft rock drilling, simple rig-up de­ doubt, the success that has been accomplished in signs, special cold steels, elaborate heating and the drilling programs to date on the Slope are the living facilities, stringent safety programs, and result of teamwork of everyone involved. These 44 Robert L. Parker

results have been astounding. There have been different style of operation to this program in more improvements made in drilling progress on many ways. One simply has to be security con­ the North Slope in the past year than in any other scious in addition to his other functions. area of the world with which I am familiar. The The importance of the future of the arctic challenge I spoke about earlier is what made this areas of Alaska has been brought more into focus possible because challenge brings out the best in by recent developments in the Middle East in the men and the quality of people that have been past few weeks. These re-serves have become of assigned to these operations, coupled with these much greater value, in view of the new structure challenges, continue to produce the results being and prices of Eastern Hemisphere oil. The drilling realized there. operations themselves will undoubtedly continue Most of what I have said is common knowl­ to improve as these programs do progress and as edge. There is still much information about the soon as more definite planning can be made with Slope that cannot be discussed because of the known objectives. importance of information to future lease sales There is a real danger to the success of the and programs. However the untold story is perhaps program in that the delays presently being en­ not well enough known of operations on the countered could well shift the priorities of the North Slope. We prepared for the problems men­ companies involved to other areas. There has been tioned above - cold, wind, permafrost, etc. The some evidence of this already. These key people I problems that continue to exist are those of have mentioned earlier who have been responsible logistics, remoteness and support. for much of the success accomplished could be Since financing has become such a critical transferred to other areas that are more active, issue in all of the world today, it is even more which would take from this operation the top accented on the North Slope because of the high know-how for further advancements. Reallocation cost involved. Therefore the logistics become a of operational budgets is an equal threat to this major concern to all involved. The alternatives are shift in priorities as well as a change in the total few as to how to provide the equipment when and market picture due to the uncertainties of the where it is needed without tying up large sums of availability of these reserves. There is an urgent money needlessly. The remoteness of the area is need for immediate reactivation of the total hard to appreciate until you start maintaining program to recapture the momentum of success supply channels. The overhaul and maintenance of which is so vital to the State of Alaska and its your equipment itself requires special planning and people, the replenishment of the rapidly declining transportation. There is a fantastic dependence supply of oil and gas to the United States, and the upon air support and pre-planning of the mainte­ multiple benefits of position in the energy markets nance of that air support has been a major as well as the importance of world security to the criterion for the success of these operations. I citizens of our country. could mention the ice fog hazards and the In concluding, it is obvious that drilling numerous occasions when it becomes necessary to problems in the arctic areas of Alaska are really a work outside of the protective areas on the North matter of how efficiently they blend into the total Slope despite the elements to accomplish the operational effort than the actual drilling tech­ necessary jobs. “Tight” holes continue to be the niques utilized on the wells. rule on the Slope and they in themselves bring a

Robert L. Parker Robert L. Parker is President and Chairman of the Board of Parker Drilling Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma. He attended Culver Military Academy and The University of Texas from which he graduated in 1944 with a degree in Petroleum Engineering. He was a member of Pi Epsilon Honorary Petroleum Engineering Society. He is married to the former Catherine Mae McDaniel and they have three children, Bob, Carol and Debra. After serving in the Armed Services during World War II, he joined Parker Drilling Company in 1947 as a roughneck on their rigs in Mississippi, advancing through the company as toolpusher, safety supervisor, vice president and president. He is the former World’s Open Skeet Champion as well as being a member of several All American skeet teams. He serves as a director and trustee of several institutions, including the National Bank of Tulsa, Home Federal Savings & Loan Association, The University of Tulsa, John Brown University, First Methodist Church, St. Francis Hospital, and Comptran Corporation. He is active in many civic capacities, including YMCA, Boy Scouts, Junior Achievement, Economic Education, etc. He is the author of numerous articles and technical papers as well as filling numerous speaking engagements. In 1967 he was awarded the Doctor of Laws honorary degree from John Brown University and in 1969 the Distinguished Engineering Graduate Award from The University of Texas, which is the highest award this college can bestow.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 45 Maintenance and Operation of Facilities and Equipment in the Arctic

Charles C. Norris Charles W. Kelley and Carroll C. Livingston

INTRODUCTION over-grazed by a herd of caribou will take from 50 to 100 years to recover completely. The Arctic, that area lying north of the Arctic What is permafrost? It has been defined as any Circle, is an immense and desolate section of the material the temperature of which remains below world, hostile to man, to his equipment, and to his 0° centigrade, or 32 F, for over 2 years. In other ships. It is an area of relatively little land mass and words, permafrost is a permanently frozen layer of a great expanse of ocean covered with ice. the earth’s surface. Permafrost on the North Slope The Arctic Ocean, one of the major oceans of varies from 600 feet in thickness along the coast to the world, covers nearly 5 million square miles of as much as 2,000 feet in inland areas. Five miles the Arctic. The continental land masses of Europe, south of the beach in the Point Barrow area it Asia, and North America extend well into the reaches a depth of 1,250 feet. During the summer Arctic zone; and the northern tip of Greenland is months, this mass of frozen material thaws to a the most northerly land exposure. The broad depth of from 18 to 30 inches throughout the shallow continental shelves extend outward from North Slope area. In some areas south of the Europe and Asia as much as 300 miles, but the Brooks Range it may thaw as much as 1 6 feet. North American shelf extends less than 50 miles What are ice wedge polygons? They are into the Arctic Ocean. Beyond these continental polygons formed by the cracking of the surface of shelves the Arctic Ocean reaches depths of nearly the ground and closely resemble the patterns 15,000 feet. found in drying mud, as in the bottom of a dry An area of the Arctic which is of prime lake bed. They vary in diameter from 30 to 100 interest today is that part of Alaska known as the feet and constitute the most conspicuous surface North Slope. Running east and west across the full feature over thousands of square miles of the width of Alaska north of the Arctic Circle is a very North Slope area. The polygons are separated by rugged range of mountains, the Brooks Range, ice wedges varying in thickness at the surface from with elevations of up to 7,000 feet in the western a few inches to as much as 10 or 12 feet. These portion, and Mt. Nicholson rising to 9,239 feet in wedge-shaped segments of ice may extend down­ the east. The North Slope is the flat, low-lying ward as much as 20 feet. Imagine interpreting the coastal plain from 50 to 1 50 miles wide between results of a series of soil samples along the route of the Brooks Range and the Arctic Ocean. It is an a road in which many of the samples would be area which in size is comparable to the state of 100% ice. California. There are only a few passes through the Brooks Range for access to the North Slope from ENVIRONMENT the south. The best known of these is the Anaktuvuk Pass with an elevation of 2,200 feet. Holmes & Narver, Inc., for several years has The North Slope is liberally sprinkled with been maintaining and operating facilities and small shallow lakes and cut by meandering shallow equipment under extremes of cold weather at 3 streams. The largest river in the area is the Colville, principal sites: Point Barrow Navy Research Site, which drains most of the center of the Brooks Point Barrow, Alaska (truly the Arctic); Amchitka, Range to the north and empties into the Arctic near the end of the Aleutian Chain (northern Ocean a short distance west of Prudhoe Bay. This sub-Arctic zone); and the Antarctic at the opposite is the land of the tundra, the land of the end of the world. Several years ago Holmes & permafrost, and the home of the ice wedge Narver also conducted a 3-year project on the polygons. desolate northwest coast of Alaska between Point What is tundra? Basically, it is a very thin skin Hope and Cape Lisburne (also truly Arctic by all of vegetation covering and protecting from erosion the definitions). While conditions vary throughout the unconsolidated masses of muds, silts, sands, the Arctic as a whole, they are similar along most and gravels lying beneath it. Its growth is slow in of the North Slope. This paper deals principally the extreme; it is easily scarred and slow to heal; with facilities and equipment which are being and it takes years to recover from damage. An area maintained and operated at Point Barrow. 46 Charles C. Norris, Charles W. Kelley and Carroll C. Livingston

Point Barrow is the northernmost point on even the heaviest tractors. Whenever the wind the North American continent where people reg­ exceeds a velocity of 8 miles per hour, the snow ularly live and work. The environment of northern will move. During the fall months, the wind Alaska is a particularly hostile one. During the seldom drops below this figure. The constant winter months, the thermometer may remain in movement of the loose snow rounds the frozen the -20 to -40 F range for weeks, and has been as particles and the snow packs solidly, so that it is low as -56 F. The highest recorded temperature is possible to walk anywhere without the aid of skis 79 F, but the mean average throughout the year is or snowshoes. only 9.8°F. February is the coldest month of the year, with a mean average temperature of -17.9°F; POINT BARROW NAVY RESEARCH SITE July is the warmest month, with a mean average of 37.7° F. For nearly half the days of the year, the The Naval Arctic Research Laboratory and its temperature is 0°F or below. supporting camp are located on the shore of the Winds of from 25 to 45 miles per hour are not Arctic Ocean, about 4 miles from the Eskimo infrequent, and winds up to 115 miles per hour village of Barrow and the adjacent settlement of have been recorded. However, during an average Browerville. The Laboratory is operated by the storm the winds are usually around 17 to 23 miles University of Alaska under contract to the Office per hour and seldom last longer than from 2 to 3 of Naval Research and is situated on U.S. Naval days. With freezing temperatures accompanied by Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserve Number Four. wind, care must be taken to protect against the The camp, which today is operated in support hazard of frozen flesh. A Wind Chill Chart, relating of the Laboratory, was originally built by the temperature in degrees of Fahrenheit to wind Seabees in 1944, to be used as the base camp from velocity in miles-per-hour, has been developed as a which to explore the petroleum potential of PET guide for the Arctic and the Antarctic. A tempera­ 4, as the Navy’s petroleum reserve is called. The ture reading of -20° F accompanied by a 40-mile- exploration of PET 4 continued until 1953. The per-hour wind shows on the Chart as the equiva­ Office of Naval Research began its Arctic research lent of -85°F and falls in the area of Chill Index 5, functions at Point Barrow in 1947, using the PET where exposed flesh will freeze in less than one 4 camp as its base; and in 1954 the Air Force took m inute. over the operation of the camp as its base of This is also the land of the midnight sun and operations for construction of the DEW Line of the long dark nights. At Barrow the sun is above (Distant Early Warning) stations across northern the horizon continuously from May 10 to August Alaska. The modules which made up the various 2 and is below the horizon continuously from stations were fabricated at the Barrow camp and, November 18 to January 24. At Christmas time at during the winter months, sledded across the 10:30 in the morning it is just light enough to see tundra to their respective sites. In return for the a short distance, and by 2:30 in the afternoon it is use of the Navy camp, the Air Force agreed to again pitch dark. support the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory From the first of June to the first of which, at that time, had a staff of about 10 RSegtember the temperature seldom falls below people. The Laboratory today has a year-round 32 F. It is during this period that the annual thaw staff of nearly 100 people, which is increased to takes place. The snow literally melts before your about 200 during the summer months. eyes, and the water rushes to the sea as it cannot The camp consists of nearly 100 buildings, penetrate the mass of frozen material just beneath most of which are the original Quonsets erected by the surface. The entire area becomes a soggy mass the Seabees in 1944, (See Figure 1). These interspersed with innumerable lakes and small buildings are used as dormitories, family quarters, streams. Rapid erosion occurs in areas where the mess hall, shops, warehouses, fire station, boiler tundra has been damaged. Ruts left by the passage plant, power plant, laundry and dry cleaning plant, of a single vehicle can become miniature canyons 6 water distillation and treatment plant, and other feet wide and 12 feet deep in a matter of 4 hours service facilities. The new Research Laboratory or less. A 200-yard stretch of road at Barrow has building, dedicated in 1969, is a modern structure been dry as a bone at 5 p.m. and an hour later of 45,000 square feet in 3 core units and 7 wings. covered with 2 feet of rushing water. There are rooms for sleeping 86 people, 41 After the first of September the freeze begins complete laboratory units, and service and ad­ again, and by the first of October the summer ministrative space. The building is the latest word thaw has been refrozen. The first snowfall usually in Arctic construction, resting on 557 piles set 15 occurs around the first of October and as soon as feet into the permafrost, with a minimum of 18 the tundra is covered cross-country travel is again inches open airwdy between the ground and the possible. By mid-December, most of the lakes have bottom members of the building. Adjacent to the developed a sufficient thickness of ice to support camp is a 5,000-foot airstrip; 5 miles to the south

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Maintenance and Operation of Facilities and Equipment 47

Figure 1. Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, summer 1969.

is a small natural gas field with 5 producing wells; Because of the rugged climate at Barrow, an and 1 mile to the east of the camp is the DEW inordinate amount of work planning is necessary. Line Station designated as POW-Main. Work plans must be flexible so that if adverse As the Air Force support contractor at Point weather interferes with certain scheduled work, Barrow, Holmes & Narver maintains and operates the crews can be shifted to other productive most of the facilities. Approximately 40% of the endeavors. It is the policy to paint one-third of the buildings in the camp are assigned to, and are exterior and interior building surfaces each year. under the control of, the Naval Arctic Research Obviously, exterior painting during the rigorous Laboratory, whose personnel do most of the winter months is practically impossible, so this maintenance on these structures. Holmes & Narver work is scheduled for the relatively short summer. is called upon from time to time to execute certain But even then, schedules can be disrupted by special maintenance and repair projects for the adverse weather, and painting crews must be Laboratory and to provide special support to the moved inside. DEW Line Station, the Federal Aviation Agency, the U. S. Weather Bureau, the U. S. Public Health BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the Alaska State Police whose representatives are In constructing buildings in the Arctic, es­ located in Barrow Village. pecially those which are to be heated, it has been learned by experience that many methods used in the temperate zones are not applicable. Any PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE heated building constructed in a permafrost area, even though built on a gravel pad, must also have AND WORK CONTROL adequate air circulation underneath. Otherwise, it will be subjected to differential settling in a very Holmes & Narver has established an engi­ short time. Heat from buildings will melt the ice neered Preventive Maintenance Program at Point wedges or the frozen ground for several feet Barrow, as at its other operational sites, whereby immediately beneath the buildings. As much as 2 qualified personnel make periodic scheduled in­ feet of settlement has been noted in a 30- by 60- spections of facilities and equipment and correct foot heated building within a period of 12 months. minor deficiencies. More extensive repair re­ To overcome this problem, heated buildings have quirements are reported by the Preventive Main­ been placed on piles in order to gain sufficient tenance personnel to the Project Engineer for elevation to permit a natural circulation of air scheduling under the master Work Control Plan. under the building. Usually a 1-1/2- to 3-foot clear

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 48 Charles C. Norris, Charles W. Kelley and Carroll C. Livingston air space under the building is adequate and very the frozen period, to cover it with a layer of coarse effective in preventing settlement. gravel at least 6 inches thicker than the maximum Untreated wooden piles have been found to thaw. On top of this gravel, from 12 to 18 inches be more satisfactory and economical than steel of fines (sands and clays) are spread and com­ piles, as wood does not deteriorate in the Arctic. It pacted into a good, hard, road surface. The top is also more satisfactory to auger holes for the layer becomes reasonably impervious to surface piles rather than trying to drive them into the water, while the bottom * layer remains coarse frozen ground. A gravel and water slurry tamped enough to prevent upward capillary action of around each pile sets up very rapidly in freezing ground water during the summer and permits the weather and anchors the pile tightly. The best time draining off of accumulating moisture during the to auger and set piles is, of course, during the winter. Furthermore, the frost line at the peak of winter months. the thaw will be in the gravel above the original Even unheated buildings and structures should surface, and ice wedges in the tundra will remain not be set directly on permafrost. A gravel pad frozen the year round. A road built in this manner from 3 to 4 feet thick should first be laid as is normally usable 12 months of the year. protection for the frozen ground. The same precepts hold true for camp sites, Other than providing sufficient insulation in drilling sites, runways, or any other sites on which heated buildings (walls, roof, and floor) to help it is desired to move about throughout the year. offset the 120° to 130°F temperature differential Gravel pads thick enough to keep the frost line between the inside and the outside of the building, above the original surface must be built up above good normal building practices, with only a few the surface of the original ground. minor exceptions, are quite acceptable in the In the maintenance of roads at Point Barrow, A rctic. Holmes & Narver has made it a practice to scrape Double- or triple-pane windows should be off the snow before the spring thaw so as to used, and for most buildings it is good practice to eliminate as much moisture as possible from the provide a 2-door entranceway similar to the road before the heavy runoff. In anticipation of “storm doors” used in the cold areas of “the lower road repairs, gravel from the nearby lake shore is 48,” as the original 48 states are called. Other hauled and stockpiled before the ground has good practices, particularly for living quarters, are thawed. The timing is mandatory, as it is necessary to hang the outside doors to open inward, so that to cross the tundra to reach the gravel pit, and it drifting snow will not prevent the door from being would be impossible to do any hauling over opened, and to include a vapor barrier within the thawed ground. During past years, there has been shell of the building. considerable trouble in the maintenance of the road from the camp to Barrow Village. This past ROADS winter, the road was further elevated thereby accomplishing 2 things: avoidance of snow drifts, Much of the construction work in the Arctic and considerably decreased road repairs in the must be accomplished 180° out of phase with the spring. time it is done in the lower 48. The winter months, not the spring and summer, are those in which much of the work must be scheduled. It is AIRFIELD during the winter that material and equipment can The airfield at Point Barrow consists of a be moved across the snow-covered surface without 5,000-foot runway, runway lights, terminal build­ fear of damaging the tundra, or of getting mired ing, a warehouse, 2 hangars (1 constructed this down in mud and/or water. Winter, or the early year), and POL dispensing units. This field is used spring before the thaw, is the time to build roads by the 7 aircraft operated by the Naval Arctic and pads and building sites, so that work can be Research Laboratory and by military aircraft continued above the water and mud during the carrying official visitors and resupply cargo. There summer months. is another airstrip at Barrow Village, operated by The wrong way to build a road across the the state of Alaska, which is normally used by tundra is to dig borrow ditches along each side of commercial aircraft; but often weather prevents the right of way, berming up the borrow in the the use of this field, and the commercial aircraft middle, as is frequently done in the lower 48. If then use the Point Barrow airstrip, unless it also is this method is attempted in the Arctic, and it has closed. been tried with unsatisfactory results, the “road” The runway at Point Barrow was surfaced will end up in the summer as a soggy, impassable with nonpierced steel planking for 80% of its quagmire between 2 wide canals. The most practi­ length 2 years ago and completed for its full length cal method of road building in the Arctic is to in the summer of 1969. Because of the smoothness leave the tundra absolutely unbroken and, during of the planking, aircraft landings were somewhat

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Maintenance and Operation of Facilities and Equipment 49 hazardous, particularly in a crosswind. For this diesel-driven standby unit which provide power for reason, in the summer of 1970 the steel planking the gas field only. was coated with “Durapox,” an epoxy nonskid Electrical distribution lines consist of ap­ surfacing compound. Because of temperature limi­ proximately 42,000 feet of primary overhead and tations, it was necessary to apply this material 24.000 feet of primary underground at 2400 volts. before freezing weather in order to obtain proper Secondary distribution lines carrying 220/1 10 adherence to the steel plate. Snow Removal from volts total about 8,700 feet of overhead. No the runway does not present much of a problem, particular maintenance problems have been ex­ as the runway configuration and elevation do not perienced with these lines, except for the dif­ induce large drifts. By using a grader to scrape the ficulty of working outside on a pole during the snow into windrows and then blowing it off the winter. runway with a snowblower, the runway can usually be cleared in about 2 hours after a severe WATER SUPPLY storm . At first thought, it may seem surprising that one of the major problems in the Arctic is the POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION development and maintenance of an adequate Power generation in the Arctic is basically no supply of potable water. Wells are, of course, out different from anywhere else in the world. Diesel- of the question in deep permafrost. The Eskimo driven units perform quite adequately. Naturally, method of cutting and storing blocks of ice from a all units must be appropriately housed, and care fresh water lake, or from the top of a relatively must be taken to assure that the cooling systems salt-free layer of ocean ice, is also out of the of reciprocal engines are not exposed to the question if a substantial quantity of water is elements and that the flow of air around the required. radiators can be controlled and kept from becom­ The best source of fresh water in the Arctic is ing unduly chilled. Turbine-driven generators are a fresh water lake or a large river, which does not coming into use more and more, not only in the freeze to the bottom in winter. At Point Barrow, a temperate areas but also in the Arctic. These units lake must be at least 9 feet deep to assure its not are not so efficient as a diesel engine unless the freezing solid. exhaust heat is utilized; if it is, they are more Piping water is another problem. Burying the efficient. water lines in the ground to keep them from The main power plant at Point Barrow has 4 freezing, as is frequently done in the lower 48, is Cleveland diesel engines, each driving a 350 kw definitely unsuccessful in the Arctic. The method generator. These units were originally designed for most used to date is to run the water lines in World War II submarines. The plant was built in insulated heated utilidors or tunnels. Heavily 1949, at which time 3 units were placed on the insulated pipes can be used above ground, pro­ line. In 1955 these units were converted to dual vided the water in the pipe is constantly flowing at fuel (diesel/gas) prime movers in order to burn a rapid rate, or if heat tape is installed along the natural gas, which is readily available from the pipe inside the insulation. Storage tanks, filter nearby gas field, and thus reduce the demand for systems, and pumps must be housed in heated diesel fuel, which must be shipped in by barge shelters to keep them from freezing. once a year. The fourth diesel unit was converted At Point Barrow, water for the camp and to gas operation and put on the line in February of Laboratory is drawn from a fresh water lake this year. In January 1969, a 750 kw generator, adjacent to the camp and pumped approximately powered by a gasdriven SOLAR turbine, was 1.000 feet to the boiler house for filtration or placed on the line and relieved the shortage of distillation. In 1963, the lake was contaminated electric power. The peak power demand at Point with sea water during a severe storm, and 2 Aqua Barrow has been over 1200 kw, with the average Chem distillation units were installed to purify the for the winter months slightly under 1000 kw, and water. By December of 1969, the saline content in the summer around 600 kw. Much of the time had dropped to an acceptable level, and the during the summer months enough power could be distillation units were shut down. Because of the generated with only the turbine unit but, since this very light snowfall in the fall of 1969, the lake ice ia temporary installation and as yet no use is made reached a record thickness of 89 inches by April. of the exhaust heat, at least 1 of Cleveland units As the lake is only a little over 9 feet deep, the must be in operation at all times in order to keep camp had a restricted supply of. water with the powerhouse and the engine coolant suffi­ increased saline content to draw on. It therefore ciently warm. There is another small power plant was necessary to reactivate the distillation units. in the natural gas field some 5 miles from camp. Water lines from the lake to the boiler house, This plant has a gas-fueled generator and a and from there to the kitchen, dispensary, shower

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 50 Charles C. Norris, Charles W. Kelley and Carroll C. Livingston room, and laundry run in steam-heated utilidors. of the buildings under control of the Air Force are Water to the new Laboratory building is piped in a equipped with gas-fired automatic incinerator toi­ 3-inch above-surface copper line, wrapped with lets which are burned out after each use. since the electrical heat tape and encased in 4 inches of camp is built on the beach, wash water is simply insulation. There is fresh water storage capacity of drained into the sand under the building, some­ some 90,000 gallons in the boiler house, which times, in the early spring, the ice builds up to the feeds the distribution lines. All other buildings point where it is necessary to throw heat under the have individual internal water systems, consisting building to thaw the accumulation of ice. This is of 100- or 250-gallon tanks with pressure pumps done using portable Herman Nelson heaters with or gravity flow. The tanks are filled daily from a single or multiple flexible hose lines (“elephant 2000-gallon heated tank truck. trunks”) to direct the heat.

