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Women in Politics 22 the World Economic Forum (WEF) Global Gender Gap 24 Rankings 2014 the Electoral Quota World Map 25 Women, Policy and Political Leadership Regional Perspectives in Today's World Women, Policy and Political Leadership Regional Perspectives in Today’s World © 2015 individual works, the authors Editors: Dr. Wilhelm Hofmeister Megha Sarmah Dilpreet Kaur Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung 34/36 Bukit Pasoh Road Singapore 089848 Tel: (65) 6227-2001 Tel: (65) 6227-8343 Email: [email protected] Website: http//:www.kas.de/singapore All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying or recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission from the publisher. The responsibility for facts and opinions in this publication rests exclusively with the authors and their interpretations do not necessarily reflect the views or the policy of Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung. Cataloguing-in-Publication Data is available from the National Library Board (Singapore). Asian Women Parliamentarian Conference (2014 : Singapore) Women, policy and political leadership / editors: Dr Wilhelm Hofmeister, Megha Sarmah, Dilpreet Kaur. – Singapore : Konrad-Adenauer Stiftung, [2015] pages cm ISBN : 978-981-09-2114-9 (paperback) 1. Women – Political activity – Congresses. 2. Women legislators – Congresses. 3. Women politicians – Congresses. 4. Political participation –Congresses. I. Hofmeister, Wilhelm, editor. II. Sarmah, Megha, editor. III. Dilpreet Kaur, editor. IV. Title. HQ1236 320.082 -- dc23 OCN908684564 Contents 1 Foreword v 2 Introduction: Reviewing Political Patriarchy & Women’s Political 1 Mainstreaming in Asia - Breaking Barriers, Fighting Blind Spots, Carving Opportunities Andrea Fleschenberg 3 Overview 19 Fact Sheet 21 Timeline – Women in Politics 22 The World Economic Forum (WEF) Global Gender Gap 24 Rankings 2014 The Electoral Quota World Map 25 4 Regional Perspectives 4.1 Africa African Women in Political Decision-Making – 27 “A Voice that Still Remains a Whisper” Yolanda Sadie 4.2 Americas Women in Politics in Latin America 35 Mala Htun, Jennifer M. Piscopo and Sophia von Bergen Women in Political Office in North America 45 Farida Jalalzai 4.3 Asia Women in Politics in Northeast Asia 51 Young-Im Lee Women and Political Leadership in South Asia 59 Mallarika Sinha Roy Promoting Inclusion: Women’s Political Participation in 65 Southeast Asia Bridget Welsh 4.4 Australasia Women in Politics in Australia 73 Elisabeth Porter Women in Politics: Pacific Islands and New Zealand 79 Nicole George 4.5 Europe Women in Politics in Eastern Europe: 87 A Changing Outlook Ekaterina R. Rashkova and Emilia Zankina Women’s Descriptive and Substantive Representation in 95 Nordic Politics Lenita Freidenvall Women in Politics in Western Europe 103 Mary Nugent 5 Asian Women Parliamentarian Conference 2014 Report 111 Foreword There is no disagreeing that the need to push for higher levels of women’s representation in politics, as well as enforcing equal rights to participate in decision-making, is apparent. The world average of women in parliament has increased from 15.7% in 2004 to 22.1% in 20151 but we are still some way away from the target of 30% of women in decision-making positions set by the Beijing Platform for Action in 1995. Through the Asian Women Parliamentarian initiative, the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS) hopes to address the role of parliamentarians in forging the women leadership agenda and pushing it forward through best practices and shared experiences. Many of the par- ticipants in this initiative come from very diverse backgrounds and possess rich experiences that can really shape the dynamics of this caucus. Furthermore, sharing experiences among various countries is equally important for rais- ing women’s awareness on their role in all fields of life. In this sense, regional cooperation in the form of network building is instrumental. In the case of Asia, there is no overall Asian caucus for women parliamentarians. Whilst there are a few states that have managed to establish sub-regional or national caucus for female parliamentarians beyond party lines, there are still states that have yet to form national parliamentary caucuses. This disparity in institutionalization can adversely impact the promotion of women’s rights and gender equality in the long haul. It is our hope at KAS that through stronger regional cooperation, these gaps can be bridged by consolidating best practices, influencing policy-agenda in bills passing and en- couraging female parliamentarians to stand for a gender-sensitive and inclusive agenda at the respective national parliaments. We are witnesses to the successes of regional institution- building within the African Union and