College of Charleston HONS 382: The History of the Civil Rights Movement Spring 2015 T, TH 8:00-9:15 10 Greenway, Room 200

Instructor Information:

Jon N. Hale, Ph.D. Department of Teacher Education School of Education Building, Room 235 86 Wentworth St [email protected] (843) 953–6354 (office)

Office Hours: T, TH: 2:00-5:00 W: 2:00-4:00, and by appointment

Course Description

The Civil Rights Movement constituted one of the most transformative movements in modern U.S. history, which has important political, social and educational implications for all people. The Civil Rights Movement has challenged a democratic government to be more responsive to the needs of all constituents, it has redefined forms of resistance and activism for generations of citizens excluded from the political process, and it has proffered new conceptions of American citizenship. This profound social, political, economic, and educational movement has been the subject of numerous autobiographies, feature films, documentaries, scholarly monographs, edited books and articles. Without appropriate analysis and reflection, however, the lessons of the Civil Rights Movement are potentially lost upon the current generation of students, scholars, and citizens.

This course examines the Civil Rights Movement through multiple disciplinary and methodological lenses. It looks at the Civil Rights Movement through historical and sociological lenses, which generate very important understandings, but it also explores the movement through an educational lens that illustrates how activists used education as an institution to dismantle Jim Crow policies and rearticulate notions of citizenship in the twentieth century. As such, this course explores several critical themes to develop interpretive and methodological skills needed for active participation in a democratic community. First, this course explores the origins of the long history of the Civil Rights Movement in African American collective ideologies that focused on educational, political, social and economic equality. Second, sociological insights are drawn upon to better understand how this major social movement came to construct particular notions of active political, economic and social participation in the United States during the twentieth century through the contemporary era. Third, this course examines how these ideologies, at times competing for primacy in the movement, helped define what citizenship means in the United States. Fourth, this course examines how the lived experiences of participants, academic scholarship on the movement, and popular culture around the movement have shaped our collective understanding of this period in order to interrogate the rationale behind ideologies such as the “American Dream,” equality, equity, and access for all students and citizens in the United States. Finally, this course introduces oral historical and archival research methodologies as the effective means to independently explore in more detail (through oral history and research paper assignments) the nature, development, and implications of the Civil Rights Movement.

The goals of this course are designed to further develop the critical thinking, interpretive, and analytical skills of students. To develop a critical analytical lens, this course assesses frameworks that historians and social scientists have used to analyze social movements, in terms of their origins, evolution, internal practices, strategies and ideologies, their decline, and their political uses as history. It also asks students to evaluate the outcomes of the movement by contrasting movement goals with contemporary issues and lived experiences. This course encourages students to further develop skills of critical analysis and interpretative reasoning by offering the opportunity to pursue intensive and independent research into a chosen aspect of the field. In addition to conducting, transcribing, and coding an extensive interview with a local activist, students will be designing and implementing historical inquiry into one aspect of the Civil Rights Movement of their choosing.

This course is designed to further develop the critical thinking, interpretive, and analytical skills of students. To develop a critical analytical lens, this course assesses frameworks that historians and social scientists have used to analyze social movements, in terms of their origins, evolution, internal practices, strategies and ideologies, their decline, and their political uses as history. This course encourages students to further develop skills of critical analysis, interpretative reasoning, and it offers the opportunity to pursue intensive and independent research into a chosen aspect of the field.

Required Texts

Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. Norton Anthology of American Literature. (New York: W.W. Norton, 2009)

Katherine Charron, Freedom’s Teacher: The life of Septima Clark (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).

Kevin Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005)

Bruce Watson, Freedom Summer: The Savage Season that made Mississippi Burn and made America a Democracy (New York: Viking Press, 2010).

Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes: Civil Rights and Black Power in Alabama’s Black Belt (New York: New York University Press, 2009)

*Chapters and articles outside of these texts posted on OAKS

Course Learning Objectives (1) Students will analyze the origins of the Civil Rights Movement and demonstrate their understanding of multiple and competing ideologies that shaped the movement in class discussions and critical reflective writing assignments.

(2) Students will interrogate the concept of equal opportunity along political, educational, social, and economic vantage points and evaluate how competing yet complementary agendas shaped Civil Rights Movement objectives in a critical reflective writing assignment and a midterm evaluation.

(3) Students will examine the complex and multifaceted nature of the Civil Rights Movement from critical race, class, and gender perspectives and expound upon the multilayered essence of the movement in class discussions and on-line discussion prompts.

