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America’s Keystone Forests Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection

America’s Keystone Forests: Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection

1 TELL ME WHY - FOREWORD 3 A BEGINNING - EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 FIXING A HOLE - THE IMPORTANCE OF LANDSCAPE CONNECTION 6 EVERY LITTLE THING - MAPPING THE UNITED STATES' KEYSTONE FORESTS 8 MAINE WOODS KEYSTONE FOREST 10 BLUE RIDGE-APPALACHIA KEYSTONE FOREST 12 FLORIDA PANHANDLE KEYSTONE FOREST 14 UPPER GREAT LAKES KEYSTONE FOREST 16 NORTHWEST ROCKIES KEYSTONE FOREST 18 MOGOLLON KEYSTONE FOREST 20 SIERRA KEYSTONE FOREST 22 KLAMATH-SISKIYOU KEYSTONE FOREST 24 PACIFIC NORTHWEST VOLCANIC KEYSTONE FOREST 26 NORTH CASCADES KEYSTONE FOREST 28 ALASKAN COASTAL TEMPERATE KEYSTONE FOREST 30 THE LONG AND WINDING ROAD - A BRIEF HISTORY OF PUBLIC LAND MANAGEMENT 34 TAXMAN - ECONOMICS: OUR LAND, OUR TAX DOLLARS WASTED 38 NOWHERE MAN - GEORGE W. BUSH: AMERICA'S WORST ENVIRONMENTAL PRESIDENT 39 WE CAN WORK IT OUT - CONCLUSION 40 ALL TOGETHER NOW - RECOMMENDATIONS 41 THINK FOR YOURSELF - A USER'S GUIDE TO FEDERAL LAND PROTECTION CREDITS

FOREWORDFOREWORD

Grandeur. Majesty. Splendor. Bounty. President Theodore perspectives of the physical and biological characteristics of Roosevelt used these words a century ago to describe some forests throughout America, and uses geographic software of the great, unique and unspoiled landscapes of America. to condense this information into a series of maps that Informed by a lifetime of experiences in wild places, and portray the quality and distribution of what remains. This inspired by the original thinking of early conservationists like highlights the “keystones” of our remaining forests. These John Muir, Roosevelt was not content to stand and admire keystones are the largest relatively undamaged contiguous the scenery: he placed some 230 million acres into scores of forested areas that include the broadest spectrum of plant national forests, parks, wildlife refuges and other preserves. and animal species, and the widest array of forest types. If For decades, Roosevelt’s foresight has helped each genera- the results occasionally surprise the reader, it may be because tion pass on priceless pieces of our natural heritage to the salamanders, mollusks, trout and grizzly bears are all on next. relatively equal footing here. This approach is more Any heirloom begins to lose luster after decades of comprehensive than traditional assessments of forest shoddy treatment, and some of Roosevelt’s treasures have structure and condition, and is consistent with the emerging become tarnished and threadbare. While national parks and scientific understanding of the importance of every fiber in wildlife refuges have held up relatively well over the years, the cloth of plant and animal communities. many national forests have faltered and declined. So, too, America’s Keystone Forests offers a way forward for have many of the plants and animals that once inhabited those who care about all aspects of the grandeur, majesty, our national forests in great abundance. splendor and bounty of America’s forests. This cannot be the If the last 100 years tested Roosevelt’s National Forest only way forward: complete restoration and protection of all System, they also gave birth to the natural sciences of of these keystone forests would not in itself guarantee the ecology, conservation biology and computer-assisted geog- continued survival of every one of the plants and animals liv- raphy. These fields of study, unavailable to Roosevelt, have ing in our national forests today. Nor would all of these key- helped us grasp more completely that natural grandeur and stone areas total up to anything like the size of Roosevelt’s bounty arise not only from windswept vistas and jagged original national forest and park designations. But if we save peaks, but equally from the intricacy, stability and extent of these keystone forests and follow through with other impor- the interwoven web of plants and animals that live together tant national, regional and local efforts to discover, protect in a place. We must now arm ourselves with these new tools and restore natural diversity in every form, we will have and this deepened understanding, and see how we can upheld Roosevelt’s legacy and made good on our maintain and expand Roosevelt’s conservation foresight into responsibilities to many generations to come. the next century. America’s Keystone Forests: Mapping the Next 100 Years Bill Haskins of Forest Protection draws upon recently developed scientific Big Sky Conservation Institute

Mapping theAmerica’s Next 100 Keystone Years of Forests Forest Protection 51

EXECUTIVEEXECUTIVE SUMMARYSUMMARY

2005 marks the 100th anniversary of the U.S. Forest Service, severity of forest fires. In fact, catastrophic forest fires in an event that will be met with celebration, pomp and cir- this country most commonly occur on logged and roaded cumstance within the agency. Reality, however, tells a far dif- lands, not in intact old-growth forests.2 Intact forests also ferent story from the one that will be told by the Forest provide a huge number of jobs. Recreation on federal Service and its industry patrons. It is the story of an agency forests contributes more than $111 billion to the economy, that long ago strayed from its original intent. It is the story creating more than 2.9 million jobs each year.3 of an agency that has been the victim of political manipula- Despite the long list of economic, social and environmen- tion and the influence of special interests such as the timber, tal benefits provided by intact forest land, what little oil, gas and mineral industries. The anniversary celebration remains continues to be fractured and significantly altered will stand in stark contrast to the agency’s legacy of on-the- under the management of not just the Forest Service, but ground mismanagement that has left the nation with only also the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Unless far- 15 percent of its biologically rich old-growth forests. In the reaching measures are taken, it is now questionable as to lower 48 states, less than five percent remains. Indeed, 100 whether these remaining forests can sufficiently maintain years after the establishment of the U.S. Forest Service, little ecological integrity, support the nation’s biological diversity of our once endless forest estate would be recognizable to and provide long-term social and economic benefits for this those who first created the public lands system.1 and future generations. America’s public forests, those that are owned by the To mitigate further degradation, this nation must allow American people, make up some of the most distinguishing for the protection and restoration of whole forest ecosys- landscapes that define the United States. The redwood tems to serve as a base for connected landscapes through- giants of California, the Ponderosa pines of Arizona, the out North America. Determining where to start such a sugar maples of the Midwest and the spruce trees from process has led to the development of numerous scientific Maine to Appalachia are American icons. However, most studies that compare the physical makeup of forests with Americans mistakenly believe that their federal forests are long histories of logging, mining, drilling and road-building protected from industrial activities such as logging, mining to those that are relatively untouched. Other studies have and drilling. Most Americans are also unaware that for evaluated forests by their concentrations of rare plant and decades their public forests have been systematically abused animal species or have examined habitat and water quality. by a highly subsidized Forest Service, which wastes vast Greenpeace, in cooperation with the Big Sky sums of taxpayer dollars on money-losing programs. The Conservation Institute (BSCI), has for the first time combined pace of this mismanagement has accelerated under the this data to create a map showing the “Keystone Forests” of Bush administration to the detriment of our economy, clean the United States. Using the criteria of habitat fragmenta- air and water, climate stability, fish and wildlife habitat, tion, the presence of rare species and ecosystem quality, recreational activities and public health. Greenpeace and BSCI have identified the forests that repre- Our remaining intact public forests serve society in many sent the nation’s last large areas of continuous forest that ways, and have far greater value intact than the timber that provide the healthiest habitat for the greatest number of could be extracted from them. Our public forest lands are a species. peaceful refuge for physical and spiritual renewal. More The keystone forest map emphasizes areas with the least than 60 million people depend on national forests for clean habitat fragmentation because the breakup of habitat into drinking water. Stands of old-growth forest reduce the small, isolated patches is considered to be a primary cause

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 3

of native species loss,4 particularly with regard to forest- ucts and environmental services—or worse, its deliberate dis- dependent species.5 Most importantly, this map shows that regard for such worth—is a record of scandalous fiscal irre- these keystone forests are largely comprised of federal land- sponsibility. holdings, land owned by the American taxpayer. If protect- The final section of this report lists concrete steps that ed from the mismanagement of the Forest Service and BLM, the United States can and must take to protect the remain- these regions can serve as the greatest storehouse of the ing largest tracts of intact forest. The critical first step to nation’s land-based biological diversity and as a stronghold protecting our national forests is a moratorium on large- of environmental services that benefit the greatest number scale commercial logging and other industrial activities on of people. land managed by the Forest Service and BLM. Secondly, a In this report, Greenpeace and BSCI identify 11 keystone significant portion of these lands should be transferred to forests that deserve priority for protection. A section on each agencies and designations with a proven track record of forest includes maps showing the characteristics and owner- greater protection. “A User’s Guide to Federal Land ship status of each forest, a physical description, a list of Protection” provides options for increasing forest protection threats to the forest and current efforts to save it. within the existing federal structure. This report also details the mismanagement of forests on As the U.S. government enters into its second century of public lands. A history of the Forest Service illustrates how public land management, this report serves as a reminder political and special interest pressures have subverted the and a warning. While we must celebrate our noble cause to agency’s original mission, sacrificing its charge to sustain the protect our nation’s grandeur, majesty, splendor and boun- health and diversity of our national forests and overempha- ty, we must not be blinded by it. We must learn from the sizing their timber productivity. The Forest Service’s failure to past to ensure our future. take into account the economic value of non-timber prod-

4 America’s Keystone Forests

THETHE IMPORTANCEIMPORTANCE OFOF LANDSCAPELANDSCAPE CONNECTIONCONNECTION

Ecosystems are composed of numerous plant and animal ranging mammals. Even relatively sizable regions, such as species existing in an ever-evolving inter-relationship. the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, must be connected to Historically, the United States has divided and transformed other large reserves if they are to safeguard animals such as its landscape to meet our material needs, often with little wolverines and grizzly bears.9 Increasing the size and understanding or forethought. The result is that large, intact number of parks and wilderness areas is an effective way to and connected natural ecosystems are increasingly rare. This establish core areas. Furthermore, safe corridors for travel is especially true of U.S. forests. Conservation biologists agree between protected cores are necessary to ensure species that America’s individual protected areas, such as national viability over the long term.10 parks and wilderness areas, are too small to support healthy Ecologists now recognize that certain animals—referred and diverse ecosystems. The vast majority of these nature to as “keystone species”—play a critical role in maintaining reserves are in fact “islands” of protected habitat in a vast ecosystem diversity.11 Keystone species, the custodians of sea of development. healthy ecosystems, may occur at any ecosystem level, from Like island species, wildlife found in isolated national plants and herbivores to carnivores and detritivores (waste parks and wilderness areas must survive on limited eaters), and include animals that physically transform land- resources, with restrictions on movement and with little scapes or aquatic habitat such as prairie dogs and cavity- flexibility in the face of catastrophe or competition. In fact, excavating birds. the extension of island theory into modern conservation Contemporary conservation planners recognize that these planning began with research documenting the loss of three interdependent components—cores, corridors and wildlife species in North America’s largest park complexes.6 keystone species—are necessary for healthy nature reserve This research demonstrated that the rate of local extinction networks that protect biodiversity. Modern conservation in protected areas was inversely related to the size of area: science provides us with the know-how to protect habitats the larger the protected area, the lower the likelihood that effectively and to design future nature reserves. Research it would lose species to extinction over time. on ecosystem scale, connectivity and species composition Habitat diversity (i.e., the variety of different habitats indicates that we must increase our efforts to establish within a given area) and special features such as caves, large, linked protected areas. For obvious reasons, these springs, cliffs and certain tree species, coupled with the miti- factors were not taken into consideration when the United gation of destructive impacts, are critical elements of an States laid the foundation of our protected areas system effective nature reserve system. Protecting examples of all 100 years ago. representative ecosystem features in an ecological reserve If the United States is to safeguard its natural resources network allows wild plants and animals in the region to into the future and regain its international conservation flourish under the resulting habitat umbrella.7 leadership role, we must re-examine the management In examining the relationship between area, species structure governing our last forest regions. Such an exercise diversity and extinction rates, ecologists have identified a will help determine where national parks, wilderness areas, key weakness in current conservation network: a lack of the national forests, wildlife refuges and other protected areas large protected natural areas, known as “cores.” Cores are should exist and allow for higher-impact tourism, hunting, protected areas designed to maintain existing natural land- fishing and the harvest of non-timber forest products. The scapes where biodiversity, ecological integrity and wilder- best place to start such a process is with our public lands in ness take precedent over other uses.8 Cores are necessary for our most important forest regions—the keystone forests. protecting ecological health, particularly for large, wide-

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 5

MAPPINGMAPPING THETHE UNITEDUNITED STATESSTATES KEYSTONEKEYSTONE FORESTSFORESTS

The keystone forest map identifies keystone forests for protection is vital, it select remaining areas of forests in the is only a complement, not a substitute, United States that Greenpeace has for detailed planning on a regional and prioritized for increased protection, local scale. conservation and restoration. These Included in each keystone forest areas are called “keystone” forests, description are some of the federally borrowing from the architectural term managed forest areas such as national for the middle stone at the top of an parks, national forests and wilderness arch that holds all the other pieces in areas. For the most part, we have position. The keystone is the central excluded naming state or county parks cohesive source of support and stability or significant areas of privately protect- for the greater whole. ed land with the notable exception of It is important to note that these key- the Maine Keystone Forest where stone forests are not the only lands that limited federal ownership exists. These need increased protected status. Indeed, types of protected areas, especially many critical forest areas, such as those adjoining federal lands can serve Vermont’s Green Mountain National as an excellent basis for a larger pro- Forest and Colorado’s Rio Grande tected area. When referring to a larger National Forest, have been aggressively ecoregion to which a keystone forest is logged and the very survival of several a part of, we reference ecoregion species, such as the Canada lynx and names used by the National Northern goshawk, depend on these Geographic/World Wildlife Fund To create this map, the following process was used: areas being protected and restored. “Wildworld Global 200” project that However, protecting our keystone identified terrestrial ecoregion’s Step 1. Select quantifiable factors to forests to serve as biological cores—the worldwide (see represent distinct characteristics of for- heart of our nation’s largest unfrag- www.nationalgeographic.com/wildest quality. mented forest cover, is an excellent world/terrestrial.html). Physical fragmentation (i.e., the size, beginning. Although prioritizing these condition and remoteness of each forest tract). Forest tract characteristics are derived from Conservation Biology Institute’s (CBI’s) values for “class area” Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 1,983,084 and “total core area index.” We also use CBI’s values for mean road density Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 45,312,755 within forested tracts to represent Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 66,315 remoteness and human impacts.12 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 3,874,146 Presence of hotspots of biological Forested Wilderness 14,944,541 diversity (i.e., the forests that are important to the greatest number of Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 18,467,286** rare species). We give higher value to Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 34,287,180 those areas that have been found to Total Forested Lands 118,935,307 have at least moderate terrestrial rari- *Available data did not necessarily distinguish wilderness from non-wilderness within national parks, so ty-weighted richness index and those some wilderness within national parks may be included within this statistic. **Includes industrial forest lands in Maine