SEWAGE DISPOSAL NATURAL GAS FIELD The usual method of disposing of sewage The South Barrow Gas Field is located ap­ (other than sink and bathwater) in the Arctic has proximately 5 miles south of the camp. At the been for many years, and still is, the well-known present time, there are 5 producing wells which “honeybucket.” The honeybuckets are emptied supply natural gas for the Point Barrow camp and into 55-gallon oil drums and the drums hauled to the DEW Line station, and also for the village of some shallow lake or depression and abandoned. It Barrow. Natural gas is used for heat and for power does not take much imagination to visualize the generation. “forest” of these oil drums in the vicinity of Gas from the wells is piped to an adjacent Barrow Village. Attempts have been made to haul distribution center where the well head pressure of the barrels out on the sea ice in the winter, with 900 psi is reduced to 200 psi, and the gas is the expectation that they would sink when the ice odorized. The camp is fed through a 4-inch line broke up, but unfortunately they too often would supported on empty oil drums. This is an old line up back on the beach when the ice either drifted in which there are no expansion loops, so in the or was forced to shore by the winds, resulting in a fall of the year, after the warm summer months, it worse mess than if the barrels had been hauled is necessary to go along the entire line and reset it inland in the first place. on the barrels. The line to the village is a new line Pollution control is attracting much public completed in 1968, which is mounted on piles attention throughout the world, and the Arctic is with expansion loops every 600 feet. not exempted. Industry on the North Slope is One of the hazards of producing gas through under the gun, and all new installations in this area permafrost is ice. If a well produces any water at must provide for adequate disposal of sewage and all, there is the constant possibility of the well waste. freezing up. At the South Barrow Field, the wells Sewage plants can be, and have been, used are lubricated with alcohol and blown at least once successfully in the Arctic. Sewage lagoons are every 2 weeks. The alcohol melts any accumula­ satisfactory, provided they have a depth of at least tion of ice and allows the water in the well to be 9 feet. The new Naval Arctic Research Laboratory blown off. In 1 5 years of operation of the South at Point Barrow is a modern building with flush Barrow Field, there has not been any case of a well toilets. All sewage from this building passes completely freezing up. through a chopper and is then discharged through One of the major construction efforts of a well-insulated heated line into the bottom of a Holmes & Narver in the Arctic during the past 2 nearby salt water lagoon, which is from 9 to 10 years has been the drilling of additional gas wells feet deep. The lagoon is covered with ice for 9 in the South Barrow Field. In the spring of 1969, months of the year and during the other 3 months Gas Well No. 8 was drilled and came in with a is flushed by the 6-inch tides of the Arctic Ocean. potential of approximately 3 million cubic feet per After well over a year in operation, water samples day. Gas Well No. 9 was brought in with a indicate this to be performing as an excellent potential of 7.8 million cubic feet per day in 1970. sewage lagoon. These wells are relatively shallow; from 2,300 to There are several methods of sewage disposal 2,500 feet in depth. It takes longer to prepare for used for the other less-modern buildings com­ the drilling than it does to actually drill the well. prising the Point Barrow camp. All effluent wastes The drill rig is an old Cardwell Model H unitized from the kitchen, dispensary, laundry, boiler rotary rig with double drum, powered by a D-8800 plant, and shower rooms flow through pipes Caterpillar engine. The derrick is an 80-foot located in steam-heated utilidors and are dis­ American Standard Derrick reinforced with 4-inch charged into the ocean. Many of the buildings are drill pipe. This equipment was left over from the equipped only with honeybuckets; however, most Navy drilling days during World War II. The rig is

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Maintenance and Operation of Facilities and Equipment 51 mounted on runners and is usually skidded off the ings used in conjunction with the drilling of a gas site upon completion of the well to an already well, are heated with individual diesel-fired circula­ prepared gravel pad at the site of the next well. tor-type stoves. Extensive use is made of portable Preparatory work for the drilling of a new Herman Nelson heaters with “elephant trunks” to well begins with skidding the drill rig to the new feed heat to desired locations such as at the gas site during the season prior to the drilling period. well drilling rig, aircraft cabins, and other locations At the beginning of the new drill season, when not requiring or not susceptible to permanent sufficient snow has accumulated to protect the installations. The boiler plant provides steam heat tundra, a snow road is constructed to the new for utilidors, the galley, and the laundry and dry drilling site. About late January, equipment for cleaning plant. Maintenance problems with these the drilling operation is moved to the drill rig area. heating systems differ very little from those with The mud pumps, mud tanks, power plant, water similar types of heating systems in less rigorous tanks, cement pumps, boiler, shop, and other small environments. buildings are all mounted on skids for ease of moving to the site. Most of the buildings are REFRIGERATION heated with oil-fired space heaters. The well is usually spudded in early in April and, with the Although the Arctic for nearly 9 months of shallow depth, drilling is completed in from 3 to 4 the year is one big “deep freeze,” it is still weeks. The rig is completely enclosed with canvas necessary to operate standard type freezers for and equipped with 3 steam forced air heaters on controlled refrigeration of food supplies and for the rig floor and 3 under the floor. During drilling uses in the Research Laboratory. The camp freezer operations, the drill crews can work on the floor and cold storage facilities are composed of a quite comfortably without extra heavy clothing. refrigeration building containing 8 prefabricated In the Prudhoe Bay area, the drill rigs are not boxes totalling 10,800 cubic feet, 3 prefabricated totally enclosed, and the crews work on the floor boxes adjacent to the Dining Hall containing without benefit of heat. The feeling at Prudhoe is approximately 4,050 cubic feet, and miscellaneous that the hazard of gas accumulation in an enclosed reach-in boxes in the Dining Hall proper. Again, rig is too great. However, at Barrow during drill maintenance problems are similar to those in stem tests and other occasions susceptible to gas locations outside the Arctic. An alternative to the accumulation, all doors of the rig are opened, and use of conventional freezers, if it becomes neces­ there has been no problem in maintaining ade­ sary, is the storage of frozen food in underground quate ventilation. pits excavated in the permafrost. An old cellar is Another one of the problems with drilling for currently being used at Point Barrow for the oil or gas in the Arctic is the cementing of casing preservation of food for animals under study by in the permafrost. This last spring, Holmes & the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory. Narver switched from type G cement to Fondu cement (specially developed for permafrost areas) PETROLEUM, OILS, AND LUBRICANTS (POL) and had excellent results. When the well is completed, the drill rig is The POL system at Point Barrow is comprised moved off to a new site; buildings and equipment of storage tanks, transfer lines, pumping stations, are skidded back to storage pads; and a well- filter/separator stations, and supporting appur­ insulated, electrically-heated well house (prefabri­ tenances for Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS), Motor cated in the camp carpenter shop) is placed over Gasoline (MOGAS), and Diesel Oil. AVGAS fill the well head. The well is connected to the main facilities are located on the ramp at the airstrip. distribution center with a 2-inch line flow line Diesel oil is transferred by pipeline from the bulk mounted on pipe supports above ground. storage tank farm to service storage tanks within the Camp area, and to the DEW Line station. The HEATING SYSTEMS tank farm is an arrangement of five 427,000-gallon tanks. Maintenance practices for the POL system Adequate heating systems are of prime im­ are practically the same as in warmer geographical portance in the Arctic, not only to sustain life but areas. The major difference in the outstanding also to provide a reasonably comfortable living and storage of POL products in the Arctic is the working environment. This in turn promotes the necessity to add a de-icer to the tanks in Septem­ efficiency of the work force. Several types of ber before the cold weather sets in. space heaters are used effectively at Point Barrow. Buildings are equipped with fixed heater installa­ INSECT AND RODENT CONTROL tions; most of them are natural gas-fired, although some are dual fuel (diesel/gas) operated. Tem­ In most camps throughout the world, an porary structures, such as the rig accessory build­ insect and rodent control program is a necessity.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 52 Charles C. Norris, Charles W. Kelley and Carroll C. Livingston Not so at Point Barrow. Rodents are nonexistent, Once each year, when the sea ice has broken up, and insects are not a real problem. A few Point Barrow is resupplied by barge from Seattle mosquitoes appear in the warm summer months, and southern Alaska. The barges deliver a full but are not so numerous as to require much in the year’s supply of dry foods, POL products, lumber, way of control effort. pipe, paint, steel, etc., and much of the frozen food products. Theoretically the camp is supposed VEHICLES AND CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT to have a 2-year supply of all necessities when the barges depart. This provides a reserve against the This is not the land of “shade tree mechan­ possibility that the barges may not be able to get ics.” With the exception of a few days in the in the following year. During the summer of 1969, summer, all equipment maintenance and repair there was somewhat of a problem in getting barges must be done in well-heated shops. The Arctic is into Point Barrow and Prudhoe Bay. On July 27, not easy on equipment or its operation. For at 1969, the ice will still packed in against the shore least 9 months of the year, as much of the of Point Barrow, held there by the wind. About a daily-use equipment as possible is kept inside week later, with a shift of the wind, the ice moved warm buildings when it is not in operation. If a enough to let the barges in, but again moved back, piece of equipment is left outside overnight in and it was not possible for the barges to leave until -30°F weather, even though plugged into electrical the end of August. head bolts and radiator heaters, it takes a mini­ Shortages in supplies, such as specially re­ mum of 1 hour, and often 2 hours, to warm it up quired repair parts, as well as fresh meats and fresh with the aid of Herman Nelson space heaters produce, are shipped in by air from Elmendorf Air before it will operate properly. Vehicles are never Force Base in Anchorage at about 10-day intervals. shut down when outside during the winter; they The Air Force authorizes a supplemental meat are kept running continuously. Some of the trucks allowance of 1/3 pound per man per day in the and pickups at Point Barrow may travel only 10 A rctic. miles a day, yet their engines are running 10 hours a day. This, of course, increases the normal CONCLUSION maintenance and repair load. All rolling stock is subjected to particularly rough treatment in the This has been but a short sketch of a few of Arctic. Probably those giving the most trouble are the problems attached to living and working in the tractors and other hydraulically-operated equip­ Arctic. Much has been learned about this remote ment which takes time to warm up. and hostile area of the world; there is much more knowledge and experience required, as has been SUPPLY demonstrated by the controversy surrounding the routing and construction of the Trans-Alaska Except for a relatively small quantity of open Pipeline. Man’s progress depends not only on market purchases, all of the supplies for the Point means for his survival, but also on deep ecological Barrow camp are requisitioned on the Air Force. considerations and solid engineering.

Charles C. Norris Charles C. Norris, Vice President of Williams Brothers Engineering Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma, has been affiliated with the oil and gas business his entire career. He is a graduate in civil engineering from the State University of Iowa at Iowa City. Mr. Norris was a gas engineer for Iowa-Illinois Gas and Electric Company during which time his responsibilities included the layout and design of natural gas distribution systems and associated facilities. He joined Consumers Power Company in Michigan as a gas engineer where his work included both engineering and operation of gas facilities. His engineering work there included that of coordinator for the company in the design of pipeline, compressor stations, storage field and gas plant facilities. He also served as supervisor of operations in the compression department and was responsible for the day-to-day operation of 200,000 horse power at some 10 locations. After joining Williams Brothers in 1965, Mr. Norris worked as senior engineer for the supervision and design of. pipeline and station facilities. This included the responsibilities for a recent 1,000 mile, 36-inch pipe-line facility which included 13 compressor stations. His present capacity as vice president of Williams Brothers Engineering Company includes the responsibility for project development on a variety of oil and gas projects. These include detailed feasibility proposals for arctic engineering and construction. He is a registered professional engineer in the states of Michigan, Oklahoma, Wisconsin, Minnesota, New Mexico and Pennsylvania. He is a member of ASCE, ASME, SGA and Tulsa Pipeliners Club.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 53 Arctic Pipelining— Tough, Costly, But Feasible By William H. Pearn International Coordinator Williams Brothers Engineering Company

ABSTRACT The development of vitally important Arctic petroleum resources presents new and interesting challenges. Although the answers to some questions will undoubtedly undoubtedly go unresolved until considerable operating experience has accrued, we can improve our present insight through an awareness of the work performed by others under similar conditions. This presentation focuses on Soviet pipelining experience in arctic and subarctic regions of Siberia.

Discovery of North America’s largest oilfield, EXPERIENCE LACK Prudhoe Bay, came at a time when oil production from traditional sources within the United States By virtue of the nature of our geography, our was dwindling. At the same time, our proven operating experience in pipelining under these natural gas reserves had also begun to decline. conditions is nil. On the other hand, the Russians, The United States was not only being forced with half of their territory underlain with varying into increasing dependence upon foreign supplies forms of permafrost, began construction of gas but its eventual ability to meet overall future pipelines in Arctic areas in 1964. To date, the energy demands was questionable. Soviets have completed Arctic pipelines in sizes The motivation for prompt development of through 48 in., are constructing a 56-in. pipeline, these vast new reserves of oil and gas is evident. and are planning others in sizes through 99-in. However, the uncertainties emanating from a lack Although the design criteria for these gas- of experience in both petroleum production and transmission pipelines are quite different from pipelining in permafrost areas have proven to be those of our proposed hot-oil pipelines, we feel more of a problem than had been contemplated by that our endeavors in both the oil and gas many early observers. Arctic-pipelining fields can profit from an aware­ Ironically, this extremely forbidding area of ness of their work. our nation also has a very fragile ecology. The In this regard, Williams Brothers Engineering slightest damage to the skin of this rugged land Co. has collected and translated a number of may be capable of causing irreparable damage. articles on the subject which have been published Moreover, this comes at a time when civiliza­ in Russian periodicals and trade journals. tion has, as a matter of selfpreservation, been Although a number of papers on similar forced into an awareness of the critical environ­ subjects have been translated and frequently pub­ mental problems which confront us. Many Ameri­ lished by others, to the best of our knowledge the cans in the lower 48, as well as Alaskans, are material in this collection represents its first determined to preserve our last major wilderness. translation and distribution outside the Soviet It is obvious that we must tap the enormous Union. energy resources which exist in our Arctic and subarctic regions. However, we must be able to PREVAILING CONDITIONS establish that the ultimate gains will outweigh the The geographical scope of the articles encom­ ultimate losses. passes the regions of the Soviet Union which lie to This basic economic reality is certainly not a the north of the 60th parallel, as well as areas of new concept, but within the realm of today’s permafrost extension. Despite the diverse climatic, values and priorities emphasis is placed on the geologic and hydrologic conditions of this im­ proposition that we must be reasonably assured mense territory, several common natural charac­ that no serious, permanent ecological damage will teristics bear relevance to the technological aspects be incurred. of Arctic pipelining. The most persuasive arguments in this area Among these are: will be provided by examples derived from experi­ 1. An enduring winter season of 8-10 months ence gained from actual operating facilities or with polar nights and air temperature dropping to from full-scale on-site test facilities. as low as -65 F. Presented at ASME 25th Petroleum Mechanical Engineer­ 2. A short but relatively hot summer with air ing Conference, Denver, Colo., Sept. 14, 1970. temperature as high as 85 F. 54 W illiam H. Pearn 3. Wind velocities to 85 mph and substantially which will prevent surface disturbance and there­ higher in certain maritime regions; and by, assure the stability of the pipeline. 4. Extensive swamps and floodlands consisting In permafrost regions, selection of the pipe­ of moisture-saturated silty soils which have a line route, determination of the appropriate instal­ propensity to heave and that, when thawing, have lation method, and formulation of an adequate little load-bearing capacity. logistical support system must be considered not Furthermore, railroads and highways are near­ only in relation to existing conditions, but also in ly non-existent, the river-navigation period is very relation to those conditions originating as a result short, and many areas are totally uninhabited. of the interaction of the pipeline with the natural A combination of low temperatures and high environment. winds necessitates particularly strict observance of Consequently, the problem arises of fore­ safety regulations. For instance, experience in casting the new geocryologic conditions brought Northwestern Siberia has shown that with air about by the nonambient characteristics of the temperatures of +5 F., and a wind velocity of 20 pipeline. To accomplish this, comprehensive in­ mph, continuous open-air work can only be vestigations must first be made along the pipeline permitted for a maximum of 50 min. Then, a route to determine the natural conditions. 10-min rest period must follow for warming. A determination must then be made as to the When wind velocities reach 50 mph, all direction and intensity of the generated cryogenic open-air work stops completely, regardless of the processes. In doing so, each of the local variations temperature. Work during completely calm -50 F. must be considered in order to obtain an exact weather is also prohibited. definition of the new heat balance which can then Winter clothing normally used in northern be applied to specify the new conditions. climates is unsuitable beyond the Arctic Circle Exploration to determine these factors is very where fur or other special clothing is required. complex. In addition to the usual operations Construction conditions in regions of perma­ associated with pipeline-route selection it is neces­ frost are exceptionally sensitive and unique. They sary to study the thickness of the active-soil layer are manifested in different ways depending upon that is above the permafrost and which can be the magnitude of the permafrost layer, its tem­ expected to freeze and thaw during normal season perature conditions, and the characteristics and cycles. moisture content of the soil. Of equal importance are: (a) the depth and The geocryologic character is determined by thickness of underground ice formations; (b) the heat and mass transfer between the atmos­ heaving properties of the soil; (c) places of phere and the frozen stratum, as well as by the potential formation of swelling mounds and soil prevailing soil composition. collapse known as thermokarst; (d) temperature In the construction of buildings, felling of conditions of frozen soils; (e) the predicted dyna­ clearings, building of roads, construction of pipe­ mics of the temperature field caused by the lines, and any other activities associated with a pipeline, and (f) anticipated changes in the heat- change of the surface the heat-transfer conditions moisture content of the soils. are disturbed. The new surface heat balance leads Conventional methods of exploration, such as to a change of the heat condition of subsurface- drilling and poking, for locating vein-structured rock formations and the depth of the seasonal underground-ice formations have not proven to be freezing and thawing. reliable. This makes special electrosounding geo­ This generates such cryogenic processes as: physical studies necessary. frost cracks; soil bulging and sagging; overglazed The complexity of the situation makes it ice; sloughing of soil by means of mud flow, called rather difficult to fully establish the parameters suffusion; and creeping of the thawed-soil layer needed to determine the possibility and intensity along the inclined upper surface of the permafrost, of most of these phenomena. This is particularly known as solifluction. true during the course of a one-time survey along a Such occurrences alter the ground surface and considerably lengthy pipeline route. can cause considerable stresses in underground Should parameters be based upon the results pipelines. A combination of these stresses and of one-time surveys, they must be conservatively those caused by temperature changes and internal formulated from the most unfavorable combina­ pipeline pressure could result in pipeline failure. tions of conditions. In all likelihood, they will not provide adequate criteria for the optimum design.

SURVEYING, PLANNING NEEDS VARY WITH TYPES One of the main problems of planning an The extent and direction of exploration is Arctic pipeline is providing special techniques strongly dependent upon the type of pipelaying

UM R Jourinal, No. 2 (June 1971) Arctic Pipelining - Tough, Costly, But Feasible 55 adopted for the project. This is a factor which 3. The third group includes well-drained sec­ generally cannot be decided prior to initial ex­ tions of plateaus and water-sheds. These are made ploratory work. up of loams with icy sandy patches, and the Aboveground pipeline installation requires a permafrost is interfluent. The temperature of the more detailed topographic examination, while the soil is 28°-30°F. and the depth of the summer extent of the geotechnical work may be sharply thawing is 5-8 ft. reduced. At river crossings it is necessary to 4. The elements of the fourth group possess carefully study soil conditions on the shore, where the best characteristics for pipelining, that is, supports for the crossing are located, while de­ surfaces of dry, well-drained strata, composed of tailed exploration of the river bed is unnecessary. sandy loams and loams that are interspersed with On the other hand, underground installation gravel. The permafrost is not interfluent and the requires a less detailed topographic exploration, temperature of the frozen soil is 3 1 -32 F. but more detailed geotechnical and cryological As a rule, the surface is forested and the depth investigations. Also, a full set of topographic, to the uppermost layer of permafrost is a mini­ geotechnical, and hydrological investigations of mum of 25-30 ft. This group can include sections the river bed and its water conditions will be where noncrumbling rocky ground is directly required. exposed to the surface or covered by a thin layer If the pipeline is to be laid directly on top of of loose, low-moisture-content deposits. the ground, or semi-buried, the problem of sur­ 5. To the fifth group belong the flood plains face-water drainage must be resolved. of large rivers. Normally, the depth to It can be seen that the geocryologic studies frozen rock deposits exceeds 25-35 ft and the soil that permit the development of reliable and is composed of a highly moist alluvial material complete information for forecasting are an in­ that, in the majority of cases, is superimposed by tegral part of the engineering surveys in permafrost highly moist loams. areas. Only after careful consideration of the 6. The sixth group combines the least de­ information derived from these studies can be sirable elements such as peat hillocks, swelling optimum route and installation system be pro­ mounds, thermokarst formations, and sections of posed.. slopes that are unsafe from the viewpoint of the generation of solifluction or earth creeping. GEOCRYOLOGICAL GROUPS The diverse landscape complexes occurring in UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION the northern part of Western Siberia can be assembled into six representative groups: The Soviets have found that underground gas 1. The most prevalent conditions are those of pipeline installation, despite being the most widely the first group. This consists of level, slightly hilly, used method under normal conditions, is generally or forested tundra, with an 8-10-in.-thick moss not feasible in the regions under discussion. The cover. It is dissected by vertical ice wedge poly­ main reason is the difficulty of eliminating the gons and is often swampy and covered with heat effect of the pipeline in highly moist frozen tussocks. ground. The soil is generally an uncohesive sandy loam Underground installation in dry, well-drained or a highly icy loam, and thin veins of ice are often environment of the fourth group is feasible. found. One of the main peculiarities of this group However, the effect of burying a pipeline in is the thixotropic nature of the soil, which is ground with conditions described in the other expressed by deterioration under the influence of groups would be the subsequent generation of a dynamic loads. thick thawing aureole along the entire length of The temperature of the soil at the depth buried section. where seasonal variations cease to have any effect Such a condition would be accompanied by ranges from 15°F. to just below freezing. The the pipeline’s sagging or floating in the melted soil depth of summer thawing is 2-5 ft, although pulp. This thermokarst phenomena develops from individual spot thawing of 5-7 ft is found. The the collapse of the surface due to a melting of moisture content of the active layer varies from fossil ice with a corresponding diminution of 1 5-25% in sandy varieties to 35-50% in loams. volume resulting from the transformation of ice 2. The second group is characterized by peat into water. massifs 1,000-1,200 ft across, 7-15-ft-thick, and A primary threat to the pipeline is the often dissected by polygons. The peat temperature condition of highly disparate soil and ice-content is 25 -28 F. and its moisture content seldom conditions closely adjacent to each other that exceeds 50% by volume. The depth of summer result in widely different active thaw levels and thawing is not more than 20-30 in. frost forces.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 56 William H. Pearn