(4) Students will engage with primary and secondary sources that document manifestations of the Civil Rights Movement outside of the Deep South to understand the movement as a national and transnational movement through intensive course readings.

(5) Students will examine the local and grassroots history of various activists and organizations that focused upon grassroots and “bottom-up” organizing through intensive course reading, on-line discussion prompts and a final exam.

(6) Students will examine contemporary issues such as gay rights advocacy, poverty, the Achievement Gap and underfunded schools in order to evaluate the outcomes, impact, and continued struggles of the Civil Rights Movement today in class discussions and a critical reflective writing assignment.

(7) Students will independently research a topic of interest connected to the Civil Rights Movement in Charleston and the state of South Carolina in an extensive research paper that contributes to our understanding of the movement in the local area.

Class Assignments

For successful completion of this course, students will be expected to complete the following assignments:

1) Leading a class discussion during the semester is an important part of this course. Students will select one day on which to present on the readings assigned for that day. Students will read the material, prepare summative comments, pose questions to the class and help facilitate discussion that day. Students are also expected to consult external readings based on their research to enhance their presentation and help facilitate the discussion (50 pts) (throughout the semester)

2) OAKS Discussion Prompts. Students will respond to five different discussion prompts throughout the semester. Each response should consist of a (450-600) response to a question posed on OAKS. Responses must be completed prior to class on Monday. (10 pts each)

3) An annotated bibliography will help structure your final research paper. Students will examine several sources but select seven primary sources and eight secondary sources that can be used in the final research paper. Students will annotate each source in a way that summarizes the source and explains how it can be used in the final research paper. (50 pts) (due February 10)

4) A research paper outline to organize your main points and sources. This outline will be used to structure your final paper and to check for inconsistencies in your research, writing and argument. Sources from your annotated bibliography will serve as the basis of your writing, but students are expected to synthesize these sources, utilize additional sources and to provide your own analysis and research. (50 pts) (due March 10)

5) Book Review. This assignment will be written in response to one of the five texts assigned in this course. This review should include a thorough summary of the main points of the book, your evaluation of the book, and a discussion of how this book makes a contribution to the field of history. The review should be 3-4 pages in length. (100 pts) (April 14)

6) An independent research paper, approximately fifteen-seventeen (15-17) pages in length, in which students explore a topic of interest connected to the Civil Rights Movement. The research project will utilize a historical and interpretive methodology in which students will be expected to examine primary sources, archival sources, oral histories, and secondary literature to construct an academic research paper. (200 pts) (due April 23)

Assignment Points OAKS Discussion Prompts (5/10 pts) 50 Class Discussion 50 Annotated Bibliography 50 Research Paper Outline 50 Book Review 100 Research Paper 200

Total 400

Grade Percent Range GPA

A 93-100 4.0

A- 91-92 3.7 B+ 89-90 3.3 B 86-88 3.0 B- 84-85 2.7 C+ 82-83 2.3 C 79-81 2.0 C- 77-78 1.7 D+ 75-76 1.3 D 72-74 1.0 D- 70-71 .7 F 0-69 0

Course Reading and Assignment Schedule

Date Topics Readings Week 1: Slavery and the Origins of the Civil Rights Movement January 13 § Introductions § Syllabus Review § Research Topic Selection January 15 § Slavery and the social, § Peter Wood, “Patterns of Black Resistance” and “The political and economic Stono Rebellion and its Consequences,” in Black subjugation of a race Majority, 285-330. § Slavery and the artful forms § James Scott, “Behind the Official Story,” in Domination of resistance and the Arts of Resistance, pp. 1-16 (OAKS)

Week 2: The Promises and Broken Promises of “Radical” Reconstruction January 20 § Literacy and Freedom § Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick § Brown v. Roberts (1848) Douglass, an American Slave § Dred Scott § OAKS Discussion Prompt #1 § John Brown insurrection

January 22 § Black Reconstruction and § Foner, Reconstruction, “The Making of Radical Political Equality Reconstruction,” 228-280. § W.E.B. DuBois, “The Black Worker,” “The White Worker,” “The Black Proletariat in South Carolina,” “The Black Proletariat in Mississippi and Louisiana,” and “Back Toward Slavery,” in Black Reconstruction in America; pp. 3-31; 381-486; 711-730 (OAKS)