6 America’s Keystone Forests

Keystone forests

Other forested areas

watersheds that are “critical for con- may not be present. The overall value of a given forested serving aquatic biodiversity.”13 Mapping software (GIS layers) is used location is the simple arithmetic sum of Intactness of natural communities to assign numeric values to represent the numeric factors. Of all of the forest- (i.e., forests that have most of their each of the factors listed above. ed areas in the 48 contiguous states, we original parts in good working order). Forested areas are defined according to selected the top-rated 20 percent to We give higher value to those areas the U.S. Geological Survey National Land represent the highest value forest. in which the largest percentage of Cover Data set, which is consistent Where these forests form blocks of sev- communities is intact, based on recent across the contiguous 48 states. This eral million acres or more, we reviewed assessments of endangered data does not include Alaska and boundaries of national parks, wilder- communities.14 Hawaii.15 ness areas, wildlife refuges, other public Alaska was not included in several of lands and private preserves, to identify Step 2. Assign relative values for each the studies from which we obtained America’s keystone forests. factor and measure forested areas for fragmentation and hotspot data, so it One notable feature of this map is each factor. was not possible to compare Alaska’s the relatively balanced geographical dis- In our assessment, physical fragmen- forests directly with those of the contribution of keystone forests. The large tation is given the most importance. tiguous 48 states. We delineated the areas of unfragmented forests of the Hotspots of biological diversity are Alaska Keystone Forest by following the northern United States (many of which given an important, but secondary role. general boundaries of the most densely do not have great numbers of rare Community intactness rankings give forested areas of coastal temperate species) are well represented, as are the additional value to those areas that rainforest within Southeast Alaska.16 smaller, species-rich and critically have generally good ecological health, important unfragmented forests of the even if large numbers of rare species Step 3. Sum of all factor values. southern United States.

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 67

MAINE WOODS

Physical Description moose, deer, black bear, beaver, loon, Mount Katahdin, dissected by major Henry David Thoreau was so inspired broad-winged hawk, blue-spotted sala- rivers such as the Allagash, Kennebec, by the forests of Maine in the mid- mander and brook trout. The region Penobscot and St. John, and dotted 1800s that he proposed that it become provides habitat for endangered and with thousands of pristine lakes and a “national preserve.” Today, the 10 sensitive species such as the Atlantic ponds, including 75,000-acre million-acre “Maine Woods,” part of salmon, bald eagle, spruce grouse, Moosehead Lake. The Maine Woods the larger New England Acadian forest Canada lynx, pine marten, Northern play a critical environmental role as the ecoregion, remain the largest undevel- bog lemming, blueback trout and headwaters of several major rivers, a oped forest in the eastern United small-whorled pogonia. There is also massive carbon sink to help mitigate States. A mix of spruce-fir coniferous potential habitat for the restoration of global warming, and a largely intact forest and beech-maple hardwood for- extirpated species including the Eastern reservoir of native biodiversity. In the est richly carpet this vast remnant of wolf, cougar, wolverine and woodland crowded northeastern United States, the legendary North Woods. Within caribou. the Maine Woods offer outstanding this forest is a wide variety of native The landscape is mountainous, backcountry recreation, particularly plant and wildlife species, including reaching its highest point on 5,271-foot hiking, camping, canoeing, boating, fishing, hunting, cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, nature study and solitude.

Threats Maine has one of the smallest percent- ages of public land of any state. Less than five percent is protected in public or private conservation ownership, and

The Maine Woods are home to a variety of wildlife species including the moose shown here at Baxter Park.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 0 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 458,636 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 14,339 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 2,162 Forested Wilderness 101,239 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 10,048,127** Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 2,186,609 Total Forested Lands 12,811,112

*Available data did not necessarily distinguish wilderness from non-wilderness within national parks, so some wilderness within national parks may be included within this statistic. **Includes industrial forest lands in Maine © GEORGE WNERTHNER

8 America’s Keystone Forests

Forest Quality Forest Ownership

Moderate Forested BLM and national forest lands Privately owned forests Maine’s industrial forests Wilderness area boundaries Good Forested national parks National park boundaries Best Forested wilderness areas National wildlife refuge boundaries Forested national wildlife refuges Urban areas Misc. forested public lands and private Highways preserves less than one percent is preserved as degraded within the next two decades. wilderness. The famed “Appalachian Trail” begins in the Maine Woods, but Efforts to Increase Protected Areas it is only a thin “beauty strip” increas- There is an existing proposal submitted ingly hemmed-in by clearcuts, roads to the National Park Service for the and motorized recreation. creation of a 3.2 million-acre Maine Transnational paper and timber com- Woods National Park and Preserve in panies, investment partnerships and the heart of the Maine Woods. This real-estate speculators own most of the new park would bring the land back land in a few large blocks. During the into public ownership, restore past last two decades these landowners damage from logging and other indus- have clearcut an area of forest larger trial uses, guarantee public recreational than Delaware, built 15,000 miles of access and serve as the foundation for logging roads and subdivided remote a sustainable regional economy. lakeshores for second-home development. Intensive motorized recreation Written by Michael Kellett penetrates areas that were not long Restore the North Woods ago wild and roadless. More than five www.restore.org million acres of land have been sold in the last decade, with only a tiny portion being acquired by the public or other conservation buyers. Without the creation of new public parks and preserves, the Maine Woods will probably be irretrievably fragmented and

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 9

BLUE RIDGE APPALACHIA

Physical Description unlogged native forest in the eastern species of plants and animals formally The Blue Ridge-Appalachia Keystone United States, including 130 hard- listed as endangered or threatened, Forest overlaps both the larger wood tree species such as oaks, red and more than 280 imperiled fresh Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests maple, tulip poplar, chestnut and hick- water species. and the Appalachian Blue Ridge forest ory. Also living in these forests are The Appalachia forests have long ecoregions. They are some of the old- more than half the flowering plants been a major tourist destination for est and most biologically diverse tem- and ferns in North America (more outdoor recreation activities such as perate forests in the world. Due to the than 2,000 species). Coniferous trees fishing, hunting, hiking, kayaking and geologic and climatic stability of this also characterize this region with an backpacking. Recreation in this area region over the past 65 million years, overstory dominance of red spruce or contributes a significant number of a great number of plant and animal Fraser fir. This region provides much- jobs and income to the region. Well- species have evolved specifically in this needed habitat for endangered known recreation areas that contribute region, creating an environment rich species such as black bears, bald a significant number of jobs and with endemic species. The region also eagles and flying squirrels. Today, income to the region include Great contains some of the last holdouts of these forests contain more than 50 Smokey Mountain National Park, Big South Fork Recreation Area, and the George Washington-Jefferson and Monongahela National Forests.

Threats This forest region is threatened by destructive logging practices (especially for woodchip demand), road- building and gas exploration. Air pol-

George Washington-Jefferson National Forest, Virginia.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 0 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 3,554,663 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 504 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 634,380 Forested Wilderness 343,923 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 559,803 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 10,500,639 Total Forested Lands 15,593,912

*Available data did not necessarily distinguish wilderness from non-wilderness within national parks, so some wilderness within national parks may be included within this statistic. © DAVE MUHLY

10 America’s Keystone Forests

Forest Quality Forest Ownership

Moderate Forested BLM and national forest lands Privately owned forests Forested national parks Wilderness area boundaries Good Forested wilderness areas National park boundaries Best Forested national wildlife refuges National wildlife refuge boundaries Misc. forested public lands and private Urban areas preserves Highways lution, acid rain, invasive species and acres by establishing four new wilder- Written by Greenpeace increasing urban sprawl heighten the ness areas, two new scenic areas and For more information, visit Southern immediate need for greater protected expanding five existing wilderness Appalachian Forest Coalition areas. Although the region has expe- areas in the Jefferson National Forest. www.safc.org rienced more than a century of indus- There are two other wilderness trial logging, small remnants of native areas proposals. One proposal is the old-growth remain and much of the addition of 10,900 acres to the Laurel forest in the region that was clearcut Fork Wilderness, and the second is the a century ago are once again reach- Little River Wilderness Proposal which ing maturity. Very little of this key- would designate 28,000 acres as stone forest is under wilderness or wilderness. The proximity of the Little national park status. River proposal to the Ramsey’s Draft Wilderness would create a large, rela- Efforts to Increase Protected Areas tively continuous natural area. Acreage There is a current proposal to create a from both proposals would come par- new Blackwater Canyon National Park, tially from the George Washington which includes private lands in the National Forest. canyon and key portions of the adja- The West Virginia Wilderness cent Monongahela National Forest. Coalition has identified areas The Ridge and Valley Wilderness and throughout the Monongahela National Scenic Area Act of 2004, intro- National Forest that warrant protec- duced by Representative Rick Boucher tion, including places such as Seneca (D-VA) and Senator John Warner (R- Creek, Spice Run and Roaring Plains. VA) on April 22, 2004, would provide lasting protection for some 40,000

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 11

FLORIDA PANHANDLE

Physical Description salamander. Other rare species, includ- ermen, hikers, boaters and canoeists. The Florida panhandle, centered on ing Florida black bear, striped newt, In addition, the nutrient-rich fresh the Apalachicola River Basin and part Apalachicola king snake and river water of the Florida panhandle of the larger Southeastern Conifer for- Sherman’s fox squirrel, are found makes the bays and estuaries along est ecoregion, is a well-known hotspot here. Tree diversity and endemism is the Gulf Coast some of the most pro- for biodiversity. It is home to the rich- among the highest of any North ductive in the world. In fact, 10 per- est endemic plant life in the south and American forest, with more than 190 cent of all the oysters harvested in the 75 percent of Florida’s plant species. tree species and 27 endemics. The United States come from Apalachicola These longleaf pine forests and their wiregrass community contains some of Bay. wiregrass understory also provide the most diverse herbs in the world, habitat for a host of rare species, with a single stand containing as Threats including 36 federally threatened or many as 200 species. The longleaf pine forests that once cov- endangered species such as the red- The forests and numerous rivers of ered approximately 90 million acres cockaded woodpecker, Eastern indigo the Florida panhandle provide recre- from Virginia to Texas have been snake, gopher tortoise and flatwoods ational opportunities for hunters, fish- reduced to fewer than three million acres. Until very recently, the Florida panhandle had escaped the development pressures seen in the rest of the state. However, the largest landowner in the Florida panhandle, the St. Joe Company (formerly the St. Joe Paper Company), has recently decided to com- mercially develop the region and has begun selling off a significant portion

A Bald Eagle glides along the Ochlockonee River in the Apalachicola National Forest.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 0 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 589,994 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 23,778 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 1,297 Forested Wilderness 33,002 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 998,767 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 3,210,596 Total Forested Lands 4,857,434

*Available data did not necessarily distinguish wilderness from non-wilderness within national parks, so some wilderness within national parks may be included within this statistic. © LAMAR MARSHALL

12 America’s Keystone Forests

Forest Quality Forest Ownership

Efforts to Increase Protected Areas The Nature Conservancy has a 6,000- acre preserve along the Apalachicola River and has recently signed a Memorandum of Partnership with the state of Florida and the U.S. Department of Defense to establish a 100-mile protected corridor that con- nects Eglin Air Force Base and the Apalachicola National Forest.

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 13

UPPER GREAT LAKES

Physical Description species including the fisher, black bear, snowshoeing, nature study and soli- The Upper Great Lakes Keystone Forest loon, osprey and brook trout. There is tude. is part of the larger Western Great also potential habitat for the recovery Lakes forest ecoregion. Even today, the of extirpated or rare species such as the Threats remote Upper Peninsula of Michigan, cougar, lynx, marten and wolverine. As the U.S. Forest Service has run out northern Wisconsin and Minnesota har- The most dominant feature of the of areas to log in other regions, the bor some of the most expansive forests region is water, with hundreds of miles rate of cutting has skyrocketed in the remaining in the lower 48 states. A mix of shoreline on Lake Superior; tens of national forests of the Great Lakes. The of spruce-fir coniferous forest and a thousands of lakes, ponds and wet- state forests in the region have long hardwood mix of aspen, paper birch, lands; and thousands of miles of rivers been grossly mismanaged and continue beech and maple dominate this key- and streams. This keystone forest is to suffer major ecological damage stone forest. This vast forest is home to well-known for its diverse backcountry from logging, road-building and inten- most of the wolves and almost one- recreational opportunities, including sive motorized recreation. A significant half of the bald eagles in the lower 48 hiking, camping, canoeing, boating, threat on both federal and state lands states, as well as other sensitive wildlife fishing, hunting, cross-country skiing, is widespread clearcutting to benefit commonly hunted wildlife, such as deer and ruffed grouse, to the detriment of many sensitive native species. Development on millions of acres of private inholdings and adjacent lands is a significant problem for the public lands of the region, as are expanding road networks and escalating levels of

Chequamegon National Forest, Wisconsin.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 25,868 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 3,614,182 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 0 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 274,677 Forested Wilderness 940,474 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 4,263,189 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 79,999,649 Total Forested Lands 17,117,462

*Available data did not necessarily distinguish wilderness from non-wilderness within national parks, so some wilderness within national parks may be included within this statistic.