the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) for instance. The benefits of these exposures to regional and international standards and interactions are thus not to be understated. Moreover, many countries are practising similar legislations, such as gender quotas to raise female leadership participation, and yet the outcomes differ. How can we learn from the various forms of policy adoptions when it comes to gender quotas? In general, the use of electoral quotas for women is much more widespread than is commonly held. An increasing number of countries are currently introducing various types of gender quotas for public elections; in fact, half of the countries in the world today use some type of electoral quota for their parliaments. As of January 2015, 41 single or lower houses were composed of more than 30% women. 34 countries have reserved seats for women, thus opening up an impor- tant space for women’s political participation. 1 Accurate as of 1 February 2015. http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm. vi Women, Policy and Political Leadership A regional caucus can help push these and other discussions further and encourage a more substantive understanding of the quota system, so as to, for example, push for more impactful female participation in politics. Nonetheless, it is as much a challenge to set up institutions as it is to make these institutions accessible to women, especially in Asia. Some Asian countries are still conflict-ridden or undergoing a political transitioning from conflicts. In this publication, we present an overview with a) a retrospective timeline on mile- stones in global female political leadership; b) the Global Gender Gap rankings, introduced by the World Economic Forum in 2006 to assess the magnitude and scope of gender-based disparities within and across states, using economic, political, education and health as criterion; and c) a pictorial overview of electoral quotas adopted around the world. Along with this factsheet, we have invited prominent authors from around the world to contribute regional insights into the situation of female political leadership and prospects as well as challenges. Twenty years have now passed since the Fourth World Conference on Women, where the commitment to achieve gender equality was professed. Women’s representation in national parliaments has increased and significant advances have been made in the global agenda on women, peace and security. But there is still a need to address these challenges, especially in regard to securing equal political and economic power between women and men, the gender pay gap, and the elimination of child marriage as well as other forms of gender-based violence. We hope the compiled material by our authors prove useful for politically active women. Part of regional network-building includes knowledge management and we hope through this caucus to generate more of such content that can help influence perspectives and narra- tives around the region. Dr. Wilhelm Hofmeister May 2015 Reviewing Political Patriarchy and Women’s Political Mainstreaming in Asia – Breaking Barriers, Fighting Blind Spots, Carving Opportunities Andrea Fleschenberg Asia represents an interesting and diverse laboratory for gender-sensitive policy-making, leg- islation as well as women’s political mainstreaming at various levels of the political system and is home to multiple gender-specific cleavages, contestations and controversies – be it in terms of formal or informal political participation, regimes and processes. Experiences of women politicians in breaking barriers of political patriarchy and carving opportunities for women’s sustainable and transversal political mainstreaming have been diverse, sometimes ambiguous or with ambivalent outcomes and implications, more often than not encourag- ing and continuously widening the public space for women’s voice to be heard and agency to unfold. Assessing a Heterogeneous Region and Introducing Key Concepts1 One characteristic feature has been the introduction of different systems of gender quotas at multiple levels of Asian polities – be it in the form of voluntary party quotas, candidacy lists, or reserved seats to be contested directly via elections or to be selected by male gatekeepers. Initially, public and academic debates revolved around the documentation of women politi- cians’ experiences and around the debate of quota designs, issues of representativeness and critical mass theorising. Current debates and analyses of women parliamentarians’ experi- ences have moved away from questions of (descriptive) representativeness towards challenges and gains of substantiveness in participation – from quantity/number games to quality/ performance and impact, one could say. This includes reviews of intervening factors such as religion
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