This can cause irregular sagging and thrusting the thickness of the active layer; a factor that in thereby producing high stresses that will destroy itself can be a source of intensification of the the pipe. Replacing the ground underneath the thermokarst processes. pipeline with heat insulation does not by itself Conversely, when the cover is placed in the appear to be a remedy as the insulation would wintertime a layer of frozen ground is buried become saturated with water, obviating its ef­ below it. During the ensuing summer periods, part fectiveness. of the cover and the active" layer beneath it thaws. Ground heaving caused by frost creates similar A layer of frozen ground is maintained axially problems and is observed in areas of highly underneath the center of the cover. contrasting rock formations and soil humidities. Consequently, the degree of sag in the center Bulging mounds, emerging in areas with a con­ of the cover is less than that on the sloped tinued inflow of interfrost waters during soil embankments. This leads to creeping embank­ freezing, are especially dangerous. ments and diminishment of the cover. The frozen Continuously widening ravines with sub­ layer can also act as an ice dam, thus prohibiting sequent destruction of the gradually exposed draining and altering the moisture content of the pipeline can be produced either by: (a) thermo­ surrounding ground. karst phenomena or, (b) by soil suffusion that It should be noted here, however, that a starts in trenches and ruts produced on the loop-line section laid upon a low-ice-content earth­ right-of-way during construction. ern pad insulated with 4-in. of polyurethane and It is difficult to calculate the stresses on an waterproof outer plastic wrapping, and covered underground pipeline located in a suffusion land­ with a low-ice-content berm has shown hopeful slide area. It can be destroyed along the borders of signs of stability during six months of hot-oil th e slide. pumping at the test facility near Inuvik, NWT, Canada. SURFACE CONSTRUCTION ABOVE GROUND CONSTRUCTION Pipeline installation directly on top of the ground is occasionally practiced under normal If the pipeline is installed on low supports, or conditions, but does not appear to be exceptional­ on leveled fill, the direct effect of the pipe on the ly practical in permafrost areas unless the pipe is base ground is not appreciable. Nevertheless, this highly insulated. Some of the same adverse heat type of construction is not without problems. In effects discussed for buried installations also apply addition to the drainage blocking of such surface here. lines, immense snow drifts can accumulate on the Furthermore, the use of an earthen cover for leeward side of large-diameter pipelines. large-diameter on-the-ground pipelines would nota­ Snow, being a good heat insulator, prevents bly change the surface geometry. This would deep freezing and, therefore, non-uniform zones of interfere with natural drainage as well as alter the frozen ground are developed. This nonuniformity heat-transfer conditions of the surrounding area. in the active layer results in a greater degree of Much of the success of a surface line covered sagging on the leeward side of the pipeline than on by an earth berm depends upon the type of soil. the windward side and creates the problem of Earthen cover in permafrost zones in areas of high maintaining alignment of the supports. ice content is closely tied to seasonal variations. If The Russians have observed that disturbance the cover is placed in the summertime, the thawed of the cryologic conditions of permafrost can be active layer is buried below it. avoided by laying the pipeline well above ground. For large-diameter pipelines, requiring thick A gas pipeline laid above the maximum level of cover, this means that a defrosted trough-shaped snow cover has virtually no heat effect on the layer may be maintained beneath the center of the ground and insures maximum stability of the cover. In the case of filtrating soils this layer acts installation. as a drain, its depth and moisture content increas­ It is generally unnecessary to work the frozen ing during the summer period. ground or insulate it from the heat effects of the Observation of earthern cover in permafrost pipeline with this type of design. However, in­ zones has shown that this often results in the creased pipeline heat losses to the atmosphere ground’s acquiring the consistency of running during the winter, the problem of precipitation of sands. Propagation of the defrosted layer causes condensate, etc., have to be considered. sags along the axis of the cover and any uneven The efficiency of an uninsulated aboveground sagging causes deformation of the cover and stress gas pipeline increases as its operating temperature on the pipeline. approaches that of the cold Arctic ambient tem­ Furthermore, a partial draining and drying of perature. One investigator calculated that, com­ adjacent fields leads to a considerable increase in pared with a buried pipeline, a specific 56-in.-

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Arctic Pipelining - Tough, Costly, But Feasible 57

diameter aboveground gas pipeline in Western The most prevalent methods employ either: Siberia would have an overall efficiency increase of (a) a constant zigzag, that is referred to as a 5%, considering an average annual temperature of snake-type pattern, or (b) a straight line with + 2 0 °F . periodic slightly curved compensating sections that It must be emphasized that what is appro­ are usually located on the same side of the pipeline priate for gas-transmission lines may or may not be axis. appropriate for liquids pipelines. The results would The straight-line methd uses a combination of be quite contrary for an oil pipeline. Lower fixed, longitudinally mobile, and free-moving sup­ temperatures would greatly increase the fluid ports. It is generally preferred to the snake type of viscosity which in turn would necessitate inor­ construction that has a complex system of fixed dinately high pumping power requiremens, if the and oscillatory-hinged supports. liquid could be pumped at all. The straight-line method requires approxi­ mately 2% less pipe than the snake method. This, combined with 60% fewer pipe bends, results in DESIGN ELEMENTS greater pipeline hydraulic efficiency. The straight- An example of the complexity of above­ line system is also subjected to less wind load and ground construction can be seen in a Soviet only requires approximately one-third as many research institute’s scheme for aboveground sup­ costly fixed supports. port design. The structural design was calculated In any event, an uninsulated aboveground considering: (a) the weight of the pipe; (b) the gasline would be subject to severe stresses from weight of the gas in the pipeline; (c) the weight of temperature changes that could exceed desired icing; and (d) wind pressure. limits in certain sizes. Also such a line would have Additional dynamic forces resulting from the excessively high operating temperatures in summer motion and periodic stopping of cleaning scrapers and, conversely, low in winter. are reported to have been neglected. Likewise, no In spite of the complexity of the various consideration was given to the additional loading supports, aboveground installation results in the of water generated from the melting of snow that minimization of the heat effect of the pipeline on was introduced into the pipeline during con­ the frozen ground and the consequent maximiza­ struction and was accumulated ahead of initial tion of pipeline stability. For this reason, the cleaning scrapers. Russians feel that, in nearly all instances, this is The report does not state whether this design the best method for installation of gas-trans­ was applied to any actual projects and, if so, the mission lines in Western Siberia. consequences therefrom. Nevertheless, this does The test loop facilities in northern Canada point up the fact that each situation is unique and may, however, alter this conclusion for permafrost that certain problems exist with each mode of construction. installation. When these tests are complete, it is possible Pipeline supports can be in the form of piles, that a buried refrigerated line may prove best for frames, or ground prisms. Experience has shown gas; with a combination of insulated line laid in a the pile supports provide maximum stability. berm, or on high supports, for a hot-oil line depending on the ice content of the soils.

ADVANTAGES OF PILES LOGISTICAL CHALLENGE Many problems associated with Arctic pipe­ The Russian pipelines are being laid in vast lining can be eliminated by installing the pipeline uninhabited territories and present complex logis­ on nonheat conductive piles that have been placed tical challenges. Housing, and ground communica­ into the permafrost. Such supports would be tion, and transportation are virtually nonexistent. unaffected by the seasonal vertical dislocations of The transportation problem consists of, on heaving and sagging created by freezing and one hand, the need for development of equipment thawing of the active layer. capable of traversing the terrain with large pay However, the cost of this type of construction loads. On the other hand, it is necessary to prevent is high compared with that of frame-type supports surface destruction that would result in heat or ground prisms. Analysis of a specific case might transfer variations. show various combinations of pile, frame, and The solution to the former problem is in the prism supports to be the most feasible solution. selection of equipment iwth exceptional mobility There are several pipelaying techniques which and traction. The latter problem can only be are used to compensate for stresses caused by solved by careful analysis of the geocryologic temperature and pressure variations in above­ variations that will be produced by alteration of ground pipelines. the surface heat transfer.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 58 William H. Pearn The primary factor contributing to geocryo­ CONCLUSION logic stability, and thus to the load-bearing capac­ ity, is the 8-10-in.-thick moss blanket that in­ Successful pipelining across the varying con­ sulates the ground from external heat. With the ditions of permafrost demands selection of the passage of a vehicle the moss blanket may collapse proper construction equipment plus the flexibility or be destroyed, leaving the surface uninsulated. to apply a distinctly unique construction philo­ As more heat flows into the ground, there is sophy to each of the prevailing conditions. Fur­ an increase in the depth and intensity of seasonal thermore, completely different sets of criteria for melting under the tracks. As a result of the melting equipment, material, and construction methods process in ice-impregnated ground, a gully de­ are applicable to gas and to liquids Arctic pipe­ velops along the pipeline route. lines. This becomes a natural drain for the surround­ Despite local variances, there appears to be ing environmental surfaces and, in turn, creates a strong agreement on basic project precepts. Arctic thicker active layer which promotes even more pipelining requires extensive and carefully con­ melting. The melting depth below the tracks can trived planning and timing. amount to 10 ft in one season, while the gully in It is essential to select a pipeline route that is this area may deepen by as much as 3 ft. feasible from construction logistical support, The presence of vein ice may lead to ground operational, and ecological viewpoints Surface collapse that can spread, causing disintegration of disturbances and permanent geocryological im­ adjacent terrain. Furthermore, these soils often balances must be minimized and restoration of have thixotropic properties and have a tendency to disturbed areas to their natural states must be lose their load-bearing capacity even under the effected as quickly as possible. effect of relatively minor dynamic loads. This type of pipelining is understandably These processes are sources of numerous expensive, although, in order for Arctic energy transportation delays, as well as being significant reserves to be competitive with other sources of ecological problems. supply, it is essential to have low unit-transporta­ TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS tion costs. To attain this, sufficient throughput volumes are necessary to permit long-distance The winter period, when the vegetation blan­ pipelines to be of large diameter, thereby, taking ket is protected by snow, is more opportune for advantage of the economies of scale. transportation. However, even during this period Our observations of Soviet Arctic pipelining the traffic must be limited to special winter roads. experience are intended to offer insight into areas Blackening and compaction of snow and under­ that the Russians consider to be critical, based lying vegetation can cause a change in the surface- upon their firsthand experiences in Arctic pipe­ heat balance. lining from conception through operation. Although certain equipment and material It should be apparent that it would be items must invariably be moved overland, the irrational to consider such observations to be a Russians have realized definite economies through “how to do it” of pipelining in permafrost areas. the use of helicopters whenever possible. Heli­ Rather, the one concept that pervades the realm of copters have been used to transport pipe joints of Arctic pipelining is the uniqueness of the problems up to 120 ft. in length from welding bases to the and their requisite solutions. right-of-way. This uniqueness compounds the magnitude of The use of such transport, even under the the Arctic challenge,, although, however formi­ adverse conditions of the polar nights, has per­ dable this challenge may seem to be, it must and mitted a considerable reduction in construction will be met, by methods confirmed in full-scale tim e. test facilities under actual operating conditions. Undoubtedly, many unique pipelining tech­ The oil and gas industry in North America niques will emerge as a result of man’s conquest of remains responsive to environmental considera­ the Arctic. Some of these will probably serve to tions and public opinion and will meet its responsi­ improve upon our pipelining know-how in more bilities both to provide the energy required and to conventional environments. preserve our natural heritage.

William H. Pearn William H. Pearn is International Coordinator for Williams Brothers Engineering Company in Tulsa. He previously had been assigned as Senior Engineer in Williams Brothers’ Slurry Project Development Department, performing conceptual engineering and project development. Other industry experience includes five years as Project Engineer with Shell Oil Company’s Products Pipeline Department in Indianapolis, where he was responsible for all phases of project

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Arctic Pipelining - Tough, Costly, But Feasible 59 development for petroleum products pipelines and related facilities. This included a two-year assignment as Project Engineer and Manager for construction and start-up of the first pipeline system in Puerto Rico. He received a BSME degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

REFERENCES Bukreyev, G.A., et al, Construction of the above-the-ground section of the Taas-Tumus-Yakutsk- Pokrovsk gas pipeline: Stroitelstvo truboprovodov, No. 9, September 1969, pp. 27-29. Dukhin, I.E., Particulars of surveying, planning and laying of gas pipelines in the northern part of Western Siberia: Stroitelstvo truboprovodov, No. 3, March 1969, pp. 9-12. Klimovskiy, E.M., Peculiarities of cleaning an arctic gas pipeline: Stroitelstvo truboprovodov, No. 7, July 1969, pp. 6-7. Kortunov, V.A., et al., A study for construction of the gas pipeline from Messoyakha to Norilsk: Stroitelstvo truboprovodov, No. 4, April 1969, pp. 1 1-13. Pereltsvaig, M.O., Permafrost and its effect on gas pipelines depending on various laying methods: Stroitelstvo truboprovodov, No. 12, December 1967, pp. 9-10. Spiridonov, V.V., A new technique for the above-the-ground laying of northern gas pipelines: Stroitelstvo Truboprovodov, No. 1, January 1968, pp. 6-9. Spiridonov, V.V. and Gekhman, A.S., A study of gas pipeline operations in the north: Stroitelstvo truboprovodov, No. 4, March 1968, pp. 14-15. Spiridonov, V. V. and Sverdlov, M.F., The above-the-ground construction is a reserve for increasing the productivity of northern gas pipelines: Stroitelstvo truboprovodov, No. 1, January 1967, pp. 10-12. U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 61 The Environmental Challenges Facing TAPS A. V. Cardin Alyeska Pipeline Service Company Houston, Texas

Before the potential benefits of the recent oil Twelve pump stations are required for the discoveries on the North Slope of Alaska can be maximum design which provides capacity to move realized, the oil must be transported to refining 2 million barrels of crude oil per day. The initial and marketing areas. The Alyeska Pipeline Service construction will not include all pump stations. Company has the responsibility for the first step in this transportation—to design and construct the TERMINAL Trans Alaska Pipeline System. We will pipe the oil from the discovery areas near Prudhoe Bay to an The basic facilities at the tanker loading ice-free, deep-sea tanker loading terminal at Valdez terminal consist of tanker docks, oil storage of the South Coast of Alaska. From Valdez the oil tankage, oil loading system, and ballast treating will be transported to the West Coast by tankers. facilities. The tanks will be 250 feet in diamter by This is the most feasible system of a number 62 feet high, with a capacity of about 510,000 considered. barrels. The docks are sized to handle tankers of The basic facilities of the system consist of a up to 250,000 dwt. The ballast treating facilities pipeline, the pump stations, a tanker loading will be capable of handling total ballast of the terminal, and a communications system to provide largest ships, discharging simultaneously at the the necessary means of operating control. To make dock. possible the construction of these facilities, a haul Initial construction will include three docks road must be constructed connecting the present and 6 million barrels of oil storage. Ultimate Alaska road system to the Prudhoe area—a dis­ facilities are estimated at five docks and from 15 tance of some 400 miles. to 20 million barrels of storage. (See figure 3)

PIPELINE COMMUNICATIONS The pipeline route generally parallels the The communications system as proposed will Sagavanirktok River across the North Slope, cros­ consist of a highly reliable microwave system, ses a high pass in the Brooks Range, passes near augmented by high frequency radio coverage. Wiseman, crosses the Yukon River near Livengood, Reliability is stressed due to the need for all passes just east of Fairbanks, and closely follows operational points to be in data contact, as the Richardson Highway to Valdez. (See figure 1) functions and locations are integrated into a total The line pipe is 48 inches in diameter and is system control. The entire system will shut down manufactured under strict metallurgical specifica­ upon loss of communications. tions providing the fracture toughness and welda­ bility to satisfy the requirements of the low- EVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES temperature Alaska conditions. The line pipe is of 0.462” and 0.562” wall thickness and has mini­ The environment in Alaska is usually de­ mum yield strengths of 60,000; 65,000; and scribed in terms of weather and dimensions—the 70,000 psi. The pipe is thoroughly inspected at the long winters, extremely low temperatures, winds, mill for both chemical and physical properties and ice-fogs, permafrost, the long distances, earth­ for processing procedures prior to shipment. The quakes, limitations of transportation and com­ construction of the pipeline will be thoroughly munications. It is a hostile environment! Alaska is inspected and tested prior to its acceptance and also characterized by flora and fauna which are, at operation. (See figure 2) the same time, hardy and delicate. Plant and animal life must be hardy to exist under natural conditions. Yet any destruction is not so easily or PUMP STATIONS quickly cured as it would be in areas where plant Major components of the pump stations will growth is rapid. Alaska is then described in consist of gas turbine prime movers, centrifugal modern terminology as having a delicate ecology. pumps, tankage, power generation equipment, and There is no doubt that the installation and fuel processing facilities—all enclosed in buildings operation of our proposed facilities in the existing as required for good operational security. Housing Alaska environment bring many challenges. We will be provided for both permanent and transient will of necessity disturb the environment. Our personnel. challenge is to assure that this disturbance will not 62 A. V. Cardin

Figure 1-Proposed pipeline route from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez, Alaska,

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The Environmental Challenges Facing TAPS 63

Figure 2-Possible pipeline appearance in mountain valley. 64 A. V. Cardin

Figure 3-Artist’s sketch of proposed tanker loading terminal and oil storage tankage near Valdez, Alaska.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The Environmental Challenges Facing TAPS 65 result in permanent damage. The design philoso­ humans, reduced exposures to extremes of tem­ phy has been, from the inception of the project, to peratures, and to the effects of seismicity, pro­ design the structures to cause the least disturbance tection against forest fires, vandalism, and many of the environment and to provide the safest other factors. structure that can be designed using the most The determination of where it is practical to modern technology. The protection Of the en­ bury a pipeline is primarily soils dependent. A vironment is necessary to assure the safety of the buried pipeline transporting warm oil will melt the pipeline. Thus the two major criteria are so permafrost at a rate and in a thaw bulb pattern, interrelated that the end requirements are fully both of which are predictable. This melting is a compatible. problem only where the permafrost is of such A very large proportion of the pipeline route character and ice content that it becomes unstable is on Federal lands, administered by the Depart­ upon thawing. ment of the Interior. As a condition to the A logical question, then, is why transport granting of a permit for construction, the Depart­ warm oil. Certain benefits are indicated by cooling ment of the Interior and the Federal Task Force the oil at below-freezing temperatures to prevent on Alaskan Oil Development developed stipula­ melting. Detailed studies reveal major design and tions specifically designed to protect the environ­ operating problems which render the concept ment. The stipulations cover a wide range of invalid. No cooling method or media is satisfactory environmental factors including water pollution, when considering the seasonal temperature effects. thermal pollution, use of pesticides and herbicides, The rapid cooling results in paraffin dropouts for permafrost degradation, sanitation and waste dis­ which no effective, and environmentally pro­ posal, aesthetics, wildlife protection, fire pre­ tective, disposal method is available. The cooling vention, restoration and revegetation, and preser­ tends to cause adverse basic changes in physical vation of archaeological findings. Federal person­ properties and behavior patterns of the oil. Even if nel have broad powers of approval, inspection, and the oil could be cooled satisfactorily, the heat enforcement. We have agreed to these stipulations generated by the flow friction would again elevate which have been publicized as a model for the temperatures. These factors establish the warm environmental protection. The National Environ­ oil condition. However, no heat is intentionally mental Policy Act is concerned with the same introduced into the system. principles. As stated previously, the thaw dimensions and Another task force was established to review thaw rates are predictable. In order to make this technical data on the effects of the pipeline on the determination, a wealth of soils data is required on environment and to evaluate the design criteria. heat dissipation from the pipe to the soil. The heat More simply stated, it was to define the problems dissipation is affected by the type and location of and review solutions developed by our personnel permafrost and soils; the character of the soils with the aid of private consultants. This group before, during and after thaw; the melt rate; consists of the U. S. Geological Survey and other migration of melt water; seasonal temperatures; Federal and State governmental agencies such as ice-content and location; pipeline insulation; and the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab, many other parameters. The heat transfer deter­ Federal Water Quality Administration, Corps of minations are made on a computerized mathe­ Engineers, Coast Guard. matical model. The work is very complex and of a To implement the requirements of the stipula­ pioneering nature. In order to verify the heat tions and the development of designs, much basic transfer model results through ground truth, a data had to be developed. For example, very little heated experimental pipeline section has been detailed information was known about the types, constructed in Fairbanks. The section simulates characteristics and location of the permafrost and the operating conditions of the line in various soils soils along the pipeline route or of the population and permafrost, with emphasis on the critical and migratory patterns of certain wildlife. We have Fairbanks silt or loess soils. This installation also is counted and charted movements of caribou and being used to determine the types of vegetation other wildlife, have determined species and popu­ which will grow over and adjacent to a heated lations of fish, have recorded marine biological pipeline so that the revegetation process can be conditions, have excavated many archaeological implemented when required. sites, have determined weather and sea-current The melting of the permafrost has a wide data. These are among numerous activities re­ range of effects, from negligible to critical, on soils quired due to the lack of recorded data normally performance. Permafrost has no standard measure­ available in many more developed areas. ment parameter except its temperature condition. Pipeliners believe a pipeline should be buried Low ice-content permafrost, such as typically wherever practical for reasons of aesthetics, non­ exists in the higher, well-drained areas and in the interference with wildlife migrations, access by gravel deposits in the benches of selected streams,

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 66 A. V. Cardin may be melted and stabilized with minimum harm predicted. The allowable limits of the soil behavior to the environment. Conversely, permafrost in may be established by the performance of the high ice-content, loess soils, dependent on the pipe, as in the case in differential soil settlement. local terrain conditions, may present serious prob­ Thin-wall, high-yield line pipe has the demon­ lems. Major problems which are caused or magni­ strated ability to conform to the contours of the fied by thawing include soil settlement or, specifi­ pipe trench. The limits of this ability are being cally, differential soil settlement, slope stability, established on the selected pipe by deflection tests potential of soil liquefaction, and soil erosion. under full operating stresses due to internal pres­ Alaska is an area of extensive seismic activity. sure and thermal expansion forces. We have assumed that major earthquakes will With all these investigations and tests, we fully occur in the vicinity of the pipeline route. The recognize that in certain areas the critical soils and effects of the earthquake are closely related also to conditions may not be avoided. Where the line soils characteristics and to terrain. Detailed investi­ may not be buried with assurance of environment gations indicate that earthquake risk areas, in and pipeline protection, the line will be con­ general order of decreasing severity or probability structed on elevated structures such as pile- of occurring, are landslides along river bluffs, supported bents or gravel pads. shallow landslides on slopes, potential for lique­ Other areas of interesting challenge and in­ faction of soils, pipeline flexure due to seismic vestigation are in performance of the pipe in shear waves, and surface breakage due to faulting refrozen soils and revegetation. The cold pipe test or tectonic creep. near Point Barrow was designed to evaluate the We have taken the position that the best pipe stresses due to ice freezing and cracking and protection against these soils-associated problems to evaluate the environmental effects of various is their avoidance. This avoidance is accomplished construction methods. Results indicated that through critical selectivity of the route or selecti­ freeze stresses are minimal with respect to the pipe vity of the soils which establish the route. Most strength and that gravel pads and foamed insula­ potential landslide areas can be avoided by minor tion are effective in controlling permafrost thaw rerouting. caused by intentional surface disturbance. The majority of problems are so related to Revegetation is important as a natural insula­ soils that a massive soils investigation program has tion to prevent or control thawing of the perma­ been under way for about two years. This inves­ frost. Investigations being made include the selec­ tigation includes methods such as interpretation of tion or development of suitable plant species, the regular black and white, colored, and infrared effects of fertilizers and growth hormones, and the aerial photography and detailed sampling and effects of grazing on both the cold and warm analysis of frequent soil borings. Completed or pipeline environments. under way are about 3,000 boreholes with nu­ These, of course, are only some of the merous other data sources such as previous borings environmental challenges facing us. We recognize for highway construction and oil exploration. and accept the fact that the environment and the While the borings are effective, the method is pipeline must be protected from damage. We are penalized by the demands of time and money. In convinced we have the basic knowledge to ac­ an effort to obtain faster and more complete complish this. Some mistakes will be made; we will coverage, several experiments were conducted uti­ correct them. We believe we can proceed with lizing terrain-probing radar and seismic methods. construction, while continuing to learn, for the Unfortunately, these methods, while promising, final test of the design basis is the actual perfor­ have not been developed to the extent that they mance in operations. We are proud of the perfor­ provide a useful tool for our specific design mance of the oil industry in protecting the requirements. environment on the North Slope. We represent the With the detailed soils information, the be­ same industry with the same intentions and havior of the soils under various conditions may be capabilities. We are willing to stand on that record.