14 America’s Keystone Forests

Forest Quality Forest Ownership

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 15

NORTHWEST ROCKIES

Physical Description the time of the Lewis and Clark expe- gered. Much of the nation’s fresh Known as the “American Serengeti,” dition. Many different forest types can water originates here creating the stretching across Idaho and Montana be found here, ranging from wet headwaters for the Columbia River, into the extreme northwest section of forests full of cedar, fir and white pine the Missouri River and even for water eastern Washington, the Northwest to higher-elevation forests of lodge- draining north into Canada’s Hudson Rockies Keystone Forest is part of the pole pine, white-bark pine and sub- Bay. greater North Central Rockies forest alpine fir to drier, lower-elevation This keystone forest is a haven for ecoregion. This keystone forest forests of Ponderosa pine and Douglas outdoor enthusiasts who use the area encompasses the largest expanse of fir. Populations of bighorn sheep, griz- for fishing, hunting, backpacking, rock biological diversity in the lower 48 zly bear, goshawk, elk, caribou and climbing, mountain biking, fly fishing, states and contains the largest con- mountain lion roam the region’s skiing, scenic and whitewater paddling tiguous block of coniferous temperate forests, mountains and grasslands. and camping. Additionally, many locals forest in the Intermountain West. It is Keystone species such as grizzly bear, use these forests to gather mushrooms, the only bioregion outside of Alaska woodland caribou and bull trout have berries and other edibles. that still contains all species present at been listed as threatened and endan- Threats This keystone forest continues to face a myriad of industrial threats from large- scale logging, mining and oil and gas companies. More than 20 million acres of publicly-owned wild lands remain unprotected. Iconic places such as the Rocky Mountain Front, the North Fork of the Flathead River near Glacier

Bitterroot National Forest.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 146,418 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 12,892,751 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 1,297 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 777,195 Forested Wilderness 5,039,447 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 944,869 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 3,287,552 Total Forested Lands 23,089,529

*Available data did not necessarily distinguish wilderness from non-wilderness within national parks, so some wilderness within national parks may be included within this statistic. © BOB CLARK

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National Park, and the Lewis and Clark Written by Jake Kreilick Trail in the Clearwater National Forest National Forest Protection Alliance are all at risk. A relatively new and www.forestadvocate.org growing threat comes from off-road vehicles that cause both ecological damage and social conflict.

Efforts to Increase Protected Areas The Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act (NREPA) proposes a wide array of wilderness designations throughout the region. In contrast to traditional state wilderness bills, designations under NREPA are made according to ecosystems, watersheds and science—not arbitrary political boundaries. NREPA would create more than 18 million acres of new wilderness and designate 1,810 miles of eligible waters as Wild, Scenic and Recreational Rivers. NREPA provides the means to connect the Northwest Rockies Keystone Forest with the neighboring Hells Canyon and Greater Yellowstone ecosystems.

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 17

MOGOLLON

Physical Description best characterized by its vast stands of Southwest Ponderosa pine forests one Stretching from Flagstaff, Arizona Ponderosa pine, the largest of its kind of the nation’s most endangered almost to the Rio Grande Valley in New in the United States, but also is marked ecosystems. Mexico, the Mogollon Keystone Forest by the pinyon-juniper ecosystem of the The Blue Range of Arizona and New marks the southern edge of the upper deserts to the high elevation Mexico is currently the site of the 7,000 Colorado Plateau where it meets the spruce fir forests. The effects of graz- square-mile Mexican gray wolf recov- great Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts. ing, logging and fire suppression since ery area. The jaguar, having once It is part of the larger Arizona the late 1880s on Ponderosa pine roamed these same landscapes, has Mountains forests ecoregion. The forests have been profound. Fire, a crit- made recent forays across the prominent feature is a long escarp- ical component to the Ponderosa pine U.S./Mexico border. The tassel-eared ment, known as the Mogollon Rim, ecology, has been very suppressed for Abert’s squirrel, mule deer, rocky that extends for several hundred miles, many years. There are currently many mountain elk and two seriously imper- with an average elevation of 7,000 efforts, some controversial, to restore iled bird species, the Mexican spotted feet. this ecological process. In 1991, the owl and Northern goshawk, also live The Mogollon Keystone Forest is National Biological Survey declared the among the pines. Critical to the wildlife and human populations of this arid region are its rivers; the most notable being the Gila, Verde, San Francisco and Blue. The Wild and Scenic Verde River is the only river in this keystone forest area that has this status. However several other rivers, including the San

Gila National Forest, New Mexico.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 14,123 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 5,163,744 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 0 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 3,459 Forested Wilderness 937,303 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 62,833 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 349,759 Total Forested Lands 6,531,221

*Available data did not necessarily distinguish wilderness from non-wilderness within national parks, so some wilderness within national parks may be included within this statistic. © USFS

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Forest Quality Forest Ownership

Francisco, are strong candidates. Efforts to Increase Protected Areas Wilderness areas along the Mogollon Several organizations are advocating Country include San Francisco Peaks, for greater protection of the Sky Matazal, Mount Baldy and Blue Islands ecoregion, as well as the Wallow, Gila-Aldo Leopold Complex greater Mogollon Keystone Forest and Blue River Primitive Area. These area, by reforming land management protected areas are considered policies and creating national and biological hotspots. international reserves.

Threats Written by Bryan Bird The major threats to the Mogollon Forest Guardians Keystone Forest include logging, road- www.fguardians.org building, mineral extraction, grazing and water diversion for human consumption. Old-growth logging, however, is not entirely an anachronism, as “forest health” has become the latest dictum of the federal government. The string of federal wilderness serves as anchors for this wild, ponderosa country, but the growing wildland-urban interface presents unique challenges, e.g., maintaining the fire-based ecology.

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 19

SIERRA

Physical Description est is extremely diverse including the the areas of recreation and tourism, The Sierra Keystone Forest, part of the mixed conifer and sequoia forests at currently providing more jobs and larger Sierra Nevada forest ecoregion, higher elevations, the red fir and roughly the same total amount of hosts one of the most diverse and lodgepole pine forests at lower eleva- wages as all the commodity-based sec- extensive forest ecosystems in North tions. The Sequoia National Forest and tors combined. Recreation includes America. These magnificent forests, Monument contains the world- hiking, boating, hunting, rock climbing forming a mixed conifer forest land- renowned groves of giant Sequoia and fishing. This keystone forest, in scape, provide habitat for many imper- trees that are among the oldest and particular, provides a significant pro- iled species, including the California largest trees in the world. The Inyo portion of California’s drinking and spotted owl, Pacific fisher, Northern National Forest is one of the most used agricultural water, including all the goshawk, American marten, Yosemite national forests in the country for drinking water for San Francisco. toad and the mountain yellow-legged recreation. frog. This keystone forest contains one In most Sierra Nevada counties over Threats of the highest levels of mammal the past 25 years, the primary areas of In 2001, the historic Sierra Nevada endemism in North America. The for- growth in the economy have been in Forest Plan Amendment (“the Framework”), affecting 11.5 million acres in 11 national forests, was signed into law. The Sierra Nevada Forest Plan Amendment was the result of 14 years of research, planning and cooperative efforts by the Forest Service, scientists, community activists, business owners and environmentalists. The Framework was the Forest Service’s first compre-

Sequoia National Park, California.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 116,659 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 2,099,926 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 1,153 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 817,691 Forested Wilderness 837,434 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 21,545 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 732,593 Total Forested Lands 4,627,001

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Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 21

KLAMATH SISKIYOU

Physical Description Zane Grey. species of Pacific salmon, the tailed The Klamath-Siskiyou Keystone Forest The Klamath-Siskiyou Keystone frog and various carnivores such as the ranging from Southwest Oregon to Forest is a mixed conifer temperate for- Pacific fisher, pine marten, mountain Northwest California is an area world- est that includes up to 40 species of lion and wolverine. Endangered species renowned for its biological importance conifers, the highest concentration in include the Northern spotted owl, mar- and considered an “Area of Global North America. Douglas fir is the domi- bled murrelet, bald eagle and coho Botanical Significance” by the World nant conifer. The forest also includes salmon. Conservation Union. It has also been several long-lived species of pine and Three main river systems define the proposed as a possible World Heritage fir and endemic tree species such as region: the Umpqua and the Rogue in Site and a United Nations Educational, Port Orford cedar and Brewer’s spruce. the north and the Klamath in the Scientific and Cultural Organization The Klamath-Siskiyou has 3,500 plant south, with many large tributaries and Biosphere Reserve. This forest also has types, 220 of them found nowhere else coastal rivers adding to the mix. The the largest network of remaining road- in the world. There are also wilderness Rogue, Illinois and Trinity Rivers are less wilderness in the Pacific Northwest, areas large enough to support the among those that give the Klamath- including the low-elevation 45,000-acre mountain lion, black bear, several Siskiyou the largest concentration of Wild and Scenic Rivers in the United States. In these rivers are four imperiled fish species: the lost river sucker, the shortnose sucker and the commer- cially valuable Northern California coho salmon and steelhead trout. The area also provides excellent drinking water for local communities and offers world- class fishing, hunting, boating, rafting,

Port Orford cedar in the Siskiyou National Forest, Oregon.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 511,885 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 3,766,652 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 0 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 16,933 Forested Wilderness 1,238,498 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 201,324 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 2,271,563 Total Forested Lands 8,006,855

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Moderate Forested BLM and national forest lands Privately owned forests Forested national parks Wilderness area boundaries Good Forested wilderness areas National park boundaries Best Forested national wildlife refuges National wildlife refuge boundaries Misc. forested public lands and private Urban areas preserves Highways climbing and hiking opportunities. native root disease is killing entire one million acres that includes all or Non-timber resources such as mush- populations of the endemic Port portions of the Siskiyou National rooms, cedar boughs and fisheries con- Orford cedar (considered the most Forest and the BLM Medford District. tribute significant revenue to local endangered forest tree species in The coalition is seeking a combination communities. North America). Off-road vehicles are of increased wilderness areas adjacent another menace, damaging sensitive to the Kalmiopsis, additions to Threats plant communities, wildlife habitat National Research Areas and Wild and Commercial logging, primarily of old- and riparian areas through erosion, Scenic Rivers and restoration zones growth, by the Bureau of Land soil compaction, noise and pollution. which will also help protect the eco- Management, the Forest Service and Cattle grazing harms stream sides logical integrity of the wildest, most private industrial land owners is a where cows congregate, often in intact forest left on the Pacific Coast. huge threat to this keystone forest. high elevation roadless and wilder- Federal logging operations, such as ness areas in the last summer months. Written by Joseph Vaile the Biscuit Salvage, are among the KS Wild largest in the nation and typically Efforts to Increase Protected Areas www.kswild.org include inappropriate responses to The proposed California Wild fire such as logging fire-resistant Heritage Act (S.1555) would expand trees before, during and after fires. several wilderness areas in the south- Mining is also a severe threat to this ern extent of this keystone forest. forest. The antiquated 1872 Mining Also included in this bill are pro- Law allows miners to bulldoze and posed Wilderness Study Areas, as suction-dredge prime salmon spawn- well as Salmon Restoration Areas. ing habitat, degrade river banks, pol- A coalition of groups has also pro- lute sensitive areas and even priva- posed the Siskiyou Wild Rivers Area tize public lands. In addition, a non- for protection. This area encompasses

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 23

PACIFIC NORTHWEST VOLCANIC

Physical Description the most well-known endangered Umpqua National Forest. Outdoor The Pacific Northwest Volcanic species in the area. However, other enthusiasts including hikers, rafters, Keystone Forest is part of the larger threatened species such as the bald kayakers, bikers, hunters, anglers, Central and Southern Cascade forests. eagle, bull trout and a host of salmon mushroom pickers and non-timber This keystone forest is straight out of a also reside in this area. Waldo Lake, product gatherers heavily use this storybook: cascading waterfalls, crystal considered one of the purest lakes in region. clear streams and rivers and ancient the world, is located near the Cascade rainforests. Most of this keystone for- Crest, 60 miles southeast of Eugene. Threats est contains the dominant conifers of The city of Eugene gets its municipal The greatest threat to this keystone Douglas fir, Western hemlock, Western water supply from the magnificent forest is ongoing logging of ancient red cedar, incense cedar, Pacific yew McKenzie River, which has its headwa- forest on public lands administered by and a myriad of true fir. At lower ele- ters in the Willamette National Forest. the BLM and the Forest Service. Over vations, hardwoods such as big leaf The town of Cottage Grove gets its the next 20 years, 1.1 million acres of maple, vine maple and dogwood are municipal water supply from Brice late successional and old-growth forest present. The Northern spotted owl is Creek, in the northern portion of the are slated for logging.

Efforts to Increase Protected Areas The Lewis and Clark Mount Hood Wilderness proposal introduced by Senator Ron Wyden (D-OR) would add 177,000 acres of wilderness and 48 miles of Wild and Scenic River designation around Mount Hood and in the Columbia Gorge. A small percentage of

Mount Hood National Forest, Oregon.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 189,291 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 3,814,425 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 793 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 155,929 Forested Wilderness 897,240 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 10,664 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 629,120 Total Forested Lands 5,697,462

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Forest Quality Forest Ownership

Written by Josh Laughlin Cascadia Wildlands Project www.cascwild.org

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 25

NORTH CASCADES

Physical Description nate the Western slopes. The Eastern pine marten and a few lonely Pacific The North Cascades Keystone Forest, slopes vary from Douglas fir to fisher. Runs of Pacific salmon, steel- ranging from Interstate 90 in Ponderosa pine to lodgepole pine. The head and bull trout vary in health. Washington north to the Canadian valleys start as low as almost sea level The North Cascades is heavily used border, is among the wildest places in and are often separated by high and for recreation by both the urban popu- America. During the months when the rugged ridges that reach to stunning lation around Seattle and the sur- North Cascades Highway (SR 20) is peaks, the highest of which is volcanic rounding rural communities. Hunting, under snow, the area features the Mount Baker at more than 10,000 fishing, hiking, birding, rafting, largest contiguous expanse of roadless feet. In this remote expanse, low pop- rock/mountain climbing, backcountry land left in the lower 48 states. This ulations of grizzly bear, wolverine, skiing and horsepacking are all com- keystone forest stretches between the lynx and cougar are still found and mon. Puget lowland and the Cascade the occasional wolf. The usual list of Mountains leeward forest ecoregions. Northwest forest-dependent species Threats Forests of Douglas fir, Western also live here, from the Northern spot- The North Cascades is presently one of hemlock and Western red cedar domi- ted owl to Pacific giant salamander, the best protected ecosystems in the country, but Bush administration policies related to the logging of dry forests as well as the ongoing rollbacks of Northwest Forest Plan provisions, pose serious threats. There are also significant problems with overgrazing in some areas, excessive recreational use and growing impacts associated with population growth in valleys like the

Mount Shuksan is reflected in Picture Lake in the North Cascades National Park, Washington.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 6,773 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 2,082,560 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 576 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 484,360 Forested Wilderness 1,586,887 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 6,341 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 795,786 Total Forested Lands 4,963,283

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Forest Quality Forest Ownership

Methow and Skagit.

Efforts to Increase Protected Areas The Wild Sky Wilderness Act would permanently protect more than 100,000 acres as a Wild Sky Wilderness Area of wildland in the Mount Baker- Snoqualmie National Forest. This act has passed the Senate twice, but is stalled in the House. Citizen proposals also exist for additional wilderness around Mount Baker and other areas.

Written by Mitch Friedman Northwest Ecosystem Alliance www.ecosystem.org

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 27

ALASKAN COASTAL TEMPERATE

Physical Description coast range hundreds of miles long species of salmon, brown and black The northern limit of North America’s that has peaks typically 5,000 to 10,000 bears, wolves, mountain goats, moose, coastal temperate rainforest is in feet in elevation, reaching to 18,000 deer and bald eagles. The area is also Alaska. This is the rarest forest type on feet. Some islands are also very moun- home to the imperiled Alexander Earth with 38 percent of this ancient tainous and have alpine glaciers. The Archipelago wolf and Queen Charlotte forest in Alaska. This keystone forest is preponderance of land in the keystone goshawk. There are several endemic part of the larger Northern Pacific forest is federal, nearly all of it in the animal populations as a result of the Coastal forest ecoregion. Dominant Tongass and Chugach National Forests island geography. Many scientists tree species are Western hemlock and and Glacier Bay National Park. The believe the viability of several species Sitka spruce, with some Alaska yellow state of Alaska, the University of in the southern part of the keystone cedar in the southern portion. Alaska, the Alaska Mental Health Trust, forest is not assured beyond 100 years Watersheds consist of small to very and a number of for-profit Native cor- under current forest management large islands numbering in the thou- porations have other significant practices. sands, and relatively short mainland landholdings. Biological hotspots are estuaries and rivers with headwaters in a glaciated Important wildlife includes five their surrounding forest, salmon streams and coarse-canopy forest (old- growth stands with large trees that have well-developed crowns and break snowfall well). Coarse-canopy forest was always rare here and now is being heavily targeted by a half-century of industrial scale logging (an estimated two-thirds has been lost). Much of the land area is non-forest (89 percent of

Tongass National Forest, Alaska.

Forested BLM Lands (non-wilderness) 972,067 Forested National Forest Lands (non-wilderness) 7,275,222 Forested National Wildlife Refuge Lands (non-wilderness) 23,875 Forested National Park Lands (non-wilderness)* 706,063 Forested Wilderness 2,989,094 Forested miscellaneous public and private preserves 0 Privately owned, unprotected forest lands 2,323,314 Total Forested Lands 14,289,635

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Forest Quality Forest Ownership

Remaining coastal temperate rainforest Forested BLM and national forest lands Privately owned forests Other forested areas Forested national parks Wilderness area boundaries Forested wilderness areas National park boundaries Forested national wildlife refuges National wildlife refuge boundaries Misc. forested public lands and private Urban areas preserves Highways the Chugach National Forest and 54 low elevation coarse-canopy forest tourism and ecological integrity. percent of the Tongass National stands, often in roadless areas. Active Another area for protection includes Forest), and much of the forested area plans by the state of Alaska to build a the expansion of Kenai Fjords National is scrub forest. Accordingly, old-growth region-wide electrical intertie and to Park to include portions of the habitat is naturally highly fragmented, replace the existing ferry system with Chugach National Forest on Prince and in many places logging has dra- many short ferry hops connected by William Sound. matically increased fragmentation. highways also present significant Native cultures have remained threats to the forest. Written by Greenpeace strong in this keystone forest. Sport At present, there is no significant www.greenpeaceusa.org and subsistence hunting, fishing and timber industry in the northern region. gathering are highly important activi- Proposed road access to the Bering ties in the regional culture (both native coal-field presents one threat. Much of and non-native). Commercial fishing the shoreline/forest interface was dam- for salmon, ground fish and crab is a aged by the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, mainstay of the region. Tourism is also and wildlife populations are stressed. important, ranging from independent travelers who come to hike or kayak to Efforts to Increase Protected Areas cruise ships. Pending legislation: the Alaska Rainforest Conservation Act (H.R. 979) Threats introduced by Rep. Rosa DeLauro (D- The primary threat in the southern por- CT) with more than 100 cosponsors tion of the forest is logging and associ- would permanently protect the ated road-building. Logging in the remaining wildlands of the Tongass region is marginally economic, creating and Chugach National Forests to pro- pressure to target valuable, accessible vide for hunting, fishing, recreation,

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 29

AA BRIEFBRIEF HISTORYHISTORY OFOF PUBLICPUBLIC LANDLAND MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

The early pioneers of conservation did was clearcutting. Consequently, wide- Service in 1907 and designated the not have modern science to draw from spread erosion, floods and rampant for- reserves as national forests. when establishing our nation’s public est fires were the direct result of com- Early governmental attempts to pro- lands. To understand the need for an mercial logging of the unclassified pub- tect America’s lands evolved into three expansion of the protected area net- lic domain lands. The problem did not of the four federal land agencies that work, it is helpful to look first at the go unnoticed. today manage public lands: the U.S. original intent of agencies created to The first action was taken through Forest Service; the U.S. Fish and manage our public lands and trace policy and law, setting aside land that Wildlife Service; and the National Park their evolution and effectiveness to the was to become the foundation for Service. The fourth, the General Land present. Such an understanding will America’s contemporary network of Office, created in 1912 and renamed help determine if these agencies have public lands. In 1889, Secretary of the the Bureau of Land Management in evolved over time, adapting to chang- Interior Carl Schurz addressed the 1946, was originally intended to sell ing circumstance, in order to stay true American Forestry Association, stating land in the public domain to private to their conservation mandate, and if that the unchecked and widespread citizens. they have the capacity and the deter- destruction of the public forests As stated, national “forest reserves,” mination to protect these lands as “would be the murder of our future later to become our national forests, healthy contiguous ecosystems into the prosperity.” He described “a public were created to prevent extensive ero- future. opinion, looking with indifference on sion, devastating floods, watershed At the dawn of the 20th century, this wanton, barbarous, disgraceful destruction and catastrophic fires that citizens and public officials began to vandalism; a spendthrift people reck- were the direct result of unrestrained realize that it was in the nation’s inter- lessly wasting its heritage; government logging in the private sector.19 Wildlife est to protect our natural resources careless of the future and unmindful of refuges were set aside to protect birds from wholesale liquidation by an a pressing duty.”17 and other wildlife from the overex- unchecked private sector. From the In 1891, responding to the concerns ploitation wrought by commercial early 17th century to the middle of the of Secretary Schurz and other public hunters, and national parks were 19th century, America’s forests were land reformers, Congress enacted the established to preserve the undevel- considered unlimited and renewable. Forest Reserve Act giving the president oped scenic wonders of the nation. At this time most forests were cleared the authority to administratively with- Today, one-third of the nation’s to create agricultural land, with the draw and designate land as national landmass, 631 million acres, is under timber being used mostly for construc- forest reserves with the primary eco- the management of these agencies, tion. For nearly 200 years, the Maine nomic activity being limited to grazing, each with a different management pri- Woods provided nearly all the com- not timber production.18 However six ority stretching along a spectrum from mercial demand without excessive years later in 1897, the stage was set strict preservation to full-scale resource drain. By the 1850s the ever-increasing for these reserves to be managed not extraction. With few exceptions, most rate of cut had depleted the Maine only for continuous timber supply, but of America’s federally controlled Woods and was successively replaced also for watershed protection, when forests fall under the jurisdiction of the by heavy logging in New York, Congress passed the Organic Act. In U.S. Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Pennsylvania, Michigan, Minnesota 1905, Congress moved the various for- Management or the National Park and Wisconsin as the principle suppliers est reserves into the Department of Service. of prime timber, up through about Agriculture’s new Forestry Division, There are 155 national forests in the 1900. The dominant method of logging which was renamed the U.S. Forest United States covering 191 million

30 America’s Keystone Forests

acres of forested land stretching from Chart of Public Land Acreage tion is in Alaska Alaska to Puerto Rico.20 Approximately where hunting is 73 percent of this land, or roughly 140 allowed within million acres, is considered forested.21 some national parks 300 Total Acres The Bureau of Land Management man- Wilderness under the 1980 250 ages approximately 55 million acres of Wild Rec. Alaska National 22 commercial forest land. The National 200 Interest Lands Park Service manages 388 national Conservation Act. 150 parks, covering more than 80 million In the early 20th acres including forested and non- 100 century, the Forest forested land. The U.S Fish and Wildlife Service was proac- 50 Service administers 93 million acres in tive in meeting its the National Wildlife Refuge System 0 mission “to sustain [For a more detailed description of the NPS FWS BLM USFS the health, diversi- various public land designations, see ty, and productivity the User’s Guide to Federal Land early advocates of these federal land of the nation’s Protection]. programs exemplify the divergent and forests and grasslands to meet the Historically, it has been either the fundamental differences between needs of present and future genera- Forest Service or the National Park these two agencies today. tions.” Furthermore, Forest Service Service that has administered America’s Gifford Pinchot, the first Chief employees such as Aldo Leopold and public forested lands. The major excep- Forester (1898-1910), promoted sus- Bob Marshall passionately championed tion to this rule is the BLM, which, as tained-yield timber management under wilderness values within the agency. the result of a revoked Congressional the principles of multiple-use forestry However, history has shown that the contract with railroad companies in the that he defined as the “greatest good agency has been extremely susceptible early 1900s, acquired some of the last for the greatest number for the to industry manipulation and the longest time.”23 His was a decidedly changing political winds of passing utilitarian position, but it was still a administrations that have ingrained an significant improvement over the wan- overwhelming timber bias within the ton waste and rapid logging that had agency. Spurred by public concern over characterized timber cutting on private Forest Service practices, temporary lands prior to the establishment of the reforms have been enacted by one National Forest System. administration, only to be wiped away John Muir, founder of the Sierra by subsequent administrations, result- Club and a vocal spokesperson for ing in continued long-term misman- wilderness in his time, stood in contrast agement of our national forests. Today to Pinchot, as the chief spokesman for a century after the agency’s establish- and author about the “preservation” John Muir (1838-1914) of wild lands. Muir served as a popular Founder of the Sierra Club public voice of the basic aesthetic © LIBRARY OF CONGRESS philosophy that emphasized preservation of wilderness while allowing compatible public enjoyment through recreation, education, appreciation and inspiration. Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946) These two divergent management First Chief Forester philosophies continue to differentiate © LIBRARY OF CONGRESS the missions of the Forest Service and the National Park Service today. Then remaining old-growth forests in the and today, the distinction between Pacific Northwest that are today prima- national forests and national parks is rily logged for timber. The lion’s share, that parks do not allow commercial however, of publicly owned forests logging, hunting, grazing, oil and gas remain under the jurisdiction of either extraction or mining, while national the Forest Service or the Park Service. forests allow all of these commercial Interestingly, the philosophies of two extractive activities. The one excep-

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 31

ment this relentless exploitation has left us with only 15 percent of biologi- “I recognize the right of this generation to cally rich old-growth forests. In the develop and use our natural resources, but I do lower 48 states, less than five percent not recognize the right to waste them, or to rob remains.24 As noted above, there have been by wasteful use, the generations that come pivotal moments in history when deep after us.” - Theodore Roosevelt, speech in criticism of Forest Service practices led to some change. However, the effec- Washington, D.C., 1900 tiveness of these reforms were commonly watered down or circumvented by industry lobby, its congressional with a calculated political move of However, when the study was com- allies or a pro-timber administration. shutting down all timber sales across pleted in 1972 both supporters of For example, in the early 1970s, four the Southeast. The political firestorm wilderness and logging were unsatis- events opened the public’s eye to the that ensued eventually led to the 1976 fied. As a result, a second study known Forest Service’s shortsighted policies. National Forest Management Act as RARE II was initiated. RARE II identi- Both the 1970 Bolle Report and the (NFMA), a compromise agreement. fied 62 million acres of roadless areas 1971 Church Report originated from While NFMA guaranteed public par- larger than 5,000 acres. However, by widespread public concern over the ticipation and required that each the time the RARE II study ended in Forest Service timber bias. Both criti- national forest operate according to a 1979, approximately two million acres cized the agency for disregarding the long-term management plan, Congress of this land had logging roads con- protection of environmental services provided few explicit guidelines allow- structed and timber sales. Congress did like watershed and soil protection. The ing the Forest Service to police itself, pass a series of wilderness bills for each 1973 U.S. District Court case, Izaak giving it broad management discretion state that had RARE II areas (except Walton League v. Butz and the two for its timber program.25 The task of Idaho and Montana), creating some Roadless Area Review and Evaluation specific rule making was delegated to a wilderness areas. Some of the RARE II processes (known as RARE I and RARE special committee of respected neutral areas not designated as wilderness II) set in motion opportunities for real forestry professors – known as the were roaded and logged, others reform, but for the most part status “Wise Men.”26 remained intact and were protected quo extraction practices still dominate In 1980 the Wise Men released a under Clinton’s Roadless Area today. comprehensive set of rules, which if Conservation Rule. Izaak Walton League v. Butz ruled, implemented, could have dramatically With the election of Ronald Reagan, based on an interpretation of the 1897 reduced the strong logging bias within the 1980s were characterized by Organic Act, that clearcutting was ille- the Forest Service.27 However, the increased logging, below-cost timber gal in the Monongahela National administration of the newly-elected sales, and the building of more logging Forest in West Virginia. After losing an President Ronald Reagan simply roads. The result was increased appeal, the Forest Service responded rewrote the Wise Men’s rules keeping entrenchment of timber industry influ- the Forest Service status quo intact. ence over the Forest Service. The two simultaneous Forest Service The period was typified by the Roadless Area Review and Evaluation Undersecretary at the Department of processes, RARE I and RARE II, emerged Agriculture, John Crowell, a former from the burgeoning wilderness and Louisiana Pacific executive who environmental movement of the early unabashedly stated, “One of my major 1970s, which had influenced Forest initiatives has been to speed up harvest Service policy by forcing it to take into of slow-growing or decadent, over- account the impacts of industrial activi- mature timber stands in the Pacific ties on wilderness proposals. In Northwest, the old-growth.”28 response, the Forest Service initiated The public reaction to the public the Roadless Area Review and lands timber boom of the 1980s once Evaluation for all roadless areas in again resulted in widespread discon- order to determine which area should tent, due in large part to the massive qualify as wilderness. destruction of old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest, and the scientific Grey Wolf discovery of old-growth-dependent

32 America’s Keystone Forests

species such as the Northern spotted to dismantle campaign promises by History shows that the Forest Service owl. Newly-elected President Bill starting to dismantle the landmark has taken a radical departure from the Clinton responded by establishing an “Roadless Rule” shortly after taking ideals of men like Pinchot, Leopold and 18-month moratorium on road con- office. In July 2003, the administration Marshall. In a recent analysis of eastern struction in national forest roadless exempted Alaska’s Tongass and national forests, Jim Furnish, a 34-year areas in 1999 and directed the Forest Chugach National Forests, America’s Forest Service employee and once Service to prepare an environmental largest and second largest national Deputy Chief of the U.S. Forest Service impact statement on any future road forests, from the rule. (1999-2001), argued that today the construction in roadless areas. One year later, the administration Forest Service deliberately minimizes In 2001, after 600 public meetings announced its proposal to replace the and eliminates opportunities to protect and more than 2.5 million people in 50 rule nationwide with a state petition the last intact roadless forests in the states had commented, President system. Under the plan each state will eastern United States. Furnish cites Clinton enacted the Roadless Area be removed from the rule, requiring “repeated, fundamental, and willful Conservation Rule. The rule prohibited individual state governors to petition errors” in following the agency’s own road-building in more than 58.5 million the U.S. Department of Agriculture if regulations revealing “a growing anti- acres of unspoiled national forests they wish to opt back in. The wilderness bias within the Forest while allowing hunting, fishing and Department of Agriculture reserves Service that results in deeply flawed recreation to continue. However, this the right to refuse any request. recommendations” presented to would not last. Undersecretary Mark Rey, a former 18- Congress.29 Just as President Reagan had rewrit- year timber industry lobbyist, is likely ten the Wise Men rules, President to make the ultimate decision on any George W. Bush reversed and started petition.