A. V. Cardin A. V. Cardin was born in Mountain Grove, Missouri. He attended Southwest Missouri State College. After two years of teaching in the public schools and four years of Naval Service in World War II, he entered the University of Missouri-Rolla from which he graduated with a B.S. Degree in Civil Engineering in 1948. He was employed by Humble Pipe Line Company and has since worked in various engineering and management positions. He has worked on special projects with other Standard Oil Company (N.J.) affiliates. In 1968, he was assigned as Manager of Engineering for the Trans Alaska Pipeline System, now reorganized as Alyeska Pipeline Service Company.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 67 Arctic Oil and the SS Manhattan R. H. Venn Vice President and Director Humble Oil and Refining Company

The discovery of oil on Alaska’s North Slope temperatures require that the working areas of a in 1968 not only focused attention on that remote drilling rig be enclosed for the protection of crews. part of our world, it set the stage for one of the Even so, temperatures are extremely low and men most exciting and significant scientific expeditions must work heavily bundled in clothing. Drill pipe of our time—the voyage of the ice breaking tanker becomes brittle, all operations slow down, and the SS Manhattan through the Northwest Passage. result is high cost. In the lower 48, average drilling In the space available I would like to discuss costs for an oil well run $13 per foot. On the with you that historic expedition, how it came to North Slope, costs jump to a whopping $142 per be, and comment on the results, as we see them. foot. And operating costs are also astronomical— $18,000 per day in Alaska, as compared to GEOGRAPHY AND OIL $10,000 a day for an offshore rig in the Gulf of But first, let’s consider the geography in­ Mexico, and $3,000 daily for a conventional West volved. The North Slope of Alaska covers about Texas land rig. 69,000 square miles, extending from the Bering We also have nature to think about. We have Sea on the West to the Canadian border on the to make sure that our operations do not harm the east—a distance of 500 miles; and from the Brooks wildlife and other elements of the Arctic’s eco­ Range on the South to the Arctic Ocean, a logy. We cannot cut corners—and we certainly are distance varying from 50 to 200 miles. Because of not going to try. We at Humble firmly believe that Naval Petroleum Reserve Number 4 on the west it is far better to prevent a problem from and a wildlife refuge on the east, only about developing than try to rectify one after the fact. one-third of the Slope—or some 15 million acres— With high drilling costs like these, it became is available for competitive exploration. apparent that not only must we have a large The presence of hydrocarbon deposits in the reserve of crude oil to work with but transporta­ area has been known since the early 1800’s, when tion from well head to the refinery must be done several natural seeps were described and investi­ in the most economical manner possible. gated. And although the Navy and others had explored for petroleum off and on during the last ARCTIC MARINE TRANSPORTATION 25 years, it wasn’t until Humble and Atlantic When we launched our investigation into Richfield in partnership brought in the Prudhoe Arctic marine transportation possibilities, we con­ Bay No. 1 well as a discovery in June, 1968 that sidered such factors as ship performance in ice, people began to appreciate the potential of the economic analysis and environmental conserva­ North Slope. Confirmation of a major deposit of tion. We found mathematical formulations which oil—conservatively estimated at between 5 and 10 deal with the performance of ships in ice and billion barrels—was indicated a short time later investigated them with the help of computers in with completion of the Sag River well seven miles Houston. In cooperation with the Coast Guard, we to the southeast. conducted model tests of ships in ice in the Navy’s Currently, the industy has about 1.3 million Underwater Warfare Center tank in San Diego. acres under lease in North Alaska, including those Other model tests were performed using one to purchased in the record $900 million state lease twenty scale models on a lake in the French Alps. sale in September 1969. From this research we learned something about Prudhoe Bay is a large oil field with great the action of ice as it breaks around a ship’s bow. promise, but let me say two things about it. First, Additional pre-test ice data came from research by it cannot possibly make the U.S. totally self­ University of Alaska scientists at Port Clearence. efficient in oil over the coming decades. And After examining all of the assembled data, we second, it cannot logically be competititve with began to feel that it was possible to operate a large the Middle East. A look at a few of the economic ship with high power in the Arctic on a year-round factors involved with will underscore this latter basis. We also knew, however, that the data point. obtained with math and model studies did not ENVIRONMENT COSTS AND ECOLOGY necessarily apply to full-scale or “real world” conditions. And we realized that at some point the In Alaska, environment is a major economic tests, theories, and calculations had to be applied factor. Take the weather, for example. Severe to the real thing. 68 R. H. Venn So we decided to take a $40 million gamble In addition to strengthening the hull, they and put an icebreaking tanker in the Arctic as a installed new high-strength propellers, tail shafts, data collection vehicle. Two other companies— and rudders to protect from possible ice damage. Atlantic Richfield and BP Oil—elected to partici­ But these changes were, in a sense, minor. The pate in the project for $2 million each and share most important modifications fell into three rela­ the information gained. tively new areas. Probably the most unusual new feature of the Manhattan was her new icebreaking bow. It was THE SS MANHATTAN designed to take advantage of the most important The first step was to find a suitable ship and component of force which a ship places on ice- after surveying the world fleet we selected the SS downward pressure. The bow strikes the ice at a Manhattan, a 115,000 deadweight-ton tanker with very shallow angle—18 degrees—generates a large 43.000 shaft horsepower. In addition to her size inclined-plane force, then rides up until the weight and heavy construction, she possessed a higher of the ship causes the ice to break. This bow than usual power to weight ratio. (Figure 1) design, with its very shallow forward angle, gives a Extensive modifications were required to con­ large sustained force on the ice while causing a vert her to an icebreaking tanker and data acquisi­ relatively small peak load to be exerted on the tion system. Because of the magnitude of the ship. It worked very well during the voyage. conversion and the need for its quick completion, The second innovative design feature of the we decided to cut the ship into sections and utilize Manhattan was an extension of the bow eight feet the services of four different shipyards simulta­ beyond the hull on each side. This provided more neously. At one time, there were as many as free water along the sides of the hull and reduced 10.000 men working on the job. ice friction (Figure 2).

Figure 1. The SS Manhattan in Open Water

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Arctic Oil and the SS Manhattan 69

Figure 2. DOUBLE CRUNCH-Humble Oil & Refining Co.’s icebreaking tanker, the SS Manhattan, and the Canadian Ministry of Transport’s newest icebreaker, the Louis S. St. Laurent, crunch through the snow-covered ice of northern Baffin Bay. The Manhattan is completing its second Arctic voyage to collect data for use in determining the economic feasibility of transporting Alaskan crude oil through the ice-covered Northwest Passage to the U.S. East Coast.

The third innovation was an external sloping the ice flow and breakage patterns around the ice belt along the sides of the hull. This belt of ship. inch-and-a-quarter steel added extra strength and While the Manhattan was being modified, protection. deck officers underwent extensive training activ­ When reassembled, The Manhattan was longer ities aboard the Canadian icebreaker John A. than the Eifel Tower is tall. Her length increased Macdonald and the Coast Guard’s Staten Island to from 940 to 1,005 feet and her beam, or width at become acquainted with the operation of an the broadest point, grew from 132 feet to 155 icebreaking vessel. Other officers visited ice­ feet. And she was 10,000 tons heavier. She also routing offices operated by the Canadian Depart­ was equipped with the most sophisticated com­ ment of Transport in Halifax and the U.S. Navy’s munications and electronics devices ever installed Ice Observation School in Maryland. on a commercial ship. To overcome the notorious They might well have attended the Navy’s Arctic radio blackouts, she had a communications Supply School, too, because stocking the Manhat­ network effectively 500 times more powerful than tan for her voyage proved to be a major task. that normally found on commercial ships. The Provisions included 5,600 quarts of fresh milk, Manhattan’s navigation system used radio signals 51,000 pounds of meat, 70,000 pounds of canned from four earth satellites placed in polar orbit as and dried food, 40,000 pounds of fresh fruits and part of the U.S. Navy’s Navigation Satellite System vegetables, and 51,000 fresh eggs. They even program. When a satellite dropped below the loaded 300 watermelons. Stores included 4,800 horizon, sonar took over. Impulses bouncing off bars of soap, 1,500 light bulbs, jogging machines, a subsurface water currents flowed to the computer putting green, a portable x-ray machine, 100 which determined the ship’s velocity. The captain full-length movies, and three ice makers. All told, knew his location to within half the ship’s length the ship took on 8,000 different store items. and his craft’s speed within one-tenth of a knot. The Manhattan’s fuel order of 184,000 barrels Instruments on board also measured the ship’s of bunker oil went into the record books as the motions, pressure against the hull, and power plant largest in commercial marine history. (The normal performance. Closed circuit television monitored bunker fill-up of the luxury liner United States

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 70 R. H. V en n runs about 40,000 barrels). In addition to her own four to 22 feet and varied to this extreme over fuel, the Manhattan carried 30,000 barrels of such short distances as the length of the ship, special diesel oil for refueling the U.S. and making it difficult to relate the power required to Canadian icebreakers that accompanied her, plus move through given ice conditions. 5,000 barrels of jet fuel for the helicopters. And so to focus more accurately on power From a technical and scientific viewpoint, the requirements, the Manhattan made a second data- voyage of the Manhattan through the Northwest collection voyage in the spring of 1970. This is the Pasage in the fall of 1969 gave us a great volume of heaviest ice season of the year in the Arctic just useful information. However, it was impossible to piror to start of the summer melt. On this second draw conclusions about the power requirements of trip, the ice available for testing approached an icebreaking tanker because of the great varia­ laboratory conditions with variations in thickness tion in ice thicknesses encountered at that time of of only one to two inches for several miles along the year (Figure 3). This thickness ranged from the route. These conditions allowed us to collect

Figure 3. The SS M anhattan in Arctic waters.

U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Arctic Oil and the SS Manhattan 71 highly reliable data on ship speed-power relation­ the North Slope, the voyages of the Manhattan ships. By coordinating these data with environ­ may prove highly significant in the development of mental statistics collected during the past winter the Arctic and its resources. A new international by side looking radar overflights and by ground- trade route through the Northwest Passage also based personnel, we were able to assess the could have a profound influence on world trade potential of Arctic shipping with a considerably patterns. It would mean the fulfillment of the higher degree of confidence (Figure 4). 500-year-old dream of a shorter and more direct After analyzing all of the operating data from route from Europe to the Far East. There is a the two voyages, we have drawn two basic point on the north shore of Banks Island, some conclusions: First, that use of icebreaking tankers 500 miles east of Prudhoe Bay, which is roughly to transport crude oil from Alaska’s North Slope equidistant from the cities of New York, London, to U.S. markets is feasible; second, that pipeline and Tokyo. With this central position, the North­ transportation of this oil appears to have an west Passage could become the catalyst which economic edge over icebreaking tankers—at least at opens the resources of far northern Alaska and the present time. Accordingly, Humble has sus­ Canada to the world. A year-round sea route could pended its icebreaking tanker studies while con­ do for this area what the railroad did for the centrating on pipeline alternatives. Should eco­ western United States—and might do it quicker. nomic factors change, however, or other circum­ The mining industries of the Arctic are still in stances warrant—tanker development work can be their infancy stage, primarily due to transportation resumed on short notice. problems. But there is great mineral wealth there, Although we are suspending our icebreaking just awaiting—if you will pardon the pun—for the tanker studies for the present, we will continue breaking of the ice. marine studies concerned with tanker movements We believe that the Manhattan’s voyage has of oil from Valdez, an ice-free port on the made a contribution to the scientific and educa­ southern coast of Alaska, to the U.S. West Coast. tional community and to both the U.S. and Humble is firmly committed to the proposed Canadian governments. We feel that the Manhat­ Trans Alaska Pipeline—extending 800 miles from tan’s voyage will stimulate interest in the Arctic in Alaska’s North Slope to Valdez—which would the same manner that other historic voyages have serve as a key link in the transportation system to spurred development in the other places. Whatever serve West Coast crude oil needs. Conventional the long-range consequences of her voyages, we tankers, with no icebreaking equipment, would know that the Manhattan’s findings will add load crude oil at Valdez for delivery to West Coast immeasurably to our knowledge of the world we refineries. live in. Even though Humble has decided on the pipeline alternative for transporting crude oil from

Figure 4. BREAKING A PATH—The largest commercial ship ever built in the United States, the SS Manhattan, breaks a path through the ice as it nears the completion of testing during its second Arctic voyage. On its maiden Arctic voyage last year, the Manhattan became the first commercial ship to transit the Northwest Passage.

UM R Journal. No. 2 (June 1971) 72 R. H. Venn R. H. Venn R. H. Venn, vice president and director of Humble Oil & Refining Company, was born in Pentwater, Michigan. He graduated from Wayne State University, Detroit, in 1933 with a B.S. degree in chemical engineering. He received a M.S. degree in chemical engineering in 1934 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He also attended the Management Program at the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration. Mr. Venn joined Humble in 1934 as a junior chemical engineer at the Baytown, Texas, refinery. He was promoted in 1938 to section head, Baytown Technical Service. In 1942, he was made a senior project engineer, and in 1945 became technical assistant to the director in charge of refining, Houston office. He was promoted to manager of the Refining Department in 1955, and became manager of the Marketing Department in 1958. On December 1 of the following year, he was named to the board of management of the Humble Division. Mr. Venn was named vice president in charge of the Southeast Esso Region of Humble late in 1960, with headquarters in New Orleans. In 1962, he was elected to the Board of Directors of Humble Oil & Refining Co. and was named vice president in 1963. He is a member of the American Petroleum Institute, the Houston Engineering and Scientific Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Texas Manufacturers Association, the National Association of Manufacturers, and is vice chairman of the board of Junior Achievement of Southeast Texas. He is also a member of the Southern Region Board of Junior Achievement, Inc., and the National Executive Committeee of Junior Achievement, Inc. He is a member of St. Martin’s Episcopal Church, the Petroleum Club, the Houston Club, and the Lakeside Country Club. Mr. and Mrs. Venn make their home at 5913 Crab Orchard in Houston. They have three daughters: Victoria, Cynthia, and Katherine.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 73 Arctic Marine Terminals-Some Environmental and Engineering Considerations

Robert L. McCollom, Jr. Dames and Moore Anchorage, Alaska and William W. Moore Dames and Moore San Francisco, California

ABSTRACT Studies are presently underway to determine the technical and economic feasibility of various Arctic marine transportation systems, including ice-breaker super-tankers and submarine tankers. An important consideration in these studies is the design and construction of marine terminal facilities which will be suited to the unique problems of the Arctic. Factors which will significantly affect the design of proposed marine terminals include: 1) bathymetric configuration of the continental shelf; 2) influence of moving pack ice on artificial structures, both at the air-water interface and along the bottom; 3) lateral and vertical variations in soil conditions, including residual permafrost, which might adversely affect stability of offshore pipelines or structures; and 4) instability of existing shoreline. Several basic designs for marine terminals are considered with respect to environmental and engineering problems including: 1) nearshore harbor sheltered by a breakwater; 2) offshore artificial islands; 3) underwater terminals; and 4) cone-shaped offshore platforms, either pile supported or gravity-type structures.

INTRODUCTION Because of the need to provide petroleum transportation systems which will virtually eli­ Recent discoveries of petroleum reserves at minate potential oil spills, the design for any Prudhoe Bay in Alaska and Atkinson Point, proposed marine terminal will undergo extensive N.W.T., Canada have initiated a number of studies scrutiny by the various governmental agencies regarding feasible methods of transporting the before approval. Preliminary data regarding ice Arctic oil and gas to the major markets in southern movement and soil conditions are presently being Canada and the United States. Various pipeline collected for design purposes; however, additional routes have been considered through Alaska and studies will be required before all the engineering Canada, but for technical, economic and political problems can be resolved. reasons construction has thus far been delayed. For several years, industry has been consider­ ing the feasibility of utilizing ice-breaker super­ ARCTIC CONTINENTAL SHELF tankers which would travel from the Arctic through the Northwest Passage to refineries and The broad, shallow shelf along the Alaskan markets in the east. More recently a concept Arctic coastline presents considerable design prob­ involving the use of submarine tankers which lems for the construction of a marine terminal would be capable of crossing the North Pole to which would accommodate deep draft tankers. As European markets as well as negotiating the shown on the bathymetric map of the Beaufort Northwest Passage has been proposed (Figure 1). Sea (Figure 2), water depths of 80 to 100 feet As part of the feasibility study for transport­ required for deep draft supertankers are no closer ing petroleum by tanker, consideration is being than 25 miles from shore in most places along the given to the location, design, construction and Alaskan Arctic coast. Long, narrow, barrier islands maintenance of petroleum storage facilities and present along some areas o f the coastline help marine terminals in the Arctic. Numerous environ­ bridge this gap somewhat but considerable dis­ mental and engineering factors will have to be tance still remains between tanker and shoreline. considered before the technical and economic The only viable alternatives to the bathymetric feasibility of the project can be determined. problem appear to be either: (1) bring the tankers

Arctic Marine Terminals - Some Environmental and Engineering Considerations 75

Figure 2. Bathymetric Map of the Beaufort Sea (Contours in Fathoms) closer to shore by dredging a channel or (2) to dig with conventional cutter heads. A system of construct a deep water marine terminal which breakwaters or submerged barriers would have to would be connected to onshore storage facilities be provided to protect the channel area from by submarine pipeline. blockage by ice islands or thick pressure ridges. The engineering and economic considerations The other alternative, constructing a deep water for either alternative are staggering. For example, marine terminal, requires that an artificial plat­ to dredge a protected harbor and a channel form be designed and constructed to withstand the northward from Prudhoe Bay out to 80 feet of tremendous forces generated by the polar ice pack. water would require dredging between 500 and 700 million cubic yards of material. Areas closer to deep water such as Cross Island and Brownlow ICE FORMATION AND MOVEMENT Point would still require 50-200 million cubic yards of dredging. In addition, the channel would The most formidable problem in the design of have to be maintained periodically to prevent a deep water marine terminal is the movement of sedimentation from blocking passage of the deep large masses of sea ice which will impinge on draft tankers. Much of the dredging would have to support structures. Sea ice forms in sheets general­ be accomplished out in the moving ice pack. A ly reaching a maximum of 6 to 10 feet in thickness portion of the area dredged is likely to contain depending on the degree days of frost during its remnants of permafrost which would be difficult formation and subsequent yearly build-up.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 76 R. L. McCollom, Jr. & W. W. Moore The ice may be divided into three zones: terminal structure would be subjected to possible shore-fast ice, pack ice and a transition zone rupture by the ice unless it were adequately between the two. Shore-fast ice normally extends p ro tected . from the shoreline out to the island chain and, under certain wind and ice conditions, some FOUNDATION CONDITIONS distance beyond the islands. The term “shore-fast” is somewhat a misnomer in that the ice sheet is not The arctic presents 'unique problems with always a continuous mass connected to the shore­ respect to foundation engineering due primarily to line. Minor lateral movement has been noted on the presence of permafrost. In its undisturbed occasion in areas which otherwise appear to be state permafrost is relatively solid and stable. If, shore-fast. however, the thermal regime is disturbed, precau­ Beyond the relatively stable shore-fast ice is tions must be taken to compensate for thaw pack ice, a mobile mass of irregularly broken ice consolidation which takes place as the ice in the sheets, pressure ridges and occasional ice islands soil begins to change phase. which move primarily in an east-west direction in On the North Slope of Alaska the permafrost response to wind stresses (Figure 3). Pack ice has is relatively thin near the foothills of the Brooks been known to travel several miles during a day Range and thickens rapidly northward toward the although there are times when little movement coastline reaching a maximum thickness of slightly takes place at any given location. over 2000 feet. Due to the warming effect of the Arctic Ocean, the permafrost wedge pinches out The transitional zone varies in width and rapidly north of the coastline. The lateral extent character. At times it is marked by leads which and depth to which permafrost occurs offshore is separate stable ice from the mobile ice floes. At unknown due to the lack of adequate subsurface other times the zone is characterized by pressure information. Permafrost has been reported to a ridges and irregular blocks of ice which are depth of several hundred feet along the barrier partially mobile. islands. Isolated patches of permafrost beyond the Assuming that a deep water marine terminal island chain and in certain offshore areas along the would be constructed in water depths of 80 to 100 Canadian coastline have been reported but it has feet to accommodate deep draft tankers, the been assumed that these represent areas of relict terminal supporting structure would be subjected permafrost which are gradually being thawed by to tremendous horizontal forces exerted by the by contact with the sea water and are not very pack ice. According to Gerwick and Lloyd (1970), extensive. The extent to which permafrost is “a relatively long wall with a b/h ratio (b present between the shoreline and the island chain is breadth of structure, h is ice sheet thickness) of remains to be resolved. 15 or more would be subjected to loads of 45 kips There has been some speculation as to why per square foot.” For a slender vertical wall of 25 permafrost still exists in some offshore areas. feet in width with a b/h ratio of 4, an ice sheet 10 Theoretically, the heat exchange between sea feet thick would impose a load of 95 kips per water at temperatures above 0° C and the frozen square foot. Assuming the vertical structure to be ground would gradually thaw any permafrost a cylinder rather than a wall, the loads would be which might be present. This would certainly be modified by the shape factor and would be, in the case if the shoreline were to remain stable for each case, about 10% less. If a pressure ridge rather sufficient time to allow a complete thawing than sheet ice were to impinge on the structure the process. However, the shoreline has not proven to loads imposed would be approximately 2.2 times be very stable due primarily to a process of erosion as great. which has been active at least during late Pleisto­ Another problem in addition to the loading cene and Holocene time. MacKay (1963) has factor is the effect of ice pile-up on the structure. estimated that since the period of the last glacia­ “In general pile-up will occur if the ratio b/h is tion, coastal recession along portions of the Yukon greater than 15. For ratios of under 15 the ice will coastline may have been as much as 2 or 3 tend to split and pass on either side of the kilometers. He also suggests that in coastal areas obstruction. Thus, for structures with a width of with low bluffs of fine grained sediments which 80 feet or more, pile-up can occur” Gerwick and have a high ice content, shoreline recession may Lloyd (1970). occur at a rate exceeding one meter per year. As In addition to the effects of ice at the the bluffs recede, the sea water transgresses across air-water interface, potential hazards exist due to the permafrost depositing a thin layer of silt and gouging of the ocean bottom by grounded ice clay up to 5 feet in thickness on top of the islands and pressure ridges. It is not likely that this remaining frozen .ground. The sediment provides would effect the structure itself significantly; an insulating layer which inhibits the heat inter­ however, any underwater pipeline leading to the action between the sea water and the frozen