Myths and Realities about National Parks

Myth: National parks are being loved to Myth: Existing national parks are too four federal land managing agencies. death. expensive, so how can we afford more? LWCF revenue is derived from a restricted account in the U.S. Treasury, provided Reality: The assertion that parks are not Reality: It is true that none of the public from outer continental shelf oil and gas a viable conservation option because land agencies are receiving sufficient leasing royalties. The LWCF receives some they are overrun with people is false. All funding from Congress to manage our $900 million per year of these royalties, development within parks occupies less public lands well. However, because of its and Congress appropriates as much of than one percent of the total land base. popularity, the National Park Service this as it chooses to each of the agencies. Even areas such as the South Rim Village fares considerably better than its sister Over the life of the LWCF, the NPS has of Grand Canyon National Park occupy agencies. For the establishment of new received far more than the other three less than one percent of the park. Most parks, such as Congress transferring a agencies combined, both because of its of the remaining land is either statutory national forest to the National Park greater popularity, and because Congress or de facto wilderness, and will be man- Service, the cost would not be a wholly has specifically authorized park bound- aged that way in perpetuity, by policy, new federal expenditure, since the per- aries, including private lands that the regulation and law. sonnel, maintenance and operational NPS is directed to purchase at fair market Making the best-known spots within a funds now being expended by the Forest value. LWCF funds cannot be used for park available to many visitors gives Service should be transferred along with maintenance and operations of federal national parks a potent political con- the land. lands, and thus, do not compete with stituency that significantly helps the these other activities for needed funding National Park Service (NPS) secure fund- Myth: National parks’ land acquisition in the appropriations process. Taxpayer ing for its work. Keeping the vast majori- takes funding away from operation and funds, as is often asserted, do not get ty of park lands undeveloped–park policy maintenance of existing parks. diverted from management and mainte- for more than 100 years–is the reason nance of public lands to acquire addition- that national parks provide better biodi- Reality: The Land and Water al acres of public lands. versity protection than any other federal Conservation Fund (LWCF), established in land designation. 1965, funds land purchases for any of the

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 33

ECONOMICS:ECONOMICS: OUROUR LAND,LAND, OUROUR TAXTAX DOLLARSDOLLARS WASTEDWASTED

It is a long-standing fact that Forest sales—losses roughly equivalent to the that would bring a halt to road-build- Service timber sales cost the govern- agency’s entire forest management ing, but their efforts were killed in ment more money to prepare and budget.33 Congress. President Clinton responded administer than they recoup from tim- A primary expense for public lands by issuing the Roadless Area ber companies that bid on the sales. logging is the pre-sale road-building Conservation Rule, which as stated pre- Even though Congress has held numer- which is paid for by the U.S. taxpayer. viously, is now being eliminated by ous oversight hearings, grilled hun- Between fiscal years 1998 and 2002, President George W. Bush. dreds of witnesses under oath and the timber industry was given more Another factor related to the eco- introduced legislation in several con- than $140 million in taxpayer subsidies nomic failure of the public land’s tim- gressional sessions to stop this money- for timber road construction.34 Even as ber sale programs is the failure to losing practice, no effective change in the American people subsidize these account for the economic value of envi- law has been enacted. Independent new roads, there is a backlog on road ronmental services and non-timber for- analysis has concluded that the total maintenance of more than $10 bil- est products provided by these lands. net loss to taxpayers from the timber lion.35 The lack of road maintenance, By law, the Forest Service must maxi- sales program on national forests has including decommissioning roads, also mize the net social and economic con- averaged more than $1 billion per year has serious ramifications for the tributions of national forests to the between 1997-1999.30 The nonpartisan nation’s fresh water quality. According American people. Furthermore, the Taxpayers for Common Sense reported to former Undersecretary of Forest Service is required to establish in 1998 that 105 of the 111 national Agriculture Jim Lyons, “Our number that the social and economic values forests operated at a loss.31 one water quality problem in the associated with timber production are The Forest Service’s own accounting National Forest System is roads.”36 greater than the values for other uses procedures are so deplorable that, in Both Presidents George H.W. Bush such as recreation and environmental 2001, the Government Accounting and Bill Clinton developed legislation services37 (continued on page 37). Office stated that these practices “made it impracticable, if not impossible, for us or anyone to accurately determine the Forest Service’s timber sales program costs.”32 The fiscal track record of the Bureau of Land Management, which has been scrutinized to a much lesser degree, is equally disturbing. A study conducted by Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility of BLM’s public domain timber sales shows widespread noncom- pliance with the agency’s own policies and regulations. As much as half of the agency’s timber was removed without proper payment from the timber industry. Furthermore, nearly all BLM forestry programs lose money on their timber

34 America’s Keystone Forests

The Bureau of Land Management and the Ancient Forests of Western Oregon Much of Oregon’s forest, especially that The old-growth forests in the coast tions for the benefit of the timber indus- in the West, has been fraught with a range managed by the BLM are warm try. One of those proposed timber sales is legacy of timber industry domination fog-covered rainforests where trees grow Kelsey Whiskey in the Zane Grey with both state and federal governments astounding large in half the time. The Roadless Area.50 facilitation. From the late 19th century, BLM and the timber industry assumed In response to the NFP, the timber industry has been able to grab forest they were made for logging and started industry sued the BLM, claiming any land, log it, get the government to create clearcutting. “reserves” are illegal on O&C lands. It lost and maintain logging roads, buy timber Systematic clearcutting accelerated when Judge William Dwyer ruled in 1994 from government lands and unduly stop during WWI when the U.S. government that the BLM must comply with the environmental protections. Industry’s logged the Sitka spruce groves for air- Endangered Species Act and that the stronghold, especially over the Bureau of plane construction. However, by the time O&C land was critically important to the Land Management, continues today, the government built the roads and rails Northern spotted owl’s survival. Judge leading to the demise of some of the last into the Sitka spruce groves, the war had Dwyer also ruled that the O&C Act remaining ancient forests in the United ended and the timber barons were sold required the BLM to “look not only to States. the logging infrastructure for virtually annual timber production but also to pro- In 1866, the U.S. government granted nothing.46 After WWII, the G.I. Bill hous- tecting watersheds, contributing to eco- 3.7 million acres to the O&C railroad with ing boom also accelerated clearcutting. nomic stability, and providing recreation- the requirement that it sell the land to Clearcutting and log transportation al facilities,” as required by the 1937 O&C settlers.38 Not too long afterward, the took a huge toll on forest ecology. Logs Act. The court ruling confirmed that the Great Lakes’ timber reserves were run- were moved to markets from the steep BLM old-growth reserves were an inte- ning dry. With timber and forest land slops via “splash dams,” destroying thou- gral part of the NFP–it could not work value increasing, the Pacific Northwest sands of miles of salmon–spawning without their inclusion.51 forests became a timber industry target.39 streams by scouring out the stream chan- The timber industry appealed Dwyer’s The O&C owned some of the highest nels.47 By the 1960s, the salmon popula- ruling, but settled in 1997.52 However, the value forest land in Oregon, and in 1894, tion was a tiny percent of its former Bush administration, with its paybacks to in violation of the government land grandeur. By the 1970s, most of the pri- big timber, re-opened the case. As a grant, it began to sell large swaths of it vate land had been converted to young result, in fiscal year 2005, the BLM must to the timber industry. 40 In 1908, the fed- tree plantations and the pressure to fin- offer timber sales consistent with the eral government sued the O&C railroad ish off the BLM old-growth increased. highest estimates of the NFP.53 Other for not selling the land grants to Between 1983 and 1990, more than requirements include: BLM selling 300 settlers.41 But it was not until 1916 that 200,000 log truck loads per year hauled million board-feet per year of timber the U.S. government reclaimed all of the away the old-growth rainforests on pub- (60,000 truck loads) in the old-growth unsold O&C lands and the Coos Bay lic O&C lands in western Oregon.48 reserves (creating a first ever target vol- Military Wagon Road, totaling about 2.8 Clearcutting on these lands spurred envi- ume in the Late Successional Reserves); a million acres.42 ronmental groups to protest the BLM’s BLM test of the NFP assumptions (e.g., These revested lands were to be man- gross mismanagement. whether permanent wildlife reserves are aged by the General Land Office that in In the early 1990s, with the Northern even necessary); and by 2008, a BLM for- 1946, along with the U.S. Grazing spotted owl and marbled murrelet criti- est plan revision that will consider at Service, became the BLM. The govern- cally endangered, lawsuits resulted in the least one alternative that removes all ment was to manage this land under creation of the Northwest Forest Plan reserves from O&C lands.54 This kind of multiple use as specified by the 1937 (NFP) in 1994. The NFP mandated forest alternative could eliminate all old- O&C Act.43 The O&C Act also provided a restoration, designated some of the old- growth, stream-side and recreation payment of 50 percent of gross timber growth into land reserves (Late reserves, further entrenching timber receipts to the local counties,44 spurring Successional Reserves) and required trees industry domination and forest local governments to be strong logging near streams to be permanently protect- destruction. advocates. Oregon’s coastal forests were ed. Unfortunately, about 40 percent of Written by Francis Eatherington, now divided up in a checkerboard pat- these “reserves” had already been Umpqua Watersheds and Greenpeace tern with some land owned by the tim- clearcut.49 Meanwhile, more than one mil- ber industry obtained through fraudulent lion acres of publicly owned old-growth land deals45 and some squares managed forests were not put in reserves and are by the BLM under the O&C Act of 1937. available for conversion to tree planta-

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 35

“Over the long haul of life on this planet, it is the ecologists, and not the bookkeepers of business, who are the ultimate accountants.” - Stewart Udall, 1970

Economic Values of Ecological Services

Recreation Protection from Catastrophic Fire The Forest Service estimated that the economic value of Fire is part of the natural evolutionary process of many recreation in national forests was $6.8 billion in 1993, forests, and natural intact forests actually reduce the risk and that by 2045 it will grow to $12.7 billion.55 of catastrophic fire. As a natural ecological disturbance, Recreation, fishing and hunting contributed more than fire gives rise to a mosaic of habitats and age stands, $111 billion to the gross domestic product (GDP), creat- creating a positive impact on biodiversity.63 Fire releases ing more than 2.9 million jobs each year. cone seeds from species such as the Giant sequoia, lodgepole pine and Ponderosa pine and redistributes Clean Water nutrients to the soil, benefiting new growth. One of the most important environmental services that Under the guise of fire prevention, President Bush our national forests provide is fresh water. National pushed through Congress his so-called “Healthy Forests forests are the single largest source of fresh water in Initiative (HFI),” which directs logging to remote, intact the United States.56 Over 60 million Americans, served forests in one part of the country to pay for the thinning by 3,400 public water systems, depend on national of fire prone forests in another. The result is that truly forests for their drinking water.57 Each year, national “healthy” forests, such as old-growth, become roaded forests provide more than 173 trillion gallons per year and thinned, making them more susceptible to cata- at an estimated value of $27 billion per year.58 strophic fire. In November 2000, the Forest Service Water utility companies spend tens of millions of dol- reported that “the number of large fires are dramatically lars on water filtration that would not be necessary if sur- higher in areas that are already roaded than in invento- rounding forest had been left standing rather than ried roadless areas.”64 clearcut by taxpayer subsidized logging operations. Additionally, once logged, many national forests are prone Climate to flooding, mudslides and stream destruction due to run It is estimated that the climate regulation benefits associ- off and siltation. In 1996, after logging-induced cata- ated with the 58.5 million acres of roadless areas in nation- strophic floods, the Forest Service spent more than $100 al forests are worth $490 million annually.65 million to repair roads destroyed by floods and mudslides.59 U.S. Agriculture Public forest lands also provide important habitat for Non-Timber Forest Products species that either feed on agricultural pests or pollinate Public forests contain non-timber products, such as crops. Ladybugs, birds, bats, bees, amphibians and but- medicinal plants, mushrooms and floral greens and terflies are all critical elements to U.S. agriculture. boughs. The Forest Service estimates that more than Research has estimated that the potential contribution 450,000 families rely upon non-timber products harvest- of these wild pollinators to the agricultural economy is ed from national forests.60 In Oregon and Washington, approximately $4 to $7 billion per year.”66 national forests non-timber products provided about $300 million to the regional economy in 1992.61 These products are also critical sources of subsistence foods. In Southeast Alaska, the average household consumes an average of 889 pounds per year of edible forest products, including 295 pounds of salmon.62 Alaska wild salmon are dependent on forest streams for their spawning grounds.