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Arctic Marine Terminals - Some Environmental and Engineering Considerations 77

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 78 R. L. McCollom, Jr. & W. W. Moore ground resulting in patches of “relict” permafrsot and other facilities. Approximately 10 miles north­ offshore. east of the island there is sufficient water depth to It has been suggested that in some instances accommodate deep draft tankers. A short channel frozen ground has actually been formed after could be dredged and a breakwater provided to being submerged beneath the ocean. In these cases, protect tankers from pressure ridges or other large it is presumed that brackish or fresh water ice masses which might move into the area. A 12 migrating in the sedimentary material beneath the mile long pipeline would be required to transport ocean floor is gradually exposed to the effects of crude oil across the lagoon from Prudhoe to the overlying sea water at temperatures slightly below storage area on the island. 0^ C. The fresh water then freezes and becomes Another location, at Brownlow Point, ap­ permafrost, similar in most respects to permafrost proximately sixty miles east of Prudhoe Bay has conditions onshore. It has been postulated that close access to deep water. Water depths in excess this mechanism was responsible for the formation of 80 feet are found at distances less than 6 miles of the submerged “pingo” which the Manhattan offshore and there is adequate onshore areas for encountered on her voyage through the Northwest location of storage tanks and other terminal Passage in 1969. facilities. However, the area is considerably re­ It is not likely that substantial permafrost moved from present oil production and would would be encountered at the site of a deep water require a long pipeline to terminal facilities. If terminal due to its water depth and distance later exploration proves up additional production offshore. However, a portion of the nearshore area east of Prudhoe, this area might be more feasible is likely to contain some permafrost which will from an economic standpoint. have a bearing on the design and construction of A third possible location for construction of a the underwater pipeline leading to the terminal. harbor for petroleum terminal facilities is at The soil conditions along the Alaskan Arctic Herschel Island along the Yukon coastline ap­ coastline are quite variable in their make-up both proximately 45 miles east of the U.S. - Canada laterally and vertically. This is due primarily to the border. Herschel Island is favorably located with braided streams channels which flow northward to respect to deep water, near the edge of the the sea. The channels, which are usually filled with Mackenzie submarine canyon, and has a natural sands and gravels, cut into the surrounding finer sheltered deep water basin immediately to the grained silts, sands, and clays, resulting in rapid south (Ranftomel McCollom, 1970). Although lateral changes in soil conditions. It is likely that dredging of approximately 20-50 million cubic this condition extends beneath the ocean bottom yards of silt and clay would be required to connect some distance offshore as a result of variations in the basin with the submarine canyon, the harbor sea level which might have occurred during and would provide excellent shelter from the pack ice. subsequent to Pleistocene time. In order to insure There are several other areas eastward along that the foundation of a marine terminal facility the Canadian Arctic coastline including Franklin will be adequately designed to withstand the Bay and Darnley Bay which may be economically horizontal forces exerted by ice floes, soils data feasible as potential marine terminals for Canadian will have to be collected at the terminal site. The crude production; however, these are not as technical feasibility of drilling soil borings from a suitable for Alaskan petroleum reserves. mobile ice sheet in 100 feet of water does not, however, at the present time look very promising. 2. Artificial Islands Artificial islands have been considered on the PROPOSED OFFSHORE TERMINALS North Slope primarily for use as drilling platforms A number of possible designs for marine but also as a possible alternative for an offshore terminal facilities have been suggested which might marine terminal. The water depth requirements for be suitable for deep water tankers, four of which deep draft tankers would require considerable offer promise. material for construction of the island but borrow material dredged from a channel leading to the 1. Nearshore harbor sheltered by breakwaters island could provide a portion of the required fill. Although the Alaskan Arctic shelf is relatively Interlocking precast armor units might provide borad and shallow, there are a few areas where additional strength against the pack ice. As sug­ water depths of 80 feet or more come within ten gested by Gerwick and Lloyd (1970), “precast miles of land. One of these is at Cross Island, the prestressed concrete embankment units could be northern-most of the barrier islands near Prudhoe placed as slope protection. They would presum­ Bay. The island, although somewhat limited in size, ably be unloaded from a barge, floated into has shallow water surrounding it which might be position, then sunk and filled with gravel to act filled to provide adequate area for storage tanks like a rock-filled crib. A trapezoidal cross-section

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) Arctic Marine Terminals - Some Environmental and Engineering Considerations 79 appears most suitable, as it permits ice to initially 4. Offshore platform ride up and fail in tension.” Perhaps the most technically and eco­ The artificial island might be constructed in nomically feasible concept for an offshore marine several ways: (1) a solid mass with loading terminal offered thus far is a conical shaped facilities on the lee side of the island depending on platform designed by Santa Fe-Pomerory (Gerwick ice movement or (2) crescent-shaped islands-one and Lloyd 1970) or a similar structure designed by facing east, the other west-providing a protected Thermo-Dynamics, Inc. The platform consists of harbor in-between (Figure 4). two cones, one inverted on the other. As the pack ice impinges on the cone shaped structure, the 3. Underwater terminals slope “converts a purely horizontal shear to a If submarine tankers are to be used for partially vertical thrust, with the softer underside petroleum transportation, the most obvious termi­ of the ice meeting the steel shell first so that the nal would be a facility located on the ocean bot­ ice helps break itself up as it flows past” (anony­ tom in deep water. This removes many of the mous, 1970). engineering design problems associated with pack The base of the cone should be of adequate ice. The terminal might be constructed to permit a size to provide a bearing area sufficient for support submarine tanker to locate over the loading facility on the softest soil anticipated. The platform could and by means of remote control transfer crude be stabilized either by means of gravel fill, from underwater storage to the submarine tanker. drilled-in and grouted anchor piling, or ice-filled The major problems with this system are the compartments. The portion of the cone above same as those which would occur during con­ water would be surmounted by a return ice struction of any facility out beyond the shore-fast deflector to prevent over-topping by ice pile-up. ice, namely interference by the pack ice. Inside the cone would be living quarters, machine-

DEEP WATER PORT USING ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS

N PORT FACILITIES FOR

PREDOMINANT ICE ------MOVEMENT

E

PR E-CAST RETRACTABLE PRESTRESSED SINGLE POINT PRE-CAST BALLAST UNITS MOOR ARMOR UNITS ICE

WATER DEPTH -1 2 0 ' A FILL CROSS SECTION

Figure 4. Deep water port using artificial islands.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 80 R. L. McCollom, Jr. & W. W. Moore ry spaces, water and oil storage tanks, provisions markets of Canada and the United States. How­ for risers, submarine pipeline connections and ever, the use of marine tankers is inevitable in the diver access tubes (Figure 5). overall development of the Arctic’s resources. It is possible that in addition to transporting oil through the Northwest Passage, surface or sub­ CONCLUSION marine tankers may eventually traverse the polar route to potential markets in Europe. The Arctic Ocean presents perhaps the most The engineering and environmental problems formidable challenge that the oil industry has ever involved in the construction and design of marine undertaken. The historic voyage of the Manhattan tankers and terminals are formidable, but the marks the opening of a new era of opportunity for ingenuity and resourcefulness provided by in­ development of the vast resources in the Arctic. dustry, government and the academic community Pipelines undoubtedly will be built to transport will eventually triumph as they have in conquering both crude oil and natural gas to the lucrative every new frontier in the past.

ARCTIC MARINE TERMINAL

Robert L. McCollom, Jr. Mr. McCollom attended Dartmouth College where he received a B.A. degree (major in geology) in 1957. He received a M.S. degree in geology in June, 1959 from Stanford University. From 1958 until 1968, Mr. McCollom was employed as an exploration geologist for Standard Oil Company of California working in Texas, the Pacific Northwest and California. His experience includes extensive offshore exploration utilizing a variety of geologic and geophysic techniques. In connection with his work Mr. McCollom, as

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 81 representative for five major oil companies, was responsible for the planning and supervision of an underwater geologic mapping project in the Santa Barbara Channel utilizing a two man submarine. Mr. McCollom joined the firm of Dames & Moore in 1968, and was assigned to their New York offices as Senior Marine Geologist. There he was responsible for the firm’s oceanographic projects including the planning and supervision of marine surveys in Canada to determine the feasibility o f utilizing tides for generating power. He also has experience in conducting environmental studies for nuclear power plants, refineries, offshore platforms, pipelines and ocean disposal systems. Mr. McCollom has conducted several geophysical, oceanographic and engineering geologic studies in Cook Inlet and southeastern Alaska. His experience in Arctic problems pertains to environmental studies for proposed marine terminals, pipeline routes and foundations in permafrost areas. He is presently manager of Dames & Moore’s Anchorage office.

REFERENCES Anonymous,, 1970, Portable frozen fill for arctic offshore drilling: Alaska Construction and Oil., Sept. 1970, p. 86-87. Blenkarn, K.A., 1970 “Measurement and analysis of ice forces on Cook Inlet structures O T C 1261, Preprint Vol II: presented at Second Annual Offshore Technology Conference, (April, 1970). Breslay, L.R.; James, J.E.; Trammel, M.D. and Belike, C.E., 1970. The underwater shape of a grounded ice island off Prudhoe Bay, Alaska: O TC 1305, Preprint Vol II: presented at Second Annual Offshore Technology Conference. Breslau, L.R.; Johnson, J.D.; McIntosh, J.A. and Farmer, L.D., 1970, Development of arctic sea Transportation-Environmental Research Marine Technology Society Journal, Vol. 4, No. 5, P. 19-43. Fryer, Mark, 1970, Planning marine structures for Alaska’s arctic regions: The Northern Engineer Vol 2, No. 1, p. 17. Gerwick, B.C. Jr and Lloyd, R. R., 1970, Design and construction procedures for proposed arctic offshore structures: Oct. 1260 Preprint Vol. II, presented at Second Annual Offshore Technology Conference. Lewellen, Robert I., 1970, Permafrost erosion along the Beaufort Sea Coast: Univ. of Denver Geography and Geology Dept. March, 1970. MacKay, J. Ross, 1963, Notes on the shoreline recession along the coast of the Yukon Territory Arctic Vol. 16, No. 3, p. 195-197. Ranft, F.E. and McCollom, R.L., 1970, Environmental studies for a proposed arctic marine terminal: SPE Paper 2943, presented at Society of Petroleum Engineers Fall Meeting (Oct. 1970). Soros, Paul, 1970, Offshore mineral terminals - artificial islands and open - sea shiploading of dry bulk materials: O T C 1 2 3 5 , Preprint Vol. II, presented at Second Annual Offshore Technology Conference, (April, 1970).

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 83 The U.S. Army’s Experience in Handling Petroleum in an Arctic Environment

Colonel Fredric Johnson U.S. A rm y

ABSTRACT This article pinpoints the various facets that the US Military experienced in Petroleum Operations in the Arctic environment Since the Military were the pioneers in Arctic operations, this experience could prove invaluable if and when the TAPS pipeline is constructed. The article deals primarily with various problems which beset the pipeliners during the initial construction phases and the peculiarities experienced during operations. A slightly different aspect will be experienced, however, when the Oil Industry moves relatively hot crude oil through the pipelines with TAPS since the Military moved only clean product. The article addresses above ground pipeline operations, problems encountered with the enigmatic permafrost, summer and winter rapid temperature changes, cold soaked equipment operations, and seismic impact on a Petroleum Installation during earth tremors. The premise of the Article is that man can control environment to a great extent if he can change his environmental, approach to any given situation.

The U.S. Army was introduced with some Junction, Eielson Air Force Base, to its terminus trepidation to military pipelining in an Arctic at Fort Wainwright, seven miles northeast of environment in the early 1940’s with the Canol Fairbanks. pipeline and the Normal Wells Oil Field operation To meet the military needs north of the in Canada. Subsequently, three- and four-inch Alaska Range, petroleum products from ocean pipelines carried the brunt of petroleum from tankers are received in bulk terminal facilities at Skagway to Fairbanks, Alaska. During this same Haines. From this point, the petroleum products period the Army gained a great deal of road­ are transported through the line as far north as building experience in conjunction with the Fort Wainwright. The pipeline extends over the Canadian Government in the construction of the coastal mountain range and through the plateau Alaskan Highway. Over the years little had been and valleys of the Yukon Territory, British Co­ done to dispel the mystery of the Northern lumbia, and Alaska. The pipeline is composed of environment that had been ingrained in the minds 626 miles of eight-inch high pressure schedule 40 of most of the Americans. Many people, military pipe, 148 miles buried, 478 miles above ground. and civilian, are still of the opinion that constant There are 11 pump stations on the line with an darkness prevails in winter, constant sunlight average discharge pressure of 1,150 PSI which prevails in summer, everyone lives in igloos or move the product at 30,000 barrels per day. From hogans, and one must subsist on whale blubber, Haines 30 feet above sea level, the line reaches an seal fat, dried salmon and blueberries. In 1954 the elevation of 3,750 feet in 57 miles, and then snow curtain was lifted somewhat by the military decreases to an elevation of 425 feet in Fairbanks. with the design of the 8-inch above-ground Along this route, temperatures have ranged from a Haines-to-Fairbanks pipeline. By 1955 the pipeline low of minus 83 degrees at Snag, Yukon Territory became a reality and subsequently a nightmare. to a high of 92 degrees at Fairbanks, a variation of Engineers learned to their dismay that during 175 degrees. As liquid fuels are capable of con­ hydrostatic testing of a piepline, rapid temperature tracting and expanding with temperature changes, drops caused water to freeze which resulted in the line pressures and flow rates are directly affected. world’s longest ice cycle. During the construction During a temperature rise, it has been possible to phase, all facets of environment were encountered. receive 1000 barrels an hour while only pumping There were some 25 major river crossings; 82 from Haines at 500 barrels an hour. Conversely, minor stream crossings; 49 major highway cross­ 500 barrels per hour can be pumped from Haines ings (which is pretty difficult when there is really and nothing received at Tok for 2 Vi hours. only one road.) Thirty-nine secondary road cross­ a. Example 1. On the South Line, the dis­ ings were accomplished, and 11 major swamp patcher in Anchorage is starting up the line after a tundra and perma-frost areas were traversed. shutdown the evening before. At Haines pumping The pipeline begins at Lutak Inlet at Haines, proceeds normally at a rate of 500 barrels per Alaska and follows the Haines Highway into hour. After four hours of pumping, Tok first Haines Junction, Canada, then along the Alcan begins to receive fuel. Because of a temperature Highway via Tok Junction, Fort Greeley, Big Delta drop due to the previous cool evening, the product 84 Col. Frederic Johnson

in 432 miles of pipeline is sufficiently shrunk to Another problem encountered was perma­ absorb 2000 barrels of fuel before pressure is frost. Test borings indicated many levels of perma­ obtained to move the fuel in the line. Conversely, frost and spotted locations. Some areas im­ as the day passes and the temperature rises, the mediately below the surface, others 15 to 20 feet output at Tok may reach twice the input at down. Permafrost along the pipeline trace ap­ H aines. peared to be of the patch nature. There were many b. Example 2. Pumping is proceeding at what areas relatively free of permafrost, some areas with is considered normal. The output at Tok is spotted permafrost, rather shallow, and other areas approximately the same as the input at Haines. of deep dense permafrost. Permafrost in many cases is still an enigma. For example, we extended Suddenly the fuel flow at Tok stops. The South Line was immediately shut down, and after about a runway in Northway, Alaska during the month of September by about 1200 feet. We scraped the a half hour of anxious searching, the trouble was area only for the purpose of leveling without found. Somewhere between Donjek and Tok, a disturbing the subsurface. A gravel buildup of six sudden, cold rain storm cooled the fuel in the line. to eight inches was laid on top of the surface with The rate of volume contraction exceeded the rate a view toward the winter snows compacting and of input volume at Haines and consequently no forming a flat surface. By March, for the military fuel was received at Tok. maneuvers, the runway was in excellent condition, c. Example 3. On shutdowns the line is requiring only snow removal. This runway did an pressurized to near maximum pressure. If the line outstanding job during the winter months. How­ is shut down for a while, and if a temperature ever, by about April when the Spring thaw started, arises which exceeds the temperature at time of after the snow had melted, an astonishing number shutdown, pressures will approach maximum of rocks and, in some cases, boulders, the size of limits. When this point is reached, fuel must be wash tubs, had worked their way up through the bled into Tok to relieve line pressures. Tok may permafrost onto the gravel and the runway was receive as high as 3000 barrels of product before not useable. Removal, of course, again put the the line pressures are safe. When the line cools, the runway in operating condition for the next fuel column breaks arid at some points along the w in te r’s m aneuvers. line, zero pressures may be registered. As you can The fantastic temperature changes that can be see from the foregoing, the Army has experienced experienced in a short time also caused problems; certain problems in operation that in the normal for tracked and armored vehicles. These vehicles, course of events are always circumvented or parked overnight, were discovered frozen solid to conquered. the ground by morning. Small charges of explosive At this point I would like to digress and were set to shatter the crust of the surface and discuss the living conditions of a human environ­ release the tracks. Above all, if the temperature ment in the Arctic. Originally, there was some remained near minus 30, cold soaking of heavy consternation that by moving families into an equipment made them absolutely impossible to alien environment, the seemingly insurmountable start. Slave cables were used and Herman Nelson problems such as taking a 200-mile round trip to heaters were employed. In some instances blow buy a loaf of bread could well result in a total lack torches were used on crankcases to aid starting. I of employees so, as a result, not only was remember one particularly cold period of minus permanent housing constructed, completely self 60 when essential equipment such as ambulances contained that generated their own heat, electric­ and tractors were kept running 24 hours a day so ity and water, but chill rooms and frozen food they could be used to start other equipment as lockers were constructed to preclude the necessity req u ired . for frequent trips to town. Each installation in the I look with a great deal of interest on the Arctic became self sufficient. But then other progress on the north slope oil and the subsequent problems arose. Certain permanent buildings in distribution of petroleum to refineries. Many of direct contact with the ground eventually had the problems that appear to thwart desired pro­ problems due to heat transfer. In one housing area gress, in reality, are not problems in my personal the north wall settled at a much more rapid rate opinion but are a culmination of a lack of than did the south end of the building. This information and in some cases, too much informa­ required engineering effort in order to insure tion which provides too many different ways to equalization of settling. Further construction of solve a problem. I remember, vividly the giant housing was of the trailer type at least 12 inches earthquake of 1964. The pipeline from Haines to above the gound on footings with leveling screws. Fairbanks suffered no damage. The above ground The military found that this construction was the sections merely .writhed across the 50-foot right- answer to a small colony or isolated family • of-way, but the line was designed for movement. dwellings. The buried sections presented no problem since,

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The U.S. Arm y's Experience in Handling Petroleum in an Arctic Environment 85 during the ditch phase, the line was snaked in such the opportunity of effecting an engineering change a way that the movement of the earthquake by bracing the pipeline or supporting it if neces­ caused no appreciable undue stress. sary. In the Anchorage area, however, we had a During my four years of operation of the different problem. At the Anchorage; dock, the military pipelines in the North, I, of course, pipeline was in some cases 20 feet below the remained constantly alert to pipeline breaks and surface, embedded in blue clay.. The earthquake leaks. However, with the combination of the close ruptured all but one of the military lines in that proximity to the Alaskan Highway, our constant area, but did not destroy an industry line located low-level aerial surveillance, and our right-of-way above ground in the same area. In order to dig crews at work during the summer months, this fear down to the pipeline, it was necessary to use steam was grealty mitigated. Today’s mechanical and lines to thaw; then upon inspection, it was noticed electronic achievements play a great part in con­ that the lines had broken only where butt welded, trolling ruptures as the breaks are instantaneously which had been a technique used in the early monitored by pressure drops on instrumentaiton. 1940’s. The bevelled and welded pipe sections held Leakage invariably comes to the surface and up. I elude to nothing in this statement other than discolors vegetation or forms an oil slick on water, the fact that the pipeline north of the range, being tundra, or moist ground. Therefore, when the of modern construction and design, both above multiplicity of communication equipment, i.e., and below ground, suffered no damage. But the radio, teletype, and telephone, coupled with aerial 20-25 year old line buried in the Anchorage area, surveillance, is brought into play, maximum effort did suffer damage. It is interesting to note that the can be directed toward the suspect area in a short buried tanks in the same area completely encased time and action as necessary can be taken. in the same blue clay, suffered no damage other This reminds me of the story about people than a slight sinking due to earth settling. that state the heated oil in the proposed Alaskan Another problem that may well beset any new pipeline from the North slope could melt a trench pipeline construction in Alaska is that problem of 50 feet wide in 10 years. By carrying the analogy pipe in suspension. Many times during the Spring further, when one realizes the proposed pipeline is thaw, rushing waters undermine the above ground only four feet wide in a land that is 4,224,000 feet pipe and, in some cases, up to 200 feet of pipe wide, it will take only 844,800 years to melt the would be suspended. This caused no serious width of Alaska’s frozen North. Granted, the problems; however, since our aerial surveillance ecological aspects of any pipeline or for that aircraft brought this to our attention immediately. matter any construction in Alaska with its in­ Maintenance teams would go out and brace the herent pollution effect that follows humanity, one pipeline in the area. The bracing invariably was must always keep in mind the fact that pollution designed to take care of future problems. Of control must be built in as a number 1 re­ course the streams in the north are the meandering quirement in the Arctic environment. However, type during break-up, but to me it was a decided some of these aspects are also not insurmountable. advantage to find the suspension areas since it gave We found that the caribou, moose, and bears us the opportunity of anchoring the pipeline freely roamed over our 8-inch pipeline, but if a securely to prevent any future suspension. 48-inch pipeline is above ground, a problem may Another strange fact that seems rather odd exist. However, a parallel may also be drawn here. was experienced by me in Alaska. I noticed that In the Near East, TAPLINE had to construct the Canol line that had been closed since 1954 numerous camel crossings at various places along showed peculiar traces of wear where the pipeline the pipeline to permit free passage for desert was in contact with the surface. Over the years, N om ads. the creeping action of the pipe actually ground All in all, when viewed in the cold light of away metal like a grinding wheel until the pipeline today’s computerized planning and reasoning, became relatively “thin walled” in spots within man’s fears of the unknown disappear in direct these areas. This facet gave us the opportunity of proportion to the length of his stay in any foreign checking our pipeline during the summer months, environmental situation. and if any of these areas could be located, gave us

Colonel Fredric E. Johnson U .S. Army Colonel Fredric E. Johnson is a Military Petroleum Specialist in the U.S. Army. For the past 28 years he has served worldwide on various petroleum assignments. He commanded petroleum units in support o f military operations in Europe during World War II. In the early 50’s when the Chinese Government evacuated the mainland of China, he was

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 86 Col. Frederic Johnson the Petroleum Advisor to the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China and Formosa. Subsequently, he became Operations Officer with duty on the NATO pipelines in France, Belgium, Holland, and Germany during the initial design, construction, and operation phases. He commanded the petroleum distribution operations on the military pipelines in Alaska, British Columbia, and the Yukon Territory. Colonel Johnson was Project Manager assigned the task to supply all petroleum construction equipment in support of the buildup in Vietnam; then became Director of Petroleum in support of military operations in Vietnam. Other petroleum assignments have taken Colonel Johnson to Panama, Thailand, Korea, Japan, Okinawa, the Phillipines and Morocco. Colonel Johnson is a graudate of the Army Command and General Staff College. He completed the School of Pipeline Technology at the University of Texas and, at the present time, is the director of the Petroleum Department at the U.S. Army Quartermaster School, Fort Lee, Virginia.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 87 The Role of the Independent in Alaska’s Mineral Development

D. L. (Don) Simasko Independent Oil Operator Anchorage, Alaska

ABSTRACT In 68 years of oil industry history in Alaska, the independent has already played a substantial role. Eighty-three independent oil companies or operators have participated in drilling 82 exploratory wells or stratigraphic tests. Their activities extended from the discovery of first commercial oil at Katalla in 1902, to the extension of the Prudhoe Bay field in 1970. The success ratio for wildcat wells in Alaska is considerably higher than “outside,” and fields have all been major in statute, thereby reducing the cost per barrel of finding oil. The most immediate deterrent to the success of the independent in Alaska is the land freeze resulting from the lack of settlement of the claims of Alaska natives. The hoped for lifting of the freeze will afford success to those operators prepared to take advantage of the opportunities.

INTRODUCTION with the discovery in 1902. Altogether there were 18 producing wells in a 60-acre area that produced There is a popular saying in Alaska that “If about 154,000 barrels of oil. The field was you don’t like the weather, stick around a few abandoned after 30 years when the small refinery minutes, and it will change.” The same might just on the Katalla Slough supplying products for local as easily be said about the oil industry in our great use burned. Out on the Alaska Peninsula is the old state. In July of this year I celebrated the eleventh Kanatak area where the first well was drilled in anniversary of being in Alaska with the oil 1903. Although Nome is noted for the big gold industry, and during these eleven years have seen rush, there were some six wells drilled for oil in some almost unbelievable changes take place, the Nome area starting about 1906. Little is particularly during the past two and one-half known about them, however, because very poor years. Speaking on the current status of the records were kept. Oil seeps were first reported industry in Alaska and attempting to predict its east of Point Barrow in about 1901. future is about as dangerous as designing jet During the 10-year period commencing in fighters. By the time one finishes a statement it 1953, the industry concentrated substantial effort could very well be obsolete. in the onshore portion of the Gulf of Alaska Basin I recall from a lecture by one of my in the area roughly from Katalla to Icy Cape. professors in a creative writing course that the Some 37 wells were drilled in the area. Although foundation of any writing is that it must have a some shows were encountered, no commercial beginning, a middle, and an end. In order to production was established. approach my topic with some degree of discipline, The beginning of the contemporary period of I will utilize that advice and briefly take you back oil industry activities in. Alaska could be con­ to the beginning of the oil industry in Alaska, sidered to have commenced with the discovery of bring you to the present, and attempt to make the Swanson River Oil Field by Richfield Oil some observations as to the future with particular Company in April of 1957. The Swanson River emphasis on the role of the independent. Field is estimated to have 206,759,000 barrels of recoverable reserves. It produced a cumulative HISTORY OF OIL INDUSTRY IN ALASKA 101,703 barrels from 42 wells through 1969. Although exploration and drilling took place in Surprisingly, the history of the oil industry in many basins, the primary area of concentration Alaska goes back much further than most people after the Swanson River discovery and until the realize. A geologic map of Alaska readily illustrates Prudhoe discovery in 1968 was in the Cook Inlet the early so-called petroliferous areas in Alaska. Basin. Nine oil fields were discovered including in The first reported indications of oil seeps in Alaska addition to Swanson River such giants as the were by the Russians in 1853. The first well in this Granite Point Field, estimated to contain 175 area was drilled about 1898. The old Katalla area million barrels of recoverable reserves; the Mc­ where early day gold prospectors reported the Arthur River Field, estimated to contain 303 presence of oil seeps can readily be located. The million barrels of recoverable reserves; and the first well was drilled in this area in about 1901, Middle Ground Shoal Field, estimated to contain 88 D. L. Simasko 185 million barrels of recoverable reserves. In continued until eleven dry holes or non­ addition to the oil fields, 15 gas fields of varying commercial wells were drilled. As almost a last sizes were discovered in the Cook Inlet Basin. gasp effort, Atlantic Richfield and Humble drilled Other basins in which tests were drilled during this the Prudhoe Bay No. 1 well in early 1968. They period of time were the Bethel Basin, the Copper drilled a confirmation test, the Sag River State No. River Basin, the Galena Basin, and the Arctic 1, and in July of 1968 DeGolyer MacNaughton Slope. announced that despite limited information, the As mentioned earlier, in 1901 an oil seep west largest oil field on the North American Continent of Barrow was first reported. This was the begin­ had been discovered. The Prudhoe Bay Field was ning of the accumulation of geologic knowledge estimated by them to contain between 5 and 10 which subsequently led to the discovery of the billion barrels of recoverable reserves. That esti­ Prudhoe Bay Field early in 1968. The geologic mate has since been increased and unofficially attractiveness of the Arctic Slope Basin was ranges between 20 to 50 billion barrels, depending recognized early, for in 1925 the Federal Govern­ on who makes the estimate. ment established Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 The Prudhoe Bay discovery focused world­ covering approximately one-third of the basin. wide attention on the oil potential of Alaska. In Little exploratory activity took place on the anticipation of a state competitive sale in the Arctic Slope between 1924 and World War II other Prudhoe Bay area, a frantic drilling and seismic than surface examinations by the U.S.G.S. During exploratory effort took place during the winter of World War II the entire northern and western 1968-69. From November, 1968 to August, 1969, portions of Alaska were withdrawn from all forms about 430,000 tons of supplies and materials were of public entry and appropriations for the prosecu­ airlifted to the Arctic Slope as well as an estimated tion of the war. In the period 1944 to 1953, the 50,000 people. This tonnage is greater than the Navy initiated a program of exploration on the materials airlifted into Berlin during the Berlin Naval Petroleum Reserve and drilled 37 test wells airlift shortly after World War II. The sale was held and 45 core holes on 18 separate structures, two in September of 1969, and a record $900 million of which were outside the Reserve. Of these, 11 was paid by the industry for the privilege of wells were drilled on surface structures. The Navy leasing these lands. It is interesting to note that reported three oil discoveries: Umiat, with reserves 131 of the 174 parcels offered for sale in of about 50 to 90 million barrels, and Simpson September of 1969 had previously been offered and Fish Creek, totaling about two and one-half for sale in 1964 and 1965 and received no bids. million barrels. The Gubik Gas Field outside the During the 1964 and 1965 sales the state accepted Reserve and the very small South Barrow Field bids as low as $1.55 per acre. have reserves estimated from 370 to 900 billion cubic feet of gas. In 1958 the area was returned to the public INDEPENDENT OPERATION IN ALASKA domain and made available for oil and gas leasing With that above background, let us examine subject to the designation of areas to be opened “Where was the independent when all this hap­ for simultaneous filing. The first such drawing was pened?” held in 1958 when two areas, one immediately Actually, the first commercial discovery in the east of NPR 4, and the second approximately 60 State of Alaska was made by the independent miles east of the first were opened. A minimum Katalla Oil Corporation in 1902. Since that time amount of exploratory activity took place until 83 separate independent oil companies or opera­ 1960, when the combination of BP-Sinclair ac­ tors have participated in drilling 82 exploratory quired a substantial acreage position, conducted wells or stratigraphic tests. The 18 wells drilled in seismic surveys, and in 1963 commenced a drilling the Katalla Field produced oil or gas in com­ program. Colorado Oil & Gas Corporation, an mercial quantitites. One of the tests drilled by independent from Denver, also drilled and com­ Halbouty Alaska Oil Company discovered the pleted the Gubik Unit #1 well as a successful gas shut-in West Fork Gas Field. Colorado Oil & Gas well on acreage acquired from the Federal Govern­ Corporation drilled a successful gas well at Gubik. ment as a result of a sale on the known Gubik Hamilton Brothers and its associates were suc­ geologic structure. cessful in extending the north end of the Prudhoe This action focused the attention of the rest Bay Field. The remaining wells drilled by inde­ of the industry on the Arctic Slope and resulted in pendents were dry holes. However, all of the tests the opening of additional lands for simultaneous contributed greatly to the accumulation of geo­ filing in 1964 and 1965. During the same years the logic knowledge w^ch was utilized by the in­ State of Alaska held two competitive sales on dustry as a whole to direct its exploratory efforts lands it previously selected. Drilling activities toward those other wells which have been suc­

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The Role of the Independent in Alaska's Mineral Development 89 cessful. In addition to participation in exploratory richest, least explored hunting grounds on the drilling, independent oil companies have also been co n tin en t. active in the accumulation of geologic and geo­ physical data by participation in group projects to ALASKA’S SIZE gather such information. Up until two to three years ago most inde­ Very few people fully appreciate the size of pendents felt that operations in Alaska would be Alaska. If we were to superimpose the outline of too costly for them. However, in recent years an the State of Alaska on the outline of the 48 analyzation of the situation indicates that just the contiguous states, Point Barrow is superimposed opposite might be true. Despite the fact that over International Falls, Minnesota. operating costs in Alaska are high, the question Ketchikan in Southeastern Alaska falls over presents itself as to whether or not the indepen­ Jacksonville, Florida. The Aleutian Chain extends dent can afford n o t to explore in Alaska. There are to the west across Baja, California, enters the a good many indications that the expensive ex­ Pacific Ocean below San Diego and ends between ploration and drilling venture in Alaska might in Los Angeles and San Francisco. The Continental the long run be the most economic investment the Shelf area off Alaska is about 63% of the nation’s independent segment of the industry can make. A total Shelf area. The onshore portion of Alaska review of the following statistics will indicate that constitutes 586,000 square miles, or about 375 although exploration and drilling costs are high, million acres, approximately l/5th the size of the the success ratio is equally high. Recoverable contiguous 48 states. reserves found are substantially greater than those to be found in other areas of the United States, and the cost of finding and producing a barrel of OPERATIONAL COSTS AND oil in most instances is less than in other areas. The TRANSPORTATION DIFFICULTIES same amount of geological and exploratory effort Most of the high costs of operating in Alaska must be expended whether one is looking for the can be attributed to the lack of an effective small reserve low-risk prospect in the oil patch of transportation system. There are slightly over the contiguous United States or whether one is 5,000 miles of paved roads in the state. The Alaska looking for the higher risk but greater reserve Railroad from Seward through Anchorage to prospect in Alaska. Fairbanks is only 470 miles long. The Yukon, From the period 1957 (the year in which Porcupine, Koyukuk, Kuskokwim, and several Swanson River was discovered) through 1968, 221 other rivers are navigable for a portion of the exploratory wells were drilled, or which 52 were distance from the sea inland. A large portion of producers. This results in a success ratio of 23.53% the cost of operating in Alaska is just getting there. compared with less than 10% on the average An all-weather road in the Cook Inlet Basin will outside of Alaska. During the period 1957 through cost from $20,000-$25,000 per mile. An onshore 1968, 230 field wells were drilled, resulting in 208 wildcat well in the Cook Inlet Basin or the Copper producers, or a success ratio of 90.43%, compared River Basin in southern Alaska would cost from with the average 75% outside of Alaska. For the $500,000 to $1.5 million, depending on road period 1958 through 1969, the industry produced requirements and logistics. An offshore well in 234,028,866 barrels of oil, 396,439,965 MCF of Cook Inlet from a floating vessel will average gas, and 81,404 barrels of natural gas liquids. between $1.5 and $2.5 million. A development Average daily production during the year well from a platform will average between 1969 amounted to 203,598 barrels per day. The $800,000 to $1.3 million, depending on deviation. latest estimates reveal that at the end of 1969 Wildcat wells on the Alaska Peninsula will cost Alaska had 432 million barrels of reserves, placing from $1.2-$ 1.7 million. Wells on the North Slope it 8th among oil states. This is exclusive o f th e will cost form $2.5 to $3 million. The above Arctic Slope. By very conservative estimates, figures must be considered average. There have Prudhoe Bay Field is expected to contain at least been many wells drilled at lower costs, and 10 billion barrels of recoverable reserves and some those which encountered substantial fish­ possibly more than twice that amount. ing p ro b lem s or b lo w o u ts------have cost sub­ We. have hardly scratched the surface in stantially more. Alaska. There are 15 geologic basins in Alaska. Getting the oil out of Alaska can create as Commercial production has been established in much of a problem as getting into the areas only two. More than four wildcat wells have been initially to explore for the oil. There are several drilled in only three others. Two basins have had possible alternative routes of getting the oil from only one test. The remaining eight basins have Prudhoe Bay to markets in the contiguous 48 never been drilled. It’s one of the potentially states. During the two winter seasons of 1968-69

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 90 D. L. Simasko and 1969-70, Humble Oil & Refining together In October of 1966, in an effort to publicize with other Arctic Slope operators financed the the fact that the matter of the Alaska natives’ Manhattan project in an attempt to prove the aboriginal rights had not yet been settled, former feasibility of bringing the oil off the Arctic Slope Secretary of Interior Stuart Udall imposed what to eastern and European markets via the North­ was called an administrative land freeze. The effect west Passage. We are informed that although of this freeze upon the oil industry was that the substantial scientific information has been gath­ terms of existing federal* oil and gas leases were ered as a result of this project, the utilization of allowed to continue; however, applications for surface tankers through the Northwest Passage has new leases were processed merely to the point of been suspended as an immediate means of getting issuance of the lease, but the leases were not North Slope crude to market. issued. Federal lands cover more than 80% of The most immediate means being pursued by Alaska. In an effort to make the land freeze more the industry is the building of a pipeline from nearly legal, Secretary Udall issued Public Land Prudhoe Bay to the Port of Valdez in southern Order 4582 on January 17, 1969, which withdrew Alaska. Although the granting of the right-of-way all unappropriated public federal lands in the State is being held up until specific engineering data to of Alaska from any entry under any of the public insure the integrity of the ecology of the area is land laws including the Mineral Leasing Act of furnished to the U.S.G.S., a right-of-way permit is 1920. The net effect is that those lease applica­ expected to be issued during this forthcoming tions which were filed during the period October, winter season, and construction permits are ex­ 1966 through January, 1969, are yet in a pending pected to be issued in sufficient time to commence status and companies are reluctant to launch actual construction during the spring of 1971. expensive geologic and geophysical programs on Consideration is also being given to the these lands until they have more assurance that the eventual construction of a pipeline from the Puget lease applications which they now hold will Sound area into the Great Lakes Region to supply mature into leases. A substantial amount of such the tremendous demand by refining capability in pending applications are held by independents. that area. The possibility also exists that the Were it not for the land freeze, Alaska would midwest area and the south-central area of the presently be enjoying a healthy, steady growth in United States can be supplied by pipeline from exploration activity which ultimately would lead Los Angeles as well as by tanker. The next most to the discovery of additional oil and gas reserves. serious consideration is presently being given to a The matter of the legality of the land freeze, gas pipeline from the Prudhoe Bay area down the the matter of the validity of the rights of Alaska MacKenzie River Valley into northern Alberta to natives, and the possible solution to the current tie into the Alberta Gas Trunkline System and freeze status are problems of sufficient complexity eventually into Trans-Canada Pipeline System for to be topics of separate presentations. Suffice it to delivery of gas to the gas-hungry midwest area. If say that the problem is a complicated one and, substantial discoveries of oil are made in the unfortunately, has moved out of the realm of Canadian Arctic, an oil pipeline along this route legality and logic and into the realm of emotion­ could also be required. alism and politics. The problem of high costs and transportation The earliest that the land freeze could be difficulties in Alaska are being overcome. As the lifted would be June 30, 1971, the day on which industry has been gaining more and more ex­ Public Land Order 4962, by its own provisions, perience with the problems unique to Alaska, will terminate. The State of Alaska will enjoy a methods of operation have been improved and 90-day preference right period during which time costs are decreasing. Independents can approach it may select all or any part of the approximate 85 their cost problems by following the pattern million acres to which it is yet entitled under the established by major companies in forming joint grants contained in the Alaska Statehood Act. The operating areas with multiple participants, or they state will have the discretionary authority to either can follow the philosophy of carrying out ex­ recognize the pending federal lease applications ploratory activities to the point of delineation of and issue noncompetitive State of Alaska leases or drillable structures and then farmout for the cost reclassify areas for competitive leasing only, there­ of drilling. by rejecting the priority established by the pend­ THE LAND FREEZE ing federal applications. It appears that it is almost impossible for the Why have we not seen a greater influx of present Congress to complete and pass a Native independent companies into the oil exploration Land Claims Settlement Bill before the end of this activities in the State of Alaska? That question can year. The Senate has already passed such legisla­ simply be answered with two words: Land Freeze. tion. The House has yet to pass a companion bill.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The Role of the Independent in Alaska's Mineral Development 91 If the House does not pass its version of the Native The independent can play and will play a Land Claims Settlement Act and the House and substantial and important role in the future Senate versions of the Act compromised and acted development of the oil and gas resources of upon by the entire Congress before the end of this Alaska. It is the only area in the United States year, the bill will die and will have to be where the independent still has the opportunity to re-introduced into the new Congress commencing compete with the rest of the industry in finding in January of 1971, and run the entire gamut of the big reserves that can change it from an committees, hearings, floor debate, and passage. If independent company to a producer of major a bill is not passed this year, the various native proportions. The independent will also play its associations in the State of Alaska have indicated traditional role in being willing to take the greater that it is their intention to attempt to enjoin the risk and drill the more wildcat prospect than the Secretary of Interior from making any dispositions rest of the industry. The independent will con­ under any of the public land laws including the tinue to be an important exploration tool of the Mineral Leasing Act until such time as the matter major companies by drilling portions of major of native land claims is finally settled by the company lease blocks under farmout arrangments, Congress. If the injunction is successful, this thereby evaluating the entire block. Alaska is still a course of action would continue the land freeze place where an independent can grow unbelievably indefinitely. in size by having a more creative geological idea; We should have some indications within the by being willing to get up a little earlier in the next three to six months regarding the course of morning and work a little harder than the next action on federal lands in the State of Alaska. guy. The independent will be unable to resist the Either the freeze will be extended indefinitely and lure of the excitement and potential for growth not only the independents but the entire oil that Alaska can offer. industry will be precluded from expanding to any When one considers the history of the entire degree of substance their leasehold positions with­ oil industry in the United States, one cannot help in the State of Alaska, or the freeze will be lifted, but recognize that each of the various segments of the Federal Government will again be able to issue the total oil industry, although competing with leases, the State can continue its selection pro­ each other, are still dependent upon each other for gram, and the industry can move forward with the a healthy, effective industry to meet the needs of exploration, discovery, and eventual production of the nation. The independent can and will fulfill its the oil and gas resources in our state. destiny in this regard.

D. L. (Don) Simasko D. L. (Don) Simasko is presently an oil and gas operator with offices in Anchorage, Alaska. In addition, he is President of Petroleum Land Services, Inc., a company offering contract land department services. He is also Chairman of the Board of Alaska Map Service. He spent slightly more than 15 years in the oil industry. In Jan. of 1955 he started his career in the Record and Title Section of Pan American Petroleum Corporation (then Stanolind Oil and Gas Company, now Amoco Production Company). He held various positions in their land department in Casper, Wyoming; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Farmington, New Mexico, and was transferred to Anchorage, Alaska, in 1959. In November of 1963 he left Pan American to form his own company. Mr. Simasko received his Bachelor of Arts Degree from Denver University in 1952, and since then has attended various seminars and institutions both as student and lecturer. He has had papers published by the Southwestern Legal Foundation and Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Institute. He is a member of the American Association of Petroleum Landmen; a charter member of the Alaska Association of Petroleum Landmen and twice its president; the Anchorage Petroleum Club, being a past president and having served five years as a director; associate member of the Alaska Geological Society and the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers; and is active as a member of the Public Land Committee of the Independent Petroleum Association of America. In his community he is an active member of both the Greater Anchorage and State of Alaska Chambers of Commerce. He is keenly active in skiing programs and is currently Vice President of Alyeska Ski Club and a National Director of United States Ski Association. In addition to activities in Alaska, Mr. Simasko manages oil investments outside of Alaska and has established production in Texas and Canada in 1969 and in California and Wyoming in 1970.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 93 State Regulatory Controls on Oil & Gas

Thomas R. Marshall, Jr. Chief Petroleum Geologist State of Alaska Anchorage, Alaska

ABSTRACT Alaska oil and gas regulatory matters are under the jurisdiction of a three-man Oil and Gas Conservation Committee, all of which are state employees. In the last 10 years State water bottoms in Cook Inlet have been leased, explored and oil production amounting to about 200,000 barrels a day has been established. Cook Inlet is subject to very high tides and heavy ice flows. Five Salmon runs also occur in the Cook Inlet. The average daily production rate per well in the Cook Inlet area is nearly one hundred times the national average. The Prudhoe Bay oil field discovered in 1968 is the largest oil field in North America. It lies entirely on State land. After public hearing, the Committee prescribed 640-acre spacing for two of the thicker reservoirs and detailed many safety and operational requirements. The orders prohibited the flaring of gas except for operational necessities. Over 40 wells have now been completed in this field but a pipeline has not been approved. The State of Alaska looks forward to the challenge of proper development of a resource valuable to the State and the Nation.