36 America’s Keystone Forests

Specific requirements related to social quantitative analysis of the socio-eco- ber accounts for less than three per- and economic analysis are contained in nomic cost created by logging.69 cent of the total value of goods and at least nine separate statutes, regula- Showing further negligence, 66 per- services from national forests, while tions and guides, including the cent of the projects did not even con- recreation and fish and wildlife con- Multiple Use and Sustain Yield Act, the tain the basic type of financial analysis tribute to more than 84 percent.71 National Forest Management Act, the comparing monetary costs and bene- National forest land alone generates National Environmental Policy Act and fits.70 31 times more jobs and 38 times more the Forest Service’s own Manual and The close relationship with timber revenue through recreation and Handbook. Within the framework of companies and their trade associa- tourism than logging.72 Yet historically, these statutes, the Forest Service must tions, all of which benefit from the the Forest Service has maintained a show that the public is better off eco- low-cost supply, is another factor driv- blatant disregard for the non-timber nomically with the logging program ing non-sustainable logging levels and value of its lands. than without. maintaining the status quo despite its To make these determinations, the economic absurdity. Trade associations Forest Service is required to estimate lobby Congress and gain political all costs associated with logging appointees who serve in top-level posi- incurred by society, and compare these tions within the key government agen- costs with the economic benefits of cies. Today, this is best exemplified by logging. If the costs to the American President Bush’s appointment of Mark public outweigh the benefits to the Rey as Undersecretary for Natural timber industry, then no logging Resources, with the Forest Service should occur.67 The Forest Service’s under his direct purview. refusal to conduct this type of analysis From a purely economic standpoint, is in direct violation of statute, regula- our tax dollars would be better spent if tion, rule and directive.68 A 1999 review our national forests were left standing. of 203 Final Timber Sale Decision docu- Independent economists and the Forest Brown Bear (Grizzly), Annan Creek, Tongass National Forest, Alaska. ments showed that none contained a Service itself have estimated that tim-

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 37

GEORGEGEORGE W:W: BUSH:BUSH: AMERICA’SAMERICA’S WORSTWORST ENVIRONMENTALENVIRONMENTAL PRESIDENTPRESIDENT

Under President George W. Bush, the water and wetland protection stan- president appointed veteran industry United States is experiencing the most dards and blatantly ignores public com- lobbyists to oversee key government significant dismantling of environmen- ments against resource extraction. The positions. The administration has also tal laws in our history. Simultaneously, administration has opposed the cre- quietly settled multiple lawsuits with Americans are experiencing an ation of new national parks, cut the the logging industry, undermining unprecedented restriction in their abili- National Park Service’s management negotiated agreements and court- ty to participate in public land man- budget, and fired Park Service employ- approved decisions. Further subverting agement decisions. The Bush adminis- ees who spoke to the press about the legal system, the administration tration has manipulated policy, regula- budget cuts.73 It has opposed the desig- has exempted government agencies tion, legislative initiatives, budgets and nation of new wildlife refuges, new from following specific legal require- day-to-day decision making to weaken endangered species listings and critical ments in cases where the courts have or diminish the standard of conserva- habitat conservation plans. It has ruled against logging plans. The tion management of America’s federal opposed new wilderness designation or administration is also pushing some of public lands. The administration has other special conservation designations the largest logging projects in history. adopted a philosophy for federal land within other public lands. Controversial decisions, such as changes management that places the highest During the 2000-2002 election cycle, to the National Forest Management priority on resource extraction and the timber industry alone gave more Act or exempting the Tongass and development. It supports rapid expan- than $3.3 million combined to the Chugach National Forests from the sion of oil and gas leasing, expedites Bush/Cheney ticket and the Republican Roadless Rule, are made on the eve of approval of mining claims, relaxes air, National Committee.74 In return, the national holidays when the media and public are least attentive.

President George W. Bush on his ranch in Crawford, Texas.

38 America’s Keystone Forests

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

It is clear that the Forest Service has not evolved over time [California] and Voyageurs [Minnesota] were all created, at in order to guarantee the protection of the last vital forest least in part, from national forest or forest reserve lands. In regions it administers. In response to this failure a reclassifi- addition, many wilderness areas have been created on cation of important forest areas is urgently needed to national forests and BLM land giving them permanent pro- ensure the long-term conservation of America’s last great, tection from industrial exploitation. Many of these reclassifi- wild regions. cations and increased protective measures were established History has shown that such protection will only be guar- over the objections of the Forest Service and the timber, min- anteed by transferring these lands away from the Forest ing, energy or grazing industries. Service to other agencies and designations. As we have On the centennial anniversary of the Forest Service, the seen, one generation’s hard-fought agency reform or policy United States is confronted with a situation very similar to change can be easily dismantled by another. Indeed 40 that facing President Theodore Roosevelt when he helped years of environmental policy and law, such as the create the agency. An unchecked private sector has created a Wilderness Act, the National Environmental Policy Act, the modern-day version of Roosevelt’s robber barons who are National Forest Management Act, the Northwest Forest closely allied with powerful politicians and who seek short- Plan, the Sierra Nevada Framework and the Roadless Area term profits at the public’s expense. President Roosevelt, one Conservation Rule have been eliminated or rendered mean- of our greatest environmental presidents, a Republican and a ingless by the Bush administration in the last four years conservative, took action and so must we. alone. Roosevelt’s vision has been corrupted as the U.S. Forest Reclassification is not a new concept. Some of the Service has evolved on a single trajectory of rapid liquidation nation’s best public lands currently managed as national of native forests and insufficient restoration. Accordingly, the parks were once national forests and were converted by United States must once again take bold initiatives to acts of Congress. National parks such as Glacier [Montana], protect our last remnants of wild forests in parks and wilder- Glacier Bay [Alaska], Grand Teton [Wyoming], North ness areas. With less than three percent of America’s timber Cascades [Washington], Olympic [Washington], Rocky production coming from our federal forests,75 the United Mountain [Colorado], Sequoia and Kings Canyon States can well afford to take gallant action once again.

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 39

RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS

To achieve long-lasting protection of our national forests, 5) Full funding should be given to the National Park Greenpeace recommends the following: Service and the National Wildlife Preservation System. The National Park Service's current budget of $1.3 billion falls 1) A moratorium on large-scale commercial logging and short by at least $600 million. road construction should be instituted in forests administered by the Forest Service and Bureau of Land 6) Agencies with a primary mandate for conservation and Management. The moratorium allows a "time out," a period natural resource protection (such as the National Park to investigate the mismanagement of our public lands, assess Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife) should be organized ecological integrity and devise appropriate remedies before under a new cabinet-level department. This would eliminate further damage is done. the conflicting mandates that exist within departments such as Interior, Agriculture and Commerce. 2) Forest lands administered by the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management that are of environmental, 7) Forest management laws and regulations weakened or social and cultural significance, such as the identified key- eliminated by the Bush administration must be immediately stone forests, should be given some form of increased feder- reinstated. These include, but are not limited to, the al or state protection. This can be achieved by designating Northwest Forest Plan, the National Forest Management Act, the lands as wilderness or transferring them to either the the Roadless Area Conservation Rule and the Sierra Nevada National Park Service or the Department of Fish and Wildlife, Framework. depending on the circumstances of the region. 8) Intact forests in the United States store vast amounts of 3) All pending national park proposals and wilderness leg- carbon in soil and plants that are released by deforestation. islation to protect forests currently designated as national Global warming (climate change) is a significant threat to forest, BLM or private land should be enacted immediately. forest stability, already impacting forest health, from shifts in species distribution to increasing droughts, fire and pest 4) The management of land remaining under the Forest infestation. Therefore, policies and measures to solve global Service's jurisdiction should be focused on ecological restora- warming must be valued as forest protection actions. tion, non-timber forest products and recreation. All large- Protection of ecologically diverse national forests must con- scale industrial activity should cease. The bipartisan National sider increasing demands for resiliency and adaptation to cli- Forest Protection Act is currently the best framework to mate change, including north-south species migration corri- achieve this goal. dors and buffer zones around forest reserves.

40 America’s Keystone Forests

AA USER’SUSER’S GUIDEGUIDE TOTO FEDERALFEDERAL LANDLAND PROTECTIONPROTECTION

The purpose of this User’s Guide is to The designation of wilderness areas cause wilderness proposals to be con- inform activists and citizens about the requires an act of Congress. The criteria troversial and make wilderness legisla- various forms of federal land manage- for new wilderness areas are set in the tion difficult to pass. ment that can provide increased pro- Wilderness Act. Wilderness is defined Federal land management agencies tection. For each land classification, in the act as an area of undeveloped usually fail to adequately consider one will find general background federal land that meets the following roadless areas for their potential for information, an explanation of how criteria: wilderness protection. Instead, designa- such areas are established, and issues G generally appears to have been tion of new wilderness has almost to consider when deciding on the best affected primarily by the forces of always been driven by the efforts of protection approach for a particular nature, with the imprint of man’s work concerned citizens. This tradition con- area. The following are the major pub- substantially unnoticeable; tinues today, with citizen-inspired lic land categories, listed from most G has outstanding opportunities for wilderness legislation pending or protected to least protected: solitude or a primitive and unconfined planned for a number of states and ter- type of recreation; ritories, including Alaska, California, NATIONAL WILDERNESS G has at least 5,000 acres or is of suf- Colorado, the northern Rocky PRESERVATION SYSTEM ficient size as to make practical its Mountains, Puerto Rico, Utah, Vermont preservation and use in an unimpaired and Washington. Background condition; and The National Wilderness Preservation G may also contain ecological, geo- NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM System is not an independent federal logical, or other features of scientific, land system. Congress may designate educational, scenic or historical value. Background wilderness areas only on existing feder- Most national park areas are created al lands that meet the wilderness crite- Issues to Consider by an act of Congress. First, a “special ria set out in the act. This includes land By the mid-1980s, the creation of new resource study” conducted by the managed by the National Park Service, wilderness areas had become the major National Park Service is usually U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. offensive strategy of land preservation required. After the study is completed, Forest Service and Bureau of Land activists. Wilderness designation Congress must pass a bill that authoriz- Management. ensures strong and lasting protection. es the establishment of a new National Wilderness areas are protected from Unfortunately, many important areas Park System unit. Each unit has its own the construction of roads, dams or are ineligible for designation under the unique authorizing legislation. The other permanent structures. Timber Wilderness Act. Most of the nation’s National Park System is made up of a cutting, new mining claims and mineral federal public lands do not qualify wide range of natural, historic and leasing, oil and gas development and because of the presence of roads or archaeological units. Each has a differ- motorized vehicles and equipment are other factors. Land that is state-owned ent purpose and thus permits different prohibited. Special provisions in the or privately owned cannot be designat- activities within its boundaries. This law allow firefighting, insect and dis- ed under the Wilderness Act. allows national parks to be tailored in ease control and emergency actions to Another major problem is a lack of creative ways to address site-specific insure the health and safety of people. public awareness about federal wilder- problems and opportunities. The law allows certain non-conforming ness designation. For example, what There are more than 30 different pre-existing uses, such as livestock designations allow hunting and which National Park System classifications all grazing, to continue. prohibit it? Lack of knowledge can under the jurisdiction of the National

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 41

Park Service. The following are the allowed in most national seashores and NATIONAL WILD AND SCENIC most useful designations for land pro- lakeshores unless otherwise specified in RIVERS SYSTEM tection activists, listed from the most the authorizing legislation. protected to least protected category: Background National Recreation Areas The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 National Park Wilderness Originally, national recreation areas establishes the Wild and Scenic Rivers Designated wilderness areas in national (NRAs) were units surrounding reser- System that includes “wild,”“scenic” parks have the strongest protection of voirs impounded by other federal and “recreational” rivers. Wild rivers any federal public lands. They prohibit agencies. The concept of recreation must be “essentially primitive and not only the activities banned under areas has grown to include other lands waters unpolluted.” Scenic rivers are the Wilderness Act, but also livestock and waters protected by Congress for “largely primitive and shorelines large- grazing, which is permitted in most recreational use, including major areas ly undeveloped.” Recreational rivers other federal wilderness areas. There in urban centers. The focus is primarily “are readily accessible by road or rail- are currently 54 National Park System on providing public recreation while road” and “may have some develop- wilderness areas totaling almost 44 mil- preserving natural values. National ment along their shorelines, and...may lion acres. New National Park System recreation areas are generally the most have undergone some impoundment wilderness requires an act of Congress. developed and intensively used of the or diversion in the past.” natural area National Park System Wild and Scenic Rivers include a National Preserves units. However, with few exceptions half-mile corridor on both sides of the A national preserve is a unit of the they still provide protection from log- river and prohibit the construction of National Park System that is identical in ging, livestock grazing, mining, oil and new dams or other diversions. Wild management policy and intent to that gas drilling and other extractive activi- and Scenic Rivers can be designated on of a national park, except that ties. federal, state, or private lands and pro- Congress has authorized a particular vide for the acquisition of private lands activity or type of use in each that does Issues to Consider within the river corridor. not occur in a national park. For exam- Along with federal wilderness areas, There are currently 175 designated ple, national preserves in Alaska allow national parks have proven over time units of the National Wild and Scenic sport hunting and trapping. to provide the strongest and most per- Rivers System encompassing 11,329 manent protection for large wild land- miles of river. They are managed pri- National Monuments scapes. The average new national park marily by various federal agencies, National monuments are intended to takes many years to go from vision to including the National Park Service, the preserve at least one nationally signifi- reality. However, once a national park Forest Service, the Bureau of Land cant resource. They are usually created is created, the land's preservation is a Management and the U.S. Fish and under the Antiquities Act of 1906, battle that will not have to be fought Wildlife Service. Several rivers are man- which authorizes the president to again. It is no coincidence that the aged by state agencies. declare by public proclamation land- most ecologically intact landscapes in marks, structures and other objects of the United States are centered on National Wild and Scenic River historic or scientific interest situated on national parks or wilderness areas. Protection Options lands owned or controlled by the gov- A number of campaigns are under- The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act desig- ernment to be national monuments. way to create new National Park nated 156 rivers for immediate inclu- System units to protect significant for- sion in the National Wild and Scenic National Rivers, Seashores and est lands. The most prominent of these Rivers System. It also provided for the Lakeshores park proposals are Blackwater Canyon study of additional rivers for potential National rivers preserve ribbons of land National Park (West Virginia), Hells inclusion in the system, and included bordering on free-flowing streams, Canyon-Chief Joseph National Preserve an initial list of 136 study rivers. After a which have not been dammed, chan- (Idaho, Oregon and Washington), study has been completed, rivers can neled or otherwise altered. These areas Maine Woods National Park and be authorized for inclusion in the allow recreational activities such as hik- Preserve (Maine) and Mount Hood National Wild and Scenic Rivers System ing, canoeing and hunting. National National Park (Oregon). by an act of Congress or by individual rivers include several variations, such as state legislation submitted for the national river and recreation area, Wild Interior secretary’s approval. and Scenic River and scenic river way. In 1982, the National Park Service National seashores and lakeshores completed the extensive National are very similar in purpose and man- Rivers Inventory (updated in 1993), agement to national rivers. Hunting is that listed river segments that are free-