INTRODUCTION just south of Kalgin Island. All of Alaska’s offshore production comes from the upper Cook In Alaska, oil and gas regulatory matters come Inlet area. under the jurisdiction of the Alaska Oil and Gas By authority vested in the state by the Alaska Conservation Committee. This Committee differs Statehood Act, the State of Alaska was granted dramatically from oil and gas regulatory bodies in the right to select about 103,000,000 upland acres the other 33 oil producing states in several aspects. of land from the federal public domain. Using this The Committee is composed of the Director of the selection authority, the state in the early sixties Division of Oil and Gas, the Chief Petroleum selected almost all of the onshore Cook Inlet Engineer and the Chief Petroleum Geologist as­ sedimentary province, parts of the shorelands sisted by the entire technical staff of the Division, bordering the Gulf of Alaska, part of the Copper all of which are state employees working within River Basin; and, in the mid-sixties, selected that the framework of the Division of Oil and Gas of portion of the Arctic Slope on which the Prudhoe the Department of Natural Resources. The Com­ Bay Field was later discovered in 1968. To mittee does not contain any citizen members such facilitate management, these selections are in large as do most all of the conservation agencies in the solid blocks, not in widely spaced checkerboard other states. The reason for this absence of citizen patterns as is the case in most western public land members who are unaffiliated with the state states. government is, in part, based on a very different Alaska still has the authority to select ap­ land ownership situation than is found elsewhere, proximately 7 5 million acres and it can reasonably namely that the amount of state-owned lands in be assumed that the state will act to obtain title to known petroleum producing basins is many, many other lands considered to have a significant petro­ times that of any other state. leum potential before the expiration of selection All oil production in the State of Alaska at authority in 1983. The size of the state’s mineral this time is on state or federal lands. This comes land inventory will not shrink as lands are con­ about from the fact that Congress, through the veyed to private ownership because the. state Submerged Lands Act of 1953 and confirmed by retains all mineral rights and deeds only the the Alaska Statehood Act of 1959, granted the surface rights. As you may be aware, there has State of Alaska offshore lands to the three-mile been a Federal Government freeze on selection of limits, and to the seaward limits of inland waters. land by the state, and on entry of public lands by The Supreme Court, through a subsequent Cali­ anyone, for that matter, pending settlement of the fornia tidelands decision, granted title to sea Alaska Native Land Claims. bottoms which are within a 24-mile closing line The Oil and Gas Conservation Committee between headlands. These actions, in part, resulted administers the drilling and production activities in the State of Alaska obtaining title to all of the of the oil industry through regulations which were upper Cook Inlet area water bottoms and the formulated by very close cooperation with the upper portion of the lower Cook Inlet to a point Interstate Oil .Compact Commission as to basic 94 T. R. Marshall, Jr. form; and, what is more important, have been thick and production tests indicate sustained rates revised completely after many public hearings to may be in the range of 15-25,000 barrels of oil per make them adaptable to Alaska’s very unique day. environmental and operational situations; for in­ The West Coast of the United States would be stance, the first production on state lands in able to take all of Cook Inlet’s current 223,000 Alaska came from the waters of Cook Inlet which barrels of oil per day oil production, therefore are swept four times a day by tides ranging up to market proration is not necessary. The Oil and Gas 33 feet between extremes. In addition, in the Conservation Regulations do provide for restrict­ wintertime these waters contain floes of ice many ion of total production from a pool and an times the size of this auditorium which move at equitable distribution among the wells in that rates up to six knots and are cut by the legs of the pool, if necessary, in order to prevent waste or to platforms which are standing in up to 150 feet of protect correlative rights. At present, most reser­ water. Five salmon runs also occur each summer in voirs in Cook Inlet fields are considered to have a Upper Cook Inlet. solution gas drive and are probably not rate Since drilling and producing platforms cost sensitive. upwards of 20 million dollars apiece, operational Correlative rights problems have been com­ space on them is at a very great premium, and it is paratively few because of the rather low number an economic necessity to limit the number of of well operators and the relatively high number of platforms and develop the fields by directional field-wide utilization agreements in effect. drilling methods. The Committee has approved secondary re­ Offshore discoveries were made from an­ covery projects utilizing filtered Cook Inlet sea chored floating drilling vessels but development water for all offshore Cook Inlet fields, thereby drilling and production operations are handled increasing ultimate recovery to an estimated from 14 permanent platforms fastened to the sea 35-40% of the total oil in place as opposed to a floor (Figure 1). 14-18% recovery without additional recovery Construction, personal safety, drilling and methods. A very successful gas injection project is production problems inherent in such an operation in effect in the Swanson River Field which is the required new methods and oil and gas regulations only onshore oil field in the Cook Inlet area. to match. Cooperation between government and Our Committee requires the submission of all industry accomplished this. In the process, the well logs and other significant well data. This Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Committee information is kept confidential by the Committee gained some experience in adapting regulations to for two years after the well is completed, sus­ unique environmental and operational conditions. pended or abandoned. We hope this experience can be used con­ structively in an Arctic Slope oil province. REGULATORY ACTIVITY GENERAL STATE RULES Having touched on some generalities of our There are many distinctive features to the statewide rules, let us now zero in on the current Oil and Gas Conservation Regulations. For regulatory activity in Alaska’s Arctic. Active Con­ example, oil well spacing is set at 160 acres per servation Committee involvement in the Arctic well. To those oil producing states where five and began in the mid-sixties when a dozen unsuccessful ten acre well spacing is common Alaska’s 160 acre exploratory wells were drilled on Federal lands statewide well spacing may appear excessively east of the Naval Petroleum Reserve #4 and about large. However, the national average individual 200 miles southwest of the Prudhoe Bay area. Our well production rate is 12 barrels of oil per day State regulations also apply to all wells drilled on and the current Alaska average is over 1,180 federal lands within the territorial limits of the barrels of oil per day, very close to one hundred state. times the national average. The eventual pro­ The Prudhoe Bay Field discovery was an­ duction from shut-in wells in the Prudhoe Bay nounced in 1968 by the Atlantic Richfield Com­ Field is not included in these figures. After pany and the Humble Oil and Refining Company. discovery of oil the Committee may reduce or This field lies on state selected lands on the coast enlarge the spacing acreage after public hearings. of the Beaufort Sea, a part of the Arctic Ocean In the case of the shallow, highly faulted Trading lying east of Point Barrow, Alaska, the northern­ Bay Field in Cook Inlet waters, spacing acreage has most point of land in Alaska (Figure 2). been reduced to 40 acres per well, and in the In September of 1969, in the largest lease sale Prudhoe Bay Field the Sadlerochit Pool spacing in United States, history, the State of Alaska has been increased to 640 acres per well. The received over $900,000,000 in bonuses for Sadlerochit reservoir is approximately 600 feet 450,000 acres of miscellaneous tracts not previous-

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) State Regulatory Controls on Oil & Gas

UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 96 T. R. Marshall, Jr. ly leased when the main portion of the field as pools and 160-acre spacing for the Kuparuk River presently known was leased before the Prudhoe Pool. Some operators had requested 640-acre Bay discovery was made. Before the lease sale and spacing for all pools in the Prudhoe Bay Field; before the pool rules were written the Committee however, the Committee did not find sufficient held a public hearing and issued an order granting evidence in the testimony to support such a rule an exception to the statewide rules to permit the and issued a rule in support of 160-acre spacing for use of slip joint casing which was not cemented the relatively thin and lenticular sands of the completely from the casing shoe to ground surface Kuparuk River Sand Pool. The Committee also set as the statewide rules prescribe. Theoretical studies minimum distances of wells from lease boundaries indicated that subsidence from thawing would where ownership changes and minimum distances occur and the drag of the subsiding material could between wells in order to ensure proper drainage cause failure of a conventionally cased and ce­ of the reservoirs in each pool. mented well. Specially designed slip joints in the A four-paragraph rule on casing and cement­ permafrost casing string and special well heads ing requires that wells be protected from damage may enable that string to withstand the forces of caused by permafrost thawing by the use of subsidence and allow this special casing to move refrigeration or insulation, or by the use of relative to the surface casing permitting the surface slip-joint casing. casing to carry the load of the inner casing and Another rule which applies to all three pools tubing strings. requires three remotely controlled blowout pre­ Under ordinary conditions the Alaska Oil and vention devices on drilling wells plus various other Gas Conservation Committee holds a pool rules emergency valves. Stringent operating and testing hearing shortly after the discovery of oil or gas to requirements were specified for this equipment. establish pool limits and consider well spacing, Each completed well is required to be equipped casing and cementing requirements and other with a fail-safe subsurface valve which will auto­ regulatory matters. However, in the case of matically shut in the well in the event of an Prudhoe Bay the secrecy of the geological informa­ uncontrolled flow. Bottom hole pressure surveys tion gained from drilling on existing state leases and gas-oil ratio tests will be required at regular was so important that the Committee deferred the intervals in order to enable the Division of Oil and pool rules hearing until after the sale. Our regula­ Gas to monitor the reservoir performance in the tions require that pool rules must be made from field. public testimony and not from information the The orders that evolved contain a rule pro­ committee may have received otherwise. Fortu­ hibiting the flaring of gas, except as may be nately, most operators in the prolific Sadlerochit authorized in cases of emergency or operational pool saw the merits of wide spacing and proceeded necessity. The Prudhoe Bay Sadlerochit and Lis­ with unofficial 640 acre spacing until the pool burne reservoirs, unlike Cook Inlet reservoirs, have rules hearing was held and the order executed in associated gas caps and the Committee intends to January 1970. The field order was 18 pages in require this gas be used, sold, or reinjected into the length and was broken down into three separate reservoir. parts, one for each of the three pools which the The first exception to the Prudhoe Bay pool Committee defined. Some of the highlights are as rules was granted on February 20, 1970, a little follow s: over a month after the rules were written, wherein The three pools which the Committee defined the Committee allowed the completion of a well in are: (1) the Prudhoe Bay Kuparuk River Oil Pool, the Sadlerochit pool in a section of land contain­ which occurs at comparatively shallow depths in ing less than 600 acres after the finding was made Cretaceous rocks in the northwestern area of the that correlative rights would not be adversely field; (2) the Prudhoe Bay Sadlerochit Oil Pool, affected. Pool rules prescribed the spacing unit in the major reservoir in the field, which is mainly of this pool as a governmental section, but due to the Permo-Triassic age lying at a depth of approxi­ marked convergence of the lines of longitude in mately 8,500 feet, and (3) the Prudhoe Bay the northern latitudes and the resultant adjust­ Lisburne Oil Pool, a thick, carbonate rock reser­ ment in the legal survey grid, all the westerly tier voir which lies under the Sadlerochit Formation in of sections in each township in the field contain the easterly portion of the Prudhoe Bay Field and less than 600 acres. is mainly Mississippian and Pennsylvanian in age. The next request for an exception to the The Lisburne pool limits are quite speculative at Prudhoe Bay Field rules resulted in an order this tim e. concerning the operation of the crude oil topping One rule sets out the vertical and areal extent plant operated by Atlantic Richfield Company in of each of the pools and another prescribes the Prudhoe Bay Field which had been producing 640-acre spacing for the Lisburne and Sadlerochit about 1000 barrels of Arctic diesel fuel per day

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) State Regulatory Controls on Oil & Gas 97

Figure 2. Oil and gas fields of the Cook Inlet Area, Alaska.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 98 T. R. Marshall, Jr. from a 5000 BOPD crude throughput. The 4000 Venezuela. Solution gas reserves have been pub­ BOPD of unused fractions were injected into the lished as 10 trillion cubic feet, but let me producing formation, the Sadlerochit sandstone. emphasize that this figure represents only, the The committee had permitted the flaring of amount of gas in solution in the estimated primary casinghead gas in excess of the amount used for oil reserves of the present oil-gas ratio. Recoveries topping plant fuel and for other beneficial camp of upwards of 20 trillion, cu. ft. are more realistic purposes for a limited time as an operational under the actual producing situation expected. necessity. The Committee was concerned that In addition to solution gas, a large associated possible reservoir damage may result from the gas cap exists in the Sadlerochit reservoir. An injection of the lower API gravity fractions and associated gas cap also exists in the Lisburne questioned the continued necessity to flare casing­ reservoir, but its size is undetermined at this time head gas. because of the dearth of subsurface data. The Committee order reduced the plant input Gas reserves are large enough to be of interest to 2750 BOPD, thereby virtually eliminating flar­ to marketers in the Lower 48 states. This may ease ing of casinghead gas not beneficially used. The the burden of handling the field’s casinghead gas Committee concluded that ultimate recovery was reserves which may not be flared under the pool not adversely affected by injection of unused rules. fractions. Full scale production from Alaska’s Arctic A recent request for exception dealt with the must await completion of transportation facilities location of a well closer than the allowed limits to which because of the size of the proposed project a lease line. In view of the imminence of a will be several years in construction after the unitization agreement in the Prudhoe Bay Field, necessary approvals are obtained. The Department no opposition is expected to the issuance of an of the Interior has not yet given the TAPS pipeline approving order. permission to construct the line across Federal lands and several legal barriers also exist. At this time 39 wells could be rendered capable of IMPORTANCE OF THE PRUDHOE BAY FIELD producing about 650,000 BOPD from the Prudhoe Bay Field. When the pipeline is completed it will How important is the Prudhoe Bay Field? probably go on stream with a throughput of over Fortunately, the oil reserves are large enough to 1,000,000 BOPD. At the present rate of drilling offset transportation costs to markets. Our strict this initial capacity will be achieved well in confidentiality statute does not permit us to advance of pipeline completion. release any of our own reservoir data based on well Although it is definitely not true that all information less than two years old and only the Alaskans live in igloos swept by chilling winds, still discovery well is now over that two year mark. the reality of a tremendous energy source in the However, using some published estimates and a midst of our coldest region brings hope of a better few rule of thumb factors we can approximate the way of life. In a land where some people must haul size of this field. A total of 62 wells have now driftwood or ledge coal for many miles to heat been drilled within the field limits and industry their homes, the development of a lower cost fuel sources estimate the primary reserves of just the source is indeed a warming thought. Prudhoe Bay Field at between 12-15 billion barrels The State of Alaska has an unusual responsi­ of oil which, if correct, would make it the bility and opportunity to guide the development second largest oil field in the Western Hemisphere, of a tremendous oil resource. It is our fervent the largest being the Bolivar Coastal Field in desire to do the job well.

Thomas R. Marshall, Jr. Mr. Marshall was born in Loupe City, Nebraska, attended Westminister College in Fulton, Missouri, and graduated from the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, in 1950. He worked as a pumper, scout, scout leaseman and geologist for the Texas Company, Casper, Wyoming, and as a geologist for Brinkerhoff Drilling Company, Casper, Wyoming until 1955. As a consulting geologist in Casper, he was active in both uranium, non-metallic and oil and gas exploration. He moved his family to Anchorage, Alaska, in 1958 at the start of oil exploration in Alaska’s Cook Inlet area. In 1959 he filed on a Federal homestead near Wasilla, Alaska, and lived there for two years. He joined the Department of Natural Resources of the State of Alaska in 1960 as the land selection officer. He was responsible for the geological recommendations to select for the State, under the Alaska Statehood Act, the area on which the Prudhoe Bay and Ugnu Oil Fields were later discovered. Subsequently','he worked as Petroleum Geologist and Petroleum Supervisor in the Division of Mines and Minerals; and his present position is Chief Petroleum Geologist for the State Division of Oil and Gas, and executive Secretary of the Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Committee.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 99 The Alaska Business Community’s View of the Development of Alaska

by Wm. H. Scott, President State of Alaska, Chamber of Commerce

America has discovered Alaska!! Or maybe ignores the offsetting disadvantage that Alaska is that’s just the way it seems to us Alaskans. Even not included in reclamation projects that other though Secretary of State Seward bought the states obtain in recognition of their lower royalty­ Great Land (that’s what Alaska means in native sharing percentages. Don Simasko this morning tongue) more than a hundred years ago, very little told you of the effect on the oil industry of the of its nature has drifted down to the “Lower 48”. freeze imposed by then Secretary of the Interior That is until the great oil reserves were discovered Udall, and which the Senate Interior Committee on the now-famous North Slope. Only then was bludgeoned Secretary Hickel into continuing vir­ the fact of Alaska’s mineral wealth translated into tually as a condition to consenting to his appoint­ something other than very general admissions that ment. Termination of the freeze on December 31, Alaska was the natural resource storehouse of the 1970, certainly is not the answer to our problem - United States. Now one would naturally conclude we can look forward to another and yet another that the Prudhoe Bay miracle, followed closely by from some quarter until Congress passes a bill to the $900 million oil lease sale conducted by the resolve the entire issue. State of Alaska in September 1969, has trans­ The Alaska business community has not been formed an economic desert into a businessman’s idle in this area. Last year the Alaska State bonanza. Well, that could have happened. Why Chamber of Commerce adopted a position on the hasn’t it? Simply because the same outside in­ Native Land Claims issue which we feel not only fluences that have kept Alaska locked up for all recognizes the moral obligation of the United these years have once again come into play to States to the natives but also would do much to block or hinder the development of our state by continue the mutual respect and cooperation of Alaskans and for Alaskans. both the native and non-native elements of our It wouldn’t surprise me if your reaction to society. We have urged equitable monetary com­ that statement is more than a little defensive. pensation by the Federal Government as final Perhaps it should be; maybe I can get your settlement for any lands taken with the natives to attention that way. It would be fair for you to ask have a strong voice in the management of such just what these influences are and how they are so funds. Thereafter the Senate passed a bill this year hindersome. Let’s start with the failure of the U. providing for $500 million (an amount equal to S. Congress to resolve the Alaska Native Land that sanctioned by the Bureau of the Budget last Claims. How many years has this problem been year) payable over a twelve-year period, plus up to with us? Only since 186 7. How would you like to another $500 million from a 2% override on have the physical assets of your business or Federal land revenues from Alaska. This money personal life involved in a 100-year quiet title suit? would go into two special corporate entities, one It is clear, both legally and historically, that it is for providing utilities, services and other infra­ the Federal Government’s responsibility to provide structure to native settlements, and the other to for the compensation of our country’s aborigines act as an income-producing investment fund. for lands taken from them in the course of our The intent is to use the settlement proceeds to forefathers’ intrusion into these now United make the natives self-sufficient over a twenty-five States. That is it was until the A laska native claims year period so that cessation of present BIA came along. Now Congress infers that because welfare will not create personal disaster for the Alaska is so wealthy the State should assist with native population. In addition, there would be the money settlement by reserving to the native granted about 12 million acres for village sites in population alone a significant portion of natural fee title with all mineral rights. Other provisions resource revenues granted to the State under terms have to do with protection of traditional hunting of the Statehood Act. and fishing rights, and effectively amending pro­ When we point out that no other state has so visions of the Minerals Leasing Act to require shared, and that our Governor is required to about the same rules on mineral leasing as are protect the interests of all Alaskans, Congress presently observed by the State of Alaska in argues that the Statehood Act gave Alaska a much leasing state lands. better percentage of revenues from Federal lands The State Chamber’s position is at odds with than other states enjoy, and then conveniently the Senate bill in two important areas: first, as to 100 W. H. Scott the overriding royalty for a special segment of spending program this spring, and that the Gover­ Alaska’s population; and second, in the granting of nor has shown his dedication to careful planning mineral rights in areas which will never be suitable and a sound investment policy. or utilized for actual townsites or residential But government can only spend the money purposes. Conveyance of title to all lands in that is derived from the labors of its people, and in present use and occupancy together with such Alaska that money is going to have to come additional contiguous lands for village expansion principally from the extraction of its natural as may be reasonable is, however, equitable in our resources, both renewable and non-renewable. The view. renewable ones, fish and wood products, are Let me emphasize our feeling that non-natives already well-established and have provided the are Alaskans too, and indeed that whatever eco­ great bulk of Alaska’s total income until recent nomic development that has occurred in Alaska advent of the oil industry. Tourism promises to has been a direct result of great efforts by the gain substantially also, but it is not my purpose to non-native people. Please do not hastily conclude, review that important source of revenue here. however, that the State of Alaska and its people You have heard in these sessions of the have no regard for the rights of the natives. We do mineral potential, both petroleum and hard-rock, see nevertheless a potentially divisive effect by the and of the physical problems to be encountered in segregation that can result from this Federal their extraction. But although the oil industry’s legislation. In any event, the outcome of the course is clear, what about other minerals? Who Native Land Claims issue will have a profound will develop th e m ? Alaska’s businessmen, a new effect on the development of Alaska. Meanwhile, breed and newly arrived in Alaska after World War one can only guess what action, if any, the House II, searched and believe they have found the will take in its forthcoming lame-duck session - logical answer. Japan. What more natural market most people believe the effort will die and we will than Japan, which is closer to Alaska than the have to start all over again. United States in many ways, and whose full-speed Even so, Alaskans are moving forward with economic growth has left her hungry for raw the same sort of constructive optimism that m aterials. brought them to Alaska in the first place. There is Ironically, on March 27, 1964, when the no question that the $900 million lease sale has Alaska earthquake struck, now-Secretary of the already done much for us. It might interest you to Interior Walter J. Hickel was in Tokyo leading a U. know that well before the sale took place Alaskans S. Department of Commerce-sanctioned trade mis- recognized the potential problems as well as the son of the Alaska State Chamber of Commerce. advantages of affluence. Although that mission was aborted while Alaska In early summer of 1969 the Alaska State tried to put itself back together, Hickel, now Chamber of Commerce called special meetings of Governor, led another trade mission to Japan in responsible and knowledgeable citizens and they September of 1967. During many meetings with formulated proposed policies in connection with top companies the Governor assured the Japanese the forthcoming sale. First, we recommended that that Alaska welcomed their investment in Alaska the money be invested posthaste in income- and that we especially wanted them to look to our producing assets. The State Government was ready as-yet-undeveloped mineral resources. Again in on the sale day with a chartered jet to get the November of last year, Governor Keith Miller on money to market, and with the help of wise another A.S.C.C. trade mission invited the big counsel has established the best rate of return on Japanese trading companies to open offices in its investments of any state in the nation. Second, Alaska. As a result, there are now branches in we felt that a great deal of planning should be Anchorage of Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Nissho Iwai, done before rushing out to spend this money in Marubeni-Iida, and C. Itoh, and all are commenc­ spite of the century of inadequate attention that ing the search for opportunities to invest in Alaska’s development has experienced. Third, we Alaska’s mineral wealth. This should come as no urged that priority be given to the improvement of shock to Americans; very little has been done by our educational and transportation facilities, both U. S. companies to explore Alaska, probably considered to be expenditures of a non- because there was no shortage of the raw materials inflationary nature. Fourth, we pointed out that to spark such activity. money spent to maintain our renewable resources Today, one of our two pulp mils is Japanese- such as fish and timber would be of more lasting owned; Alaskco USA, Ltd. is exploring for oil; benefit than to merely provide social welfare Taiyo Fisheries is joint-venturing in the Kodiak programs. It is pleasant to be able to tell you more area; Iwakura-Gumi is logging previously unused than a year later that, although it was sometimes a timber on the Kenai Peninsula; and Japanese tough fight, the Legislature did not pass a runaway mining people have helped re-open the mercury

UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The Alaska Business Community's View of the Development of Alaska 101 mine at Red Deveil in the Kuskokwim area. We without ruining Alaska’s priceless natural heritage. predict this is only the beginning, and frankly How? We have learned from mistakes made both Alaska’s businessmen are happy about the whole in Alaska and in other areas of the nation. We will thing, perhaps in large measure because we operate continue to learn and make intelligent use of primarily service and transportation industries, and today’s technology for a better world tomorrow. the fluctuations of unpredictable government and In the past, we might have simply drilled, mined defense spending may soon be a less traumatic and cut, letting the devil take the hindmost. This is factor in our everyday business lives. no longer acceptable and we are determined that This does not mean that we don’t welcome U. Alaska will never see that kind of economic S. companies to come get in on the ground floor. plunder.” No one likes the idea of one force becoming so Good examples of this attitude are readily powerful in any situation that it can’t be con­ found on the North Slope where the oil companies trolled. And there are hopeful signs: Alaska Barite are doing a model job of development and taking Co. has developed a deposit on Castle Island near great pains to protect the environment, incidental­ Petersburg in southeastern Alaska, and has shipped ly, a big change from the mess made by the U.S. about. 150,000 tons of high-grade ore in the past Government in its explorations in Naval Petroleum sixteen months. Both El Paso Natural Gas and Reserve Four. U. S. Plywood-Champion Paper American Smelting and Refining have had ex­ hired five leading scientists from five different ploration crews in the field this year. One of the universities to study its proposed pulp mill near most exciting aspects has been the offshore pro­ Juneau and devise a plan to protect the area specting by Inlet Oil Corporation in concert with involved. Many people don’t realize that modern Apco Oil. Inlet is using highly sophisticated foresters are as necessary to conservation of our electronic gear on a specially converted ship to timber resources as a scientific farmer is to map the offshore bottoms with a view toward harvesting good crops of grain. You know, there is finding sedimentary deposits in the mouths of no such thing as a virgin forest; they are all old rivers and streams. And although Kennecott had to maids which just get older, not better. I wish you suspend operations because of underground water, could fly over some of our forests and see the old they have spent upwards of $10 million on the trees dying and falling, killing new growth, and Kobuk copper prospect. All in all, there are creating nightmares of tangled underbrush, not the exciting days ahead for Alaska in its mineral beautiful forests premeval about which the poets development. w rite. Now what do you suppose we view as our My heartfelt plea to you is to give us the most serious problem? Not severe climatic condi­ benefit of the doubt in our efforts to build a great tions or rugged, inaccessible terrain. Not seasonal Alaska. A Seattle man, Lewis H. Johnson, Presi­ unemployment or substandard housing or a dent of the PAC Barge Companies, recently said it limited road system. Those we can fight and lick - much better than I have ever heard it expressed: we understand those problems. The great obstacle “To deny these pioneers the right to is that growing and vocal movement in the lower improve their lot because of our newly- 48 that would lock up Alaska; that believes found fastidiousness about our planet because they spoiled their own areas that Alaskans Earth appears to shift to them our guilt will do no better. They file injunctions and make for what we have done in the Lower 48. impassioned speeches that prove they not only Who cannot sympathize with their be­ have never been there, but that they have not met wilderment over what seems to be unin­ Alaska’s people, much less their business and vited interference with their efforts to political leaders. While they speak as conserva­ control their destiny. The time has come tionists, they act as preservationists, and Alaska to give Alaskans an expectation that they cannot exist if it remains in an economic deep­ will profit from our misdeeds in the freeze. Lower 48 and shame us for our want of Secretary Hickel expressed the view of faith in their collective wisdom and in­ Alaskans when he said simply that the keynote of ten t.” development must be “wise use without abuse”. Governor Keith Miller said recently in a statement That sort of attitude would be consistent with one of economic and ecological purpose: “. . . we must of the basic rules of good management: to give us build Alaska’s economy to assure its citizens that the authority to develop, properly matched with they can enjoy the same standard of living that the responsibility to protect our Great Land, other Americans enjoy.We believe this can be done Alaska.

UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) UMR Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 103 The Future of Anchorage

Claire O. Banks Executive Vice President Greater Anchorage Chamber of Commerce Anchorage, Alaska

The future of Anchorage, as a part of this Our most outstanding local area celebraton is symposium, is somewhat foreign to our general staged during winter — in February. To Alaskans it theme and title; however, as a typical chamber of is comparable to the Mardi Gras in New Orleans. It commerce executive, anxious to discuss the assets is titled, “The Fur Rendezvous” and features of my home town, I would submit here that this world championship dogsled racing, Eskimo blan­ city is a vital key to the top of the world. ket toss, fur auctions, and a myriad of outdoor Anchorage is the largest trade-center in the contests, all wrapped-up in a “Klondike - 1898” northernmost part of North America — equal in atmosphere. latitude to Oslo, Norway, and Leningrad, Russia. To discuss the future of Anchorage, it is And, while its geographic location plays an impor­ necessary to know a bit about Alaska. For tant role, climate qualifies equally. Warmed by the instance, it is important to know that nowhere continual flow of the Japanese Current, tempera­ under the American flag is there a region so vast tures are identical to the Northern states of and so sparsely populated. The State of Alaska is Michigan, the Dakotas and Wisconsin (Figure 1). one/fifth the size of the United States. It is twice Our coldest climate averages 13 degrees above zero the size of the State of Texas. It is four times ... often times, much warmer than the weather in larger than the State of California. Alaska has four Chicago, New York, and Great Falls, Montana, Our major time zones — five separate climatic regions relatively moderate winter climate is ideal for — a coastline longer than that of the United States. outdoor recreation, and it affords our people a The entire population of this huge area is only tw o wide selection of outdoor winter sports. hundred and ninety-four thousand persons! The

Figure 1. Aerial Photograph of the City of Anchorage 104 C. O. Banks point I want to emphasize here is the fact that With its 470 miles of track, a major service is Anchorage, which is Alaska’s largest city, has a performed in supplying freight to over half of the metropolitan population figure of one hundred residents of Alaska. Headquartered in Anchorage, and twenty-four thousand inhabitants, o r, m ore the Alaska Railroad connects the city of Fairbanks than forty per cent of the State’s total census with the salt-water ports of Anchorage, Seward figures. It is Alaska’s social, financial, trade and and Whittier. Joint marine/rail/barge operations distribution center. Anchorage is where the action account for considerable* tonnage readily ware­ is! This is the city that national magazine writers housed and distributed from the Anchorage have termed “ The city that can’t wait for tomor­ market-place. The Alaska Railroad also handles r o w ” — “The Chicago of the North” — o r o u r passenter traffic. favorite adopted title, “The air crossroads o f the Of equal importance is our twenty-five million world. ” dollar port facility. With a highly developed If asked to classify four major elments that coast-wise traffic, it also serves as a port of call for qualify this city to have a brilliant future. I would ships from the South ’48 Japan. Its modern list them as follows: equipment and highly skilled workmen provide the 1) A highly developed transportation com­ rail-belt and air cargo terminals with year ’round plex; tonnage and a competitive rate-structure with that 2) A wide range of trades & services; of the railroad/marine operations mentioned 3) A solid basic economic core of govern­ earlier (Figure 2). ment agencies & government related ac­ Over twenty major trucking firms (nationally tivities; and, known) are based in Anchorage. While we do not 4) The attitude of the people. have sufficient highways to serve the various All four elements relate to some degree to our communities in Alaska, we are linked with Fair­ strategic location in the northernmost part of the banks, the Kenai Peninusla and the famed Alaska North American continent. Anchorage enjoys an Highway. The highways in Alaska are surfaced unusual “hub” position with respect to our region; with black-top or asphalt, and are well maintained and in international trade and commerce. The and open in all seasons. services and facilities available here are not offered Until recently, our economy was one of within thousands of miles. We have, in a sense, a government spending. With almost every con­ captive market. It may consist of more moose than ceivable federal agency, state agency and the people, but never-the-less, business volumes are headquarters for our borough and city government incredible. Anchorage is alive with competition employees, government payroll and government and is definitely no place for the meek and mild jobs were in major part our economy. Although o p erato r. government still is a sizeable part, the economy is Aviation is one of our prime economic factors shifting into a healthier private enterprise sector. in transportation. Over one thousand intercon­ Today, with the advent of petroleum, a growing tinental jets land at our airports each week. We tourism and convention industry, we estimate our have direct airline service to not only the largest, private enterprise ratio to over-balance the half­ but to the major cities of the world. Ten foreign way mark. To illustrate the magnitude of govern­ air-carriers, plus several American international ment spending in one agency, solely, the military airlines utilize our airport as a re-fueling terminal, procurement and payroll figure, annually, amounts a stop-over or passenger terminal in their certifi­ to more than 100 million dollars. We have over 30 cated routes over the north pole from Europe to thousand military and dependents in our com­ Asia — from the Eastern seaboard to the Orient— munity. Two of America’s largest military bases from South America to the Orient, and from the are stationed adjacent to Anchorage — the U. S. West coast to Tokyo, such as Los Angeles and San Army Post, Fort Richardson — and the U. S. Air Francisco into Japan. We have direct service into Force Base, Elmendorf. Headquartered within this Hawaii, New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam — framework is the Alaskan Command and the even into Siberia and Russia during our summer subordinate Air, Army and Naval Sea/Frontier charter-flight season. Anchorage is the center for C om m ands. the bush and business type aircraft that fan out Owing to time, it is impossible to cover the into the far reaches of the interior. In fact, we are entire market, however, I’ll highlight a few that termed “The Flyingest City in the Flyingest State” must be mentioned: by the Federal Aviation Administration. Every Communications represent a sizeable industry. thirtieth person has a private pilot’s license — The Dew Line and White Alice Alerting Systems, every ninety-sixth person owns his own aircraft. as well as the long-lines and radio short-wave links Another important transportation facility in with the rest of the world are located here. Over our city is the federally owned Alaska Railroad. 100 million dollars in communications, alone, is to

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The Future of Anchorage 105

Figure 2. Port of Anchorage

be invested in Anchorage under the private sector — and, Holiday Inn in constructing 250 units, with take-over from military-maintained telephone an additional 100 rooms to be added the following links. year. This month, five conventions are being held in our community, bringing in an estimated $800 Agriculture: While a majority of our items are thousand dollars. This figure exludes transporta­ imported, the rich and fertile Matanuska Valley provides Anchorage with an unusual array of fresh tion costs, incidentally. mammoth sized food stuffs .... fresh produce. Medical Facilities: Five hospitals grace our P etroleum : The first discovery of oil and gas area, affording us the most modern equipment and was made near Anchorage in 1957, on the Kenai technicians. A Cobalt Center, a complete medical Peninsula. That area, alone, is now producing 220 library and a roster of every medical specialty practiced by highly skilled physicians — our thousand barrels of oil per day. Over twenty major oil companies are headquartered in our city. hospitals now boast of complete coronary-care Several new high rise office buildings now decorate units throughout. our skyline ... owned by companies who are here Financial Headquarters: Anchorage is the Wall to stay. Street of Alaska. Five separate commercial bank­ ing institutions, with a myriad of branch-banks Tourism and Conventions: Did you know, throughout the area and Alaska, are now flanked Alaska has been voted in several national travel with two savings banks. Stock brokerage firms polls, among the top ten as an ideal vacation area? with constant communications into the national Also conventioning is ideal here owing to excellent exchange broadcast the open and close pricings, hotels and restaurants. Three new hotels are daily. presently readying for the coming year. The Royal Inns of America — The Grand Plaza tower adjacent Educational Facilities: Rated as fourth in the to our large Anchorage-Westward Hotel Complex nation, the Anchorage school system now has an

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 106 C. O. Banks assessed valuation exceeding one billion dollars in least, eight additional oil provinces that have been elementary and secondary schools, alone. Add to virtually unexplored and untapped. this our Alaska Methodist University and our brand At this moment, on the North Slope, alone, new Community Junior College, a branch of the the petroleum industry is concerned about the University of Alaska, and we find ourselves with packaging and production of an estimated twenty another sizable industry. trillion cubic feet of gas which is already in demand by the U. S. consumer. Cook Inlet gas, Fishing: While sport fishing and hunting are from nearby wells, has already found its way to exciting features of Alaska and over 22 million Anchorage consumers. dollars of revenue is derived therefrom, it is On the concept of strategic location — plus — important that we mention commercial fishing. this vast mineral wealth that now looms in our Our neighboring communities located on the sea Arctic treasure chest — our relatively new city enjoy catches of the very finest king crab, large which is only fifty years young, November, 1970, shrimp, halibut and salmon. Our fishermen work have begun to burst forth as a dynamic city of the second largest coastal shelf in the world. to m o rro w . Bottom fish are abundant in these waters. In the past four months, we have inaugurated Like all modern American cities, we have a new 14 million dollar airport — a 4 million dollar parking meters, color television, daily newspapers, department store — the completion of Alaska’s swimming pools, and beaches, theaters, tennis largest shopping mall complex. We’ve seen the courts, numerous parks and gardens — we have completion of two high rise petroleum head­ over 300 clubs and organizations — a Community quarter buildings — the three new hotels already Chorus and Orchestra — we even have daylight mentioned — the announcement of one hundred saving time in our land of the midnight sun! million dollars being invested in the RCA- Now — I want to show exactly what our city Communications take-over of the long-lines com­ fathers and planning experts have projected for us munication system — the announcement of a in the way of growth in the next ten and twenty brand new 28 story building in downtown Anchor­ years: age ... and ... finally, the announcement to build the world’s first total environmentally controlled POPULATION: U p 228% city to be built adjacent to the Anchorage area by HOUSING: Up 248% from 3,000 to almost the Tandy Corporation of Oklahoma. It is titled 5.000 units per year for nineteen “Seward’s Success” and will accommodate 50 years! thousand people in the next twenty years. It will SCHOOLS: Up 275%; over 2,010 classrooms be completely void of motor vehicles. Its people must be built to accomodate will move on electric shuttle carts and conveyor 4 3,000 pupils in the first belts. It will be a prototype, twenty-first century through twelfth grades! city ... and a part of Anchorage’s fringe area. TELEPHONES: U p 495% So, in conclusion ... our Air Crossroads of the EMPLOYMENT: Up 195% or an increase of World contemplates its future, from a similar 40.000 new jobs to be created position as that of the ancient Greeks, or later the by 1989 - just about doubling city of Rome... and much later ... England — the our present labor force! trade center of its time, between East and West — A IR C A R G O : Up 1160% and Air Passengers North and South. In any event, we are in the U p 654% enviable position of being able to determine our future. Aside from the tremendous growth and Frankly, we believe our projections to be build-up factors, we are unique because of our ultraconservative... they were made prior to the urbanity ... nowhere else are the advantages of petroleum industry’s interest evidenced in the modern day living offered to the extent they exist September ‘69 oil lease sale. You’ll recall, the here, while at the same time offering the distinct interest was substantial — it amounted to over nine closeness to the great outdoors, for which we are hundred million dollars in profit to the State of noted. With all these assets, Anchorage is indeed Alaska! And, of extreme importance in our pro­ on the threshold of the greatest period of develop­ jections in the future will be the potential of, at ment in its history.

Claire O. Banks Mr. Banks is the Executive Vice-President of the Greater Anchorage Chamber of Commerce. He has lived in Alaska for the past seventeen years and during this time been very involved in community affairs. He has served as President of

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) The Future of Anchorage 107

the Greater Chamber of Commerce, 1956-57; President of the Anchorage Rotary Club, 1958-59; Vice-President of North American Highway Association, 1962-67; Vice President of the Council of Western Retail Association, 1968-70, and as a member of the Governor’s Commission, Alaska State Centennial, 1965-67. Mr. Banks attended Lower Columbia Junior College, 1937-38, was then in the U.S. Navy in radio communications, 1942-43, then he attended the NBC Institute at Stanford and finally the Institutes for Organizational Management in Santa Clara, 1958-65. He was born in Reubens, Idaho and lived various places before settling in Anchorage, Alaska. He is married and has three children all attending college. The family hobbies and interests center around outdoor recreation, boating, skiing, camping and sport fishing which are all especially popular in the Anchorage area.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) U M R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 109 Acknowledgment of Symposium Moderators Sincere and grateful appreciation is extended to each of the Symposium Moderators who served so ably and added so much to the exchange of this conference and to the expertise thereto. We do, therefore, wish to complete this recognition by the following acknowledgments of these gentlemen and the role they will play in shaping the present and future of Alaska.

Max C. Brewer Max C. Brewer, was born in Blackfalds, Alberta, Canada, May 7, 1924, of U.S. parents. He attended Washington State University, Reed College in Oregon and Washington University in Saint Louis and received his B.S. degree in 1950 from Washington University. He first came to Alaska to work for the US Geological Survey in the summer of 1948 and conducted electrical resistivity studies of permafrost in the Tanana Valley. Max began to work full time for the USGS, in 1950 as Leader of the Snow Ice & Permafrost Project on the Arctic Slope of Alaska. He married a PHS nurse at Barrow, Mary Lou (Cunningham) in 1954, and returned to do graduate work at the University of California, Berkeley while working for the USGS in Menlo Park, California. He became Director of the Laboratory in 1956, the position he has held to date. In 1962 he received the U.S. Navy’s Distinguished Public Service award for his outstanding contributions to the Navy’s Research program. In 1965 he was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Science from the University of Alaska in recognition of his many contributions to Arctic Research. In February, 1970 he received the Sweeney Medal from the Explorer’s Club in New York on the occasion of “Alaska Day” as an outstanding citizen of the State. He serves on the Alaskan Command Civilian Advisory Board as well as consultant to scientific groups, government and industry concerning activities in Arctic Alaska. The Brewer’s have five children the oldest of whom is 15 and the youngest 8. The family resided in Barrow until this fall when Mrs. Brewer and the children temporarily moved to Anchorage as the children had outgrown the classes offered in the Barrow school system.

C. V . Chatterton Mr. Chatterton was born August 10, 1918, in Albany, New York. He graduated from Milne High School in Albany in 1935. He then attended Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado, September, 1935, and graduated May, 1942, with a degree of Petroleum Engineer. His school years 1935-42 were interrupted by periods of working for the Bureau of Reclamation, Phelps Dodge Corporation in Ajo, Arizona; Associate Metal Mines, Jamestown, Colorado; Stanolind Oil and Gas Company, Mid-West Wyoming; and other assignments. Upon graduation in 1942, he moved to Glendale, California, and worked at Lockheed Aircraft Corporation for 2Vi years. He joined Standard Oil Company of California at La Habra, California, December 1, 1944 and worked there as a Petroleum Engineer in various assignments until November, 1952. He was then transferred to San Francisco acting in the capacity of Formation Evaluation Specialist until November of 1957. At that time, he transferred to Vernal, Utah, as District Superintendent for Producing Operations in Utah. In March, 1961, he transferred to Anchorage to the position now held as District Superintendent, Producing Department, Alaska. In Anchorage, Mr. Chatterton became involved community activities leading to being President of the Petroleum Club of Anchorage, 1963-64; Director of the Greater Anchorage Chamber of Commerce, 1963-67, and President, 1968-69; President of the Rotary Club of Anchorage, 1967-68; Greater Anchorage Community Chest Campaign Chairman, 1966, and President of the Greater Anchorage Community Chest, 1967. As District Superintendent in Alaska, he was held accountable for all drilling operations and the production of crude oil and natural gas. While working for Standard Oil Company, as Operator he was responsible for its own interest and that of others in the Swanson River Oil Field and the Beluga River Gas Field. He has operated Exploratory drilling operations as far south as Icy Bay and northerly to include the Prudhoe Bay area.

A . J. Horn Mr. A. J. Horn was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, and raised in the oil fields of Southern California. He graduated from Stanford University in 1939, and went to work for Standard Oil Company o f California, Producing Department, in the San Joaquin Valley as a Petroleum Engineer-Chemist. He entered the U.S. Navy in December, 1942, and graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy Post-Graduate School at Annapolis, Maryland, in 1944 as an Aerological Officer. Mr. Horn returned to Standard Oil Company of California in March, 1946. He was elected to the Board of the San Joaquin Valley Chapter of the American Institute o f Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers in 1956, and served in various positions until elected Chairman in 1960. In 1961, he was General Chairman of the 32nd Regional Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of the AIME in Bakersfield. Currently, he is Assistant General Manager of the Producing Department of the Standard Oil Company of California, Western Operations, Inc.; President of Lomita Gasoline Company; Chairman of the Producing Department Training Committee; and Chairman of the Company Negotiating Committee for the labor contract with the

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971) 110 Symposium Moderators

Independent Union of Petroleum Workers (SIUNA-AFL-CIO), covering six operating Departments of Western Operations, Inc. Mr. Horn is now a member (1971-74) of the Board of Directors of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers. In 1971, he was appointed Chairman of the API Pacific Coast Production Area Advisory Committee. He is married and has two daughters, and lives in Burlingame, California. He is a member of the Stanford Golf Club.

F. G. Larmanie Mr. Larminie was born in Dublin, Ireland in 1930. He was educated at Trinity College, University of Dublin, and graduated in 1954 with degrees in geology and zoology. Mr. Larminie was Assistant Lecturer in Geology at the University of Glasgow, Scotland 1954-56. He was appointed Lecturer in Geology, University of Sydney, Australia, 1956, resigning in 1960, he joined the British Petroleum Company (BP), and since that date has worked as a Geologist for BP in the Sudan, Greece, Canada, California, Alaska, Kuwait, Persian Gulf, Libya and New York. He is presently based in Alaska as Area Manager for BP Alaska Inc. Mr. Larminie is officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire; Fellow of the Geological Society of London; Past President of the Alaska Geological Society; Member Palaeontological Association; Member American Association of Petroleum Geologists; Member American Association of Petroleum Landmen; Member, Yorkshire Geological Society.

H. A. Nedom Art Nedom received B.S. and M.S. degrees in petroleum engineering from the University of Tulsa and was employed by Amerada Petroleum Corporation in 1949. In following years, he was active in drilling and producing operations in all parts of the United States and this included a one year leave of absence with the Petroleum Administration for Defense, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. In 1961, he became Chief Engineer of Amerada and in 1965 was elected a Vice President, later directing United States exploration and production operations. In 1970 he left Amerada to organize Petroleum Management Worldwide and Southern Land Company, both Tulsa based operating organizations. Active in professional and industry affairs, he was a Director of the society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME and national President in 1967-68; a Director and Vice President of AIME in 1968-69 and a member of the General Committee of the API Division of Production. At present, Nedom serves on the Executive Committee of the Offshore Technology Conference and is President of Pi Epsilon Tau, the national petroleum engineering honor society. He is also a member of the petroleum engineering Industry Advisory Board to the University of Tulsa.

F. K. Rickwood Mr. Rickwood, an Australian by birth, spent four years with BP’s associate, the Australian Petroleum Company Pty. Limited, and five years as senior lecturer and sub-dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of Sydney before joining the Company in 1955. Through his work on geological surveys, he has come to be regarded as one of the chief authorities on the geology of Papua and New Guinea, and since joining the Company has spent a further 15 months in Papua. Mr. Rickwood has also served in British Somaliland, in the United Kingdom and in Latin America. In 1960, Mr. Rickwood was appointed Chief Geologist and Vice-President of Sinclair and BP Explorations, Inc. (Colombia). Three years later he was transferred to BP (North America) Limited as Vice-President and in 1965 was appointed Regional Manager for the Western Hemisphere in Exploration Department London. In 1967 Mr. Rickwood was posted to Australia to take up the appointment of Manager, BP Petroleum Development Australia Pty. Ltd., where he remained until his posting to New York in 1969 as President of BP Alaska Inc.

UM R Journal, No. 2 (June 1971)