42 America’s Keystone Forests

flowing and have one or more “out- development and low public use. Many the United States today. This is an standingly remarkable values.” Most of endangered wildlife species have important and unfinished part of the the rivers studied under the Wild and recovered due, in large part, to nation- American land conservation agenda. Scenic Rivers Act and the National al wildlife refuges. However, national Rivers Inventory have not yet been des- wildlife refuges do not necessarily NATIONAL FORESTS ignated as Wild and Scenic Rivers. ensure the same level of protection as wilderness or National Park System Background Issues to Consider units (see below). The National Forest System encompass- The prohibition of new dams and es 191 million acres of national forests water diversions alone makes it worth National Wildlife Refuge Protection and national grasslands. These lands adding rivers to the Wild and Scenic Options are managed for a wide range of Rivers System. Depending on the river Many national wildlife refuges contin- “multiple uses,” including resource classification and land management ue to permit uses that are clearly dam- extraction (such as logging, livestock agency, designation under the Wild aging to native biodiversity. Some grazing, mining, and oil and gas and Scenic Rivers Act can significantly refuges face massive threats, such as drilling), recreation (such as hiking, strengthen river corridor protection. the proposed drilling for oil and gas in camping, skiing, hunting, fishing, off- Although a Wild and Scenic River des- the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, roading and snowmobiling), watershed ignation does not ensure the protec- and several already have active oil and protection and animal and plant tion of private lands, it provides a gas wells. Intensive wildlife manipula- habitat. mechanism for public acquisition, tion is often practiced and commercial which can make future protection livestock grazing is allowed in most of National Forest Protection Options possible. the western refuges. Sport hunting, Citizen activists from around the coun- which is allowed in more than half of try have been working to change the NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE the national wildlife refuges, is consid- Forest Service mandate to focus on SYSTEM ered by many conservationists to be conservation rather than resource inconsistent with the purpose of the development and intensive recreation. Background refuge system. This approach offers great promise, but The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service New national wildlife refuges can be it is a long-term effort. There are other administers the 93 million-acre created through specific legislation by options that may offer a better chance National Wildlife Refuge System the U.S. Congress to authorize the of providing permanent protection in (NWRS). The mission of the National establishment of a refuge or an expan- the near-term. The section below ranks Wildlife Refuge System is to “adminis- sion. Moreover, there are a number of these options from the most protected ter a national network of lands and options for providing key national to the least protected: water for the conservation, manage- wildlife refuge lands with a higher ment and where appropriate, restora- level of protection. These options National Forest Wilderness tion of the fish, wildlife and plant include the designation of qualified One option that offers permanent pro- resources and their habitats within the lands under the National Wilderness tection is to designate important United States for the benefit of present Preservation System, the transfer of national forest lands as wilderness. and future generations of Americans.” certain areas to the National Park There are currently 406 national forest The NWRS includes 535 National System or the designation of areas as wilderness areas totaling almost 35 mil- Wildlife Refuges and other areas, total- additions to the National Wild and lion acres. As with all wilderness desig- ing 91 million acres of land and water. Scenic River System. nations, creating new national forest The 1997 National Wildlife Refuge wilderness requires an act of Congress. System Improvement Act requires Issues to Consider Unfortunately, most national forest development of management plans for Few major new units have been added lands do not meet Wilderness Act crite- each refuge in the system, sets stan- to the National Wildlife Refuge System ria for designation. Moreover, national dards for refuge protection and estab- in recent years. Meanwhile, conserva- forest wilderness areas often permit lishes that the first purpose of refuge tionists have been so overwhelmed by commercial livestock grazing, a use management is to protect biodiversity. the protection of national forests and that degrades wilderness values. In terms of on-the-ground manage- Bureau of Land Management lands ment, many national wildlife refuges that they have paid relatively little National Wild and Scenic Rivers have fairly strong protection. They do attention to providing better protec- Designation under the Wild and Scenic not allow commercial logging, mining tion for our existing national wildlife Rivers Act offers another layer of pro- and most other industrial activities. refuges. In fact, there is no active tection for rivers in national forests. They usually have minimal recreational national wildlife refuge movement in Wild rivers can preserve primitive river

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 43

corridors with little, if any, extraction national forest management. However, National Conservation Areas and development. Unfortunately, the they still allow a number of damaging The Bureau of Land Management Forest Service often permits damaging land uses. If the goal is preservation of administers 13 national conservation activities, such as logging, livestock lands free from resource extraction and areas encompassing 14 million acres. grazing and off-road vehicle use within intensive recreational uses, the best National conservation areas are created the scenic and recreational river corri- options are designation of wilderness through an act of Congress, but their dors. Still, Wild and Scenic Rivers pre- areas or the transfer of key areas to actual level of protection depends in vent new dams and water diversions the National Park System. large part on the BLM management and offer the potential for better pro- plan for each area and how well the tection than conventional national for- BUREAU OF LAND agency implements the plan. Many est lands. MANAGEMENT LANDS national conservation areas continue to be threatened by road-building, oil and National Scenic Areas Background gas drilling, mining, intensive motor- National scenic areas are not as pro- The Bureau of Land Management ized recreation and off-road vehicle tected as wilderness areas or National administers 267 million acres, including use. Park System units. However, they 55 million acres of forest land. This receive significantly stronger protec- comprises approximately one-eighth of National Monuments tion than standard national forest the United States’ land base. The There are 15 national monuments management. National scenic areas are agency also administers 300 million totaling 4.7 million acres administered designated through congressional leg- additional acres of subsurface mineral by the Bureau of Land Management. islation, which provides direction on resources. Unfortunately, these monuments gen- the level of protection. Most national erally allow commercial resource forest scenic areas allow some level of Bureau of Land Management extraction and other industrial uses. logging, livestock grazing and other Protection Options Unlike national monuments under industrial activities to continue. Conservationists have used a number National Park Service administration, of strategies to preserve key tracts of BLM monuments do not have specific National Monuments Bureau of Land Management land in congressional legislation to direct their There are only a handful of national recent years. The section below discuss- protection. monuments on national forest lands. es these options, ranked from the most They can be created under the to the least protective: Issues to Consider Antiquities Act of 1906 or through con- In 2000, the National Landscape gressional legislation. National forest Bureau of Land Management Conservation System was created to monuments are not as well protected Wilderness help ensure protection of these BLM as those administered by the National One option that offers permanent pro- special management areas. To date, this Park Service. Most of them allow some tection is to designate important BLM vision has not been realized. The level of logging, livestock grazing and lands as wilderness. The BLM currently Bureau of Land Management remains other industrial activities to continue. manages 161 wilderness areas encom- as firmly committed to industrial devel- passing 6.5 million acres. opment as the Forest Service. For the National Recreation Areas Unfortunately, most BLM lands do not foreseeable future, the only BLM lands National recreation areas (NRAs) are an meet Wilderness Act criteria for desig- that can be considered fully protected improvement over general national nation. are those designated under the forest management, but they are much Wilderness Act or transferred to the less protected than National Park National Wild and Scenic Rivers National Park System. However, the cre- System NRAs. For example, most allow Designation under the Wild and Scenic ation of new Wild and Scenic Rivers, logging, livestock grazing, road-build- Rivers Act offers another layer of pro- national conservation areas and nation- ing and intensive motorized recreation. tection for rivers on Bureau of Land al monuments is still an important tool The creation of a national recreation Management lands. Thirty-eight rivers that provides stronger protection than area requires an act of Congress. or river sections are currently managed standard BLM administration. by the BLM as part of the National Issues to Consider Wild and Scenic Rivers System. The BLM Special management areas such as Wild often permits damaging activities, such and Scenic Rivers, national scenic areas, as livestock grazing, within the scenic national monuments and national and recreational river “corridors” but recreation areas offer an increased this designation does prevent new level of protection from standard dams and water diversions.

44 America’s Keystone Forests

1 Estimated from map in Findley 1990 and common- the United States - 540 meter resolution. Reston, 34 Taxpayers for Common Sense analysis of informa- ly estimated by other authors, e.g. Postel and Ryan, Va: U.S. Geological Survey. tion obtained from the Forest Service through FOIA 1991. request, (on file with TCS). 16 Fleming, M. 1991. Alaska vegetation/land cover. 2 World Wildlife Fund. Available from Forest Health and Monitoring Clearinghouse, USGS 35 Taxpayers for Common Sense, Available from: http://www.worldwildlife.org/forests/fires.cfm Alaska Geographic ScienceOffice; and Ecotrust, http://taxpayer.net/forest/roadless/index.htm Pacific GIS, and Conservation International. 1995. 3 Talberth, John and Karyn Moscowitz, The 36 American Lands, “Dollars Drive the Agency: Forest The Rainforests of Home: An Atlas of People and Economic Case Against Logging. National Forest Service Fiscal Year 2001 Budget Primer.” Available Place, Ecotrust Publishing, Portland, OR. Protection Alliance, 1999, 1. from http://americanlands.org/forestweb/restora- 17 Pinchot, Gifford, Breaking New Ground, (Harcourt tion.htm 4 Wilcox, BA, Murphey DD. Conservation strategy: Brace and Company, 1947) 84. The effects of fragmentation on extinction. 37 Talberth, John and Moscowitz, Karyn, The American Naturalist 125 (1985): 879-887. 18 Clary, David A. Timber and the Forest Service, Economic Case Against National Forest Logging. (University of Kansas, 1986) 3. (National Forest Protection Alliance, 1999) 17. 5 IBID. 19 Robinson, Gordon, The Forests and the Trees, 38 O&C Sustained Yield Act: the Land, the Law, the 6 Newmark, W.D. Legal and Biotic Boundaries of (Island Press, 1988), 13. Legacy 1937 – 1987. U.S.D.I. BLM. Page 6. Western North American National Parks: A Problem of Congruence. Biological Conservation (1985) 20 The U.S. Forest Service. Available from: 39 PNW Ecosystem Research Consortium, PNW-ERC 33:197-208. http://www.fs.fed.us/aboutus/meetfs.shtml Datasets Access Page. Available from: http://www.fsl.orst.edu/pnwerc/wrb/Atlas_web_com 7 Noss, R.F. Corridors in Real Landscapes: a reply to 21 IBID. pressed/6.LandUse_Cover/6d.land_ownership_web. Simberloff and Cox. Conservation Biology (1987) 1: 22 BLM Public Domain Lands: Volume of Timber pdf 159-164. Offered for Sale Has Declined Substantially Since 40 IBID. 8 Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative. Fiscal Year 1990, GAO-03-615 June 19, 2003, 1. Available from: http://www.y2y.net/science/conserva- 41 O&C Sustained Yield Act: the Land, the Law, the 23 Dietrich, William, The Final Forest: The Battle for tion/conbio/terminology.asp#corridors Legacy 1937 – 1987. U.S.D.I. BLM. Page 10. the Last Great Trees of the Pacific Northwest, (Simon 9 Shaffer, M. Minimum population sizes for species & Schuster, 1992) 141. 42 IBID. conservation. BioScience (1981) 31:131-134. 24 Op. Cit., Findley, 1990. 43 The O & C Act, Public Law No. 405—75th 10 Soulé 1981, Noss 1983, Harris 1984, Noss and Congress, Chapter 876—1st Session, H.R. 7618. 25 Dombeck, Michael P., Wood, Christopher A., Harris 1986, Soulé 1987, e.g. Soulé, M. E. 1987. Available from: Williams, Jack E. From Conquest to Conservation: Viable populations for conservation. Cambridge http://208.32.63.121/blm/o&c/O&C%20act%20Pub Our Public Lands Legacy, (Island Press, 2003), 35. University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. LawNo405.pdf 26 Pers. Comms. Brock Evans, 2004. 11 Paine, R.T. Food webs: Linkage, interaction 44 IBID. strength, and community infrastructure—the 3rd 27 IBID. 45 Use and Abuse of America’s Natural Resources. Tansley lecture. Journal of Animal Ecology (1980) 28 Quoted in T. Egan, The Good Rain: Across Time Looters of the Public Domain. Stephen A. Douglas 49(3):667-685. and Terrain in the Pacific Northwest (New York: Puter. 1st printing 1908. Arno Press, New York 12 Heilman, G.E. Jr., J.R. Strittholt, N.C. Slosser, D.A. Vintage Departures, 1991). 1972. Dellasala. Forest fragmentation of the coterminous 29 Furnish, Jim. Eastern Roadless Areas Under Threat: 46 War in the woods. Oregon Council for the United States: assessing forest intactness through How the U.S. Forest Service Minimizes Roadless Humanities, Chataqua Presentation. Shannon road density and spatial characteristics. Bioscience Areas with Biased Procedures, Heritage Forest Applegate. 1997. (2002)52:411-422. Campaign, 2004, 16. 47 For example: 13 Chaplin, S.J., R.A. Gerrard, H.M. Watson, L.L. 30 Hanson, Chad, Ending Logging on National www.crcwater.org/issues13/200208coedeischap5.ht Master and S.R. Flack. 2000. The Geography of Forests: The Fact in the Year 1997, (John Muir ml; www.forestlearn.org/watershed/salmon.htm Imperilment: targeting conservation toward critical Project, March 1999). biodiversity areas. In Precious Heritage: The Status of 48 University of Wyoming College of Law. Land and Biodiversity in the United States, eds. B.A. Stein, L.S. 31 Taxpayers for Common Sense. In the Red: National Water Law Review. Fifty Years of the BLM. The Kutner and J.S. Adams, pp. 159-199. New York: Forest Logging Continues to Lose Millions, June Proposed Transfer of BLM Timber Lands to the State Oxford University Press. 2001, 1. of Oregon: Environmental and Economic Questions. Michael Blumm and Jonathan Lovvorn. 1997, 358. 14 Bryer, M.T., K. Maybury, J.S. Adams and D.H. 32 GAO letter to Rep. Cynthia McKinney, September Approximately 5,000 board feet = 1 log truck load. Grossman. 2000. More than the sum of the parts: 21, 2001, Subject: Financial Management: Annual 1,000,000,000 / 5,000 = 200,000 log truck loads. diversity and status of ecological systems. In Costs of Forest Service’s Timber Sales Program Are Precious Heritage: The Status of Biodiversity in the Not Determinable. 49 Roseburg District Proposed Resource Management United States, eds. B.A. Stein, L.S. Kutner and J.S. Plan / EIS Volume 1 Chapter 3-19. 33 Adams, pp. 201-237. New York: Oxford University Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility, 50 http://www.or.blm.gov/medford/planning/kel- Press. Land of No Returns: Bankruptcy of the BLM Public Domain Forestry Program. (PEER, April 1997), 5. whis_EIS/Medmain.htm, 15 Wade, T. 2004. Causes of forest fragmentation in http://www.kswild.org/TimberSales/kelsey2/

Mapping the Next 100 Years of Forest Protection 45

51 University of Wyoming College of Law. Land and http://www.nativeforest.org/campaigns/public_lands/ Water Law Review. Fifty Years of the BLM. The stb_5_30_02.htm Proposed Transfer of BLM Timber Lands to the State 72 Wilson, E.O., Endangered Forests, Endangered of Oregon: Environmental and Economic Questions. Freedoms press conference, Washington, D.C., June Michael Blumm and Jonathan Lovvorn. 1997. 375 - 03, 2003. 377. 73 Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility, 52 Settlement Agreement in the case of Association press release, Oct. 4, 2004. Available from: of O&C Counties and Douglas County, Oregon v. http://www.peer.org/press/513.html Babbitt and Dombeck, C.A. No. 96-5222 (D.C. Cir.); Civ. No. 94-1044 (U.S. D. C. D. C.). 74 Paybacks, Policies, Patrons and Personnel: How the Bush Administration is Giving Away Our 53 Settlement Agreement: American Forest Resource Environment to its Corporate Contributors, Council et al. V. Clarke, Civil No. 94-1031 TPJ (Earthjustice and Public Campaign, 2002) 4. (D.D.C.), appeal pending No. 02-5024 (D.C. Cir.). Available from: http://www.earthjustice.org/back- 75 "U.S. Timber Production, Trade, Consumption, grounder/display.html?ID=94 and Price Statistics: 1965 to 1999", U.S. Forest Service, Forest Products Lab, Madison, WI, 1999. 54 IBID. U.S. Total Timber Sold and Harvested for all the 55 USDA, 1995, Forest Service Program for Forest Forest Service Lands: 2002, U.S. Forest Service, and Rangeland Resources: A Long Term Strategic Washington, D.C. Plan, Draft 1995, RPA Program.

56 U.S. Forest Service. Water & The Forest Service, January 2000, ii.

57 Krieger, Douglas J., Economic Value of Forest Ecosystem Services, A Review. (The Wilderness Society, March 2001) 9.

58 IBID.

59 Talberth, John and Moscowitz, Karyn, The Economic Case Against National Forest Logging. (National Forest Protection Alliance, 1999) 45.

60 IBID, 46.

61 Op. cit. Krieger. 20.

62 IBID, vii.

63 Thompson et al., 2002; Noss & Cooperrider, 1994. Saving Nature’s Legacy: Protecting and Restoring Biodiversity. Island Press. Washington, D.C.

64 USDA Forest Service, Roadless Area Conservation FEIS, Volume 1. November, 2000. Page 3-115.

65 Krieger, Douglas J., Economic Value of Forest Ecosystem Services, A Review. (The Wilderness Society, March 2001) 14.

66 Nabham, P & Buchmann, S., 1997, “Services provided by pollinators,” in Daily, G. Nature’s Services, Societal Dependence upon Natural Ecosystems, (Island Press, 1997).

67 Op. cit. Talberth, 11.

68 IBID.

69 IBID, 67.

70 IBID.

71 Native Forest Network, 4/16/02 scientist’s letter to George Bush. Available from:

46 America’s Keystone Forests

1) Jake Kreilick 2) John James Audubon 3) Bigfoot 4) Daryl Cherney 5) Judi Bari 6) John Saylor 7) David Brower 8) Julia Butterfly 9) Jack Ward Thomas 10) Ansel Adams 11) Frank Murkowski 12) John Mumma 13) Edward Abby 14) Harry Merlo 15) Frederick Weyerhaeuser 16) Frank Church 17) Rachel Carson 18) Franklin Delano Roosevelt 19) Lou Gold 20) George Perkins Marsh 21) E. O. Wilson 22) Jimmy Carter 23) Sigurd Olsen 24) Bill Clinton 25) Walt Whitman 26) George Bird Grinnell 27) Ira Gabrielson 28) Larry Craig 29) Henry David Thoreau 30) Gale Norton 31) Ghandi 32) Morris Udall 33) Margaret Murie 34) Wallace Stegner 35) Arthur Carhart 36) Howard Zahniser 37) Gaylord Nelson 38) John Burroughs 39) Abraham Lincoln 40) Gloria Flora 41) Mark Rey 42) George Catlin 43) Theodore Roosevelt 44) Brock Evans 45) Gifford Pinchot 46) James Watt 47) Aldo Leopold 48) Dave Foreman 49) David McTaggart 50) Bob Hunter 51) Rex Weyler 52) Paul Watson 53) Mike Roselle 54) John Muir 55) Jack Ozment 56) Larry Trani 57) Stephen Mather 58) Stewart Brandborg 59) Smokey the Bear 60) Judy Bell

Principle Authors: Scott Paul and Pamela Wellner, Greenpeace

Contributing Writers: Bryan Bird, Amy Collins, Doug Cornett, Francis Eatherington, Larry Edwards, Mitchell Friedman, David G. Graves, Hillary Hosta, Destry Jarvis, Michael Kellett, Jake Kreilick, Josh Laughlin, Brett Paben, Thomas Platt and Joseph Vaile.

Special Thanks to: Amy Collins, Brock Evans, Jeff DeBonis, Kert Davies, Dominick Dellasala, Bill Haskins, Nancy Hwa, Destry Jarvis, Michael Kellett, Lamar Marshall, Tom Platt, Jack Turner, Paul, John, George and Ringo.

Cover Design: Mark Warford Cover Concept: Scott Paul

Map Design: Bill Haskins, Big Sky Conservation Institute

Photo Support: Keith Annis Editing Support: Maureen Bonner and Nancy Hwa Design and Production: Anastasia Pfarr Printing: Whitmore Printing

DEATH BY A THOUSAND CUTS: the existence of ecosystems and stated that DECEMBER 23, 2003: T’WAS THE NIGHT A TIMELINE OF BUSH ADMINISTRATION the extinction of the nation’s 1,200 threatened BEFORE CHRISTMAS ACTIONS THAT ENDANGER AMERICA’S and endangered species, "would be a discon- The Bush administration exempts America’s NATIONAL FORESTS 2001-2004 certing loss but would not constitute a crisis." largest and second largest national forests, the Tongass and Chugach in Alaska, from the JANUARY 20, 2001: SINCE DAY ONE, JANUARY 27, 2003: FROM THE REDWOOD Roadless Area Conservation Rule. Once again, ROLLING BACK ENVIRONMENTAL FORESTS… the administration announces these changes SAFEGUARDS Under the guise of fire prevention, the Forest when the media is most inattentive. On his inauguration day, President Bush Service issues a draft plan to resume the log- orders all federal agencies to cease proposing ging of giant ancient sequoia trees in the JANUARY 9, 2004: NEW YEAR RESOLUTIONS new regulations, withdraw all regulations not Giant Sequoia National Monument and two Resolving to “streamline” the logging approval yet posted in the Federal Register and post- national forests in California’s Sierra Nevada process, the Forest Service issues its first rule pone implementing for 60 days any new regu- mountain range. The plan allows logging com- under the Healthy Forests Restoration Act, lations that had been published. panies to cut down enough of the nation’s limiting citizen’s ability to appeal or challenge grandest trees to fill more than 2,000 log logging projects in court. If passed this rule MAY 4, 2001: PROMISES, PROMISES… trucks every year. will affect citizens’ ability to protect some 20 The Bush administration announces that it million acres of national forests from destruc- will uphold the popular Roadless Area FEBRUARY 20, 2003: SWEETHEART DEAL tive logging projects. Conservation Rule, which protects 58.5 mil- FOR INDUSTRY lion acres of intact wild forests in the National Stewardship contracting becomes permanent JANUARY 22, 2004: BUSH CALIFORNICATES Forest System from most logging and road for the next 10 years. Stewardship contract- THE SIERRA NEVADA FRAMEWORK construction. The rule was put into place with ing, affecting both Forest Service and Bureau The administration significantly changes the overwhelming public support. of Land Management land, is the first step Sierra Nevada Framework, allowing a tripling toward privatizing the management of public of logging levels and the cutting of old-growth OCTOBER 2, 2001: THE FOX ASSUMES lands. Private timber companies can now log trees, including those in spotted owl reserves. CONTROL OF THE HENHOUSE the forest – with no revenue to the govern- President Bush swears in Mark Rey – an 18- ment – in return for taking some additional JANUARY 23, 2004: SEARCH AND DESTROY year timber industry lobbyist – to oversee the management actions on the forest. Overlooking water quality, wildlife and fish- U.S. Forest Service as Undersecretary for Stewardship contracting also reduces public eries issues, the administration overhauls the Natural Resources and Environment. In 1995, and congressional accountability and federal Northwest Forest Plan’s Aquatic Conservation Rey was the key architect of the "logging with- fund oversight. Strategy and eliminates the “Survey and out laws” Salvage Rider. Under the Salvage Manage” provisions. Logging projects no longer Rider enough trees were cut from America’s JULY 29, 2003: CATEGORICALLY CUT ALL need to comply with existing water quality national forests to fill log trucks lined up for TREES? standards or find and protect rare plant and over 6,800 miles. The administration adopts new Categorical animal species as mandated by the Northwest Exclusions allowing the Forest Service to Forest Plan. DECEMBER 14, 2001: PROMISES BROKEN bypass environmental reviews and limit public The Forest Service announces new guidelines participation. It would also allow the con- MARCH 18, 2004: DON’T ASK, DON’T TELL? that further reduce protections for roadless struction of a half-mile of new temporary Public Employees for Environmental areas. Smaller, undeveloped forests adjacent roads without environmental impact assess- Responsibility leak an internal memo by to larger roadless areas are no longer protect- ments or a public comment process. Forest Chief Dale Bosworth outlining his ed from development. The changes also end desire to exempt the Forest Service from mandatory environmental impact reviews of AUGUST 21, 2003: WHAT I DID ON MY reviews by other federal agencies for compli- logging and road-building impacts on roadless SUMMER VACATION ance with endangered species, clean water, areas and removes the requirement for public Continuing the practice of breaking negotiated toxic chemicals and historical preservation participation in project planning. agreements, the administration announces laws. The agency wants to prevent any consul- plans to settle a timber industry lawsuit over tation unless it relates to fire risk, invasive FEBRUARY 6, 2002: THIS LAND IS THEIR the Northwest Forest Plan, which protects old- species, unmanaged recreation or loss of open LAND, THIS LAND IS NO LONGER YOUR growth in Pacific Northwest national forests. land. LAND Although the administration had been chip- President Bush’s 2003 budget authorizes the ping away at the plan all year, caving-in on JULY 14, 2004: NATIONAL FORESTS – A creation of "charter forests" whereby the man- the suit gives the administration the opportu- ROADSIDE CASUALTY agement of publicly owned national forest nity to dismantle the plan all together. The Forest Services announces its proposal to land would be turned over to local private eviscerate the Roadless Area Conservation partnerships. NOVEMBER 12, 2003: LET THEM EAT Rule. The proposal replaces the rule with a BISCUIT state process, whereby a governor who wants APRIL 12, 2002: “STREAMLINING” WILDLIFE The administration and the Forest Service to protect wilderness must submit a request to TO BE MORE “EFFICIENT” propose one of the largest post-fire logging the Department of Agriculture officials who A draft report by the Forest Service reveals projects in modern history on the Siskiyou will make the final decision. With former tim- that the agency intends to "streamline" rules National Forest in Oregon. The "Biscuit Fire ber lobbyist Mark Rey at the helm, protection protecting the environment and limit public Recovery Project" calls for logging more than is not likely to be granted. challenges to its decisions. Within two years one-half million board feet of timber from the the agency would implement regulations limit- Wild Rivers Area, which could result in the SEPTEMBER 9, 2004: DAM IT ALL! ing external review of the impacts of projects disqualification of more than 60,000 acres of The Department of Interior proposes to give on endangered species. potential wilderness. dam owners the exclusive right to appeal department rulings on how dams should be AUGUST 22, 2002: HORIZONTAL FORESTS NOVEMBER 25, 2003: AN ADMINISTRATION licensed and operated on American rivers. By INITIATIVE TURKEY tweaking a little-known regulation, the propos- President Bush unveils the so-called "Healthy On the day before Thanksgiving, plans are al would prevent Native Americans and envi- Forests Initiative," which would limit citizen revealed to gut the National Forest ronmental groups from making appeals to stop involvement and undermine the nation’s envi- Management Act that has guided planning on forest and river damaging dams. This proposal ronmental laws in order to dramatically 155 national forests since 1976. is likely unconstitutional, violating due increase logging in national forests. process and equal protection guarantees. DECEMBER 4, 2003: SIGNING OF THE "NO AUGUST 30, 2002: TOSS ANOTHER FOX IN TREE LEFT BEHIND" BILL © January 2005 THE HEN HOUSE With great fanfare the president signs the Printed on New Leaf Opaque 60% post- Allan Fitzsimmons is handpicked by the Bush deceptively named "Healthy Forests consumer waste, 80% recycled processed administration to serve as Wildlands Fuel Restoration Act of 2003." chlorine free paper using vegetable inks. Coordinator for the Department of Interior. 702 H Street NW, Suite 300 Fitzsimmons has published articles denying Washington, D.C. 20001 800-326-0959