Week 3: Freedom Through Education and Religion in the Nineteenth Century January 27 § Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) § James Anderson, “Introduction,” “Ex-Slaves and the § Reconstruction and Rise of Universal Education in the South, 1860-1880,” Education “The Hampton Model of Normal School Industrial Education, 1868-1915,” “Education and the Race Problem in the New South: The Struggle for Ideological Hegemony,” Education of Blacks in the South, 1-109 (OAKS) § W.E.B. DuBois, “Of Our Spiritual Strivings,” “Of the Dawn of Freedom,” “Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others,” and “Of Alexander Crummell,” The Souls of Black Folks, pp. 1-36; 133-140 (OAKS) § OAKS Discussion Prompt #2

January 29 § Religion and Redemption § Paul Harvey, Freedom’s Coming, pp. 1-46 (OAKS) § The role of the church in § Charron, Freedom’s Teacher, 1-115 the early Civil Rights Movement § Denmark Vesey

Week 4: From Reconstruction to Jim Crow: Legal Exclusion and Organized Resistance February 3 § Racialization and the § Vivek Bald, “Lost in Migration,” “Out of the East and curious rise of Jim Crow into the South,” and “Between Hindoo and Negro,” § Roberts v. Boston (1848) in Bengali Harlem, 1-93 (OAKS) § Tape v. Hurley (1885) § Ronald Takaki, “’The Tide of Turbans,’” in Strangers § Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) From a Different Shore, 294-314 (OAKS) § OAKS Discussion Prompt #3

February 5 § “The Instrument in § Neil McMillen, “Chapter 1: Jim Crow and the Limits Reserve” and the Rise of of Freedom, 1890-1940,” and “Chapter 2: The Politics the KKK of the Disenfranchised” in Dark Journey, pp. 3-71 § The Nadir of Race (OAKS) Relations § David Oshinsky, “Chapter 5: The Birth and Birthplace,” and “Chapter 6: Parchman Farm,” in Worse than Slavery, pp. 109-156 (OAKS)

Week 4: The Road to Brown and the Origins of the Civil Rights Movement February 10 § The Organization of the § Aldon Morris, “Domination, Church, and the Civil Rights Movement NAACP,” “Beginnings and Confrontations,” and § Movement Houses “Movement Centers: MIA, ICC, and ACMHR,” in § The NAACP Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, pp. 1-76 (OAKS) § Patricia Sullivan, “Call to Action,” Lift Every Voice, 1- 24 (OAKS) § Annotated Bibliography Due

February 12 § The Role of the Educator § Katherine Charron, Freedom’s Teacher, 149-355. in the Civil Rights Movement § Southern Progressivism and Radicalism

Week 5: The Road to Brown v. Education (1954) and the Ideals of Integration February 17 § Charles Hamilton Houston § Richard Kluger, “The Special Favorite of the Laws,” and the NAACP and “Not Like Bales of Hay,” in Simple Justice, pp. 50- § Brown v. Board of Education 104 (OAKS) (1954) § W.E.B. DuBois, “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools,” pp. 328-335 (OAKS)

February 19 § Brown and the “Brown II” § James Patterson, “The Court Decides,” “Crossroads, Decision 1954-1955,” “Southern Whites Fight Back,” in The § White Flight and Massive Troubled Legacy of Brown, pp. 46-117 (OAKS) Resistance § James Anderson, “A Tale of Two Browns,” pp. 14-35 § The Pioneers of (OAKS) Desegregation § Melba Beals, Warriors Don’t Cry, pp. 1-5; 33-91 § The Desegregation of Ole (OAKS) Miss and Little Rock High School Week 6: Grassroots Mobilization and the Black Freedom Movement February 24 § Grassroots Organization § Doug McAdam, “The Historical Context of Black and Political Mobilization Insurgency, 1876-1954,” “The Generation of Black § The Montgomery Bus Insurgency, 1955-60,” and “The Heyday of Black Boycott Insurgency, 1961-1965” in Political Processes and the § The Second World War and Development of Black Insurgency, pp. 65-180 (OAKS) the Irony of Democracy § OAKS Discussion Prompt #4 § Local People

February 26 § The Sit-In Movement § Wesley Hogan, “The Nonviolent Anvil” and “Come § The Freedom Rides Get My Mattress and I’ll Keep My Soul: Freedom § The March on Washington Riding,” in Many Minds, One Heart, pp. 13-55. § The Student Nonviolent § Bruce Watson, Freedom Summer Coordinating Committee (SNCC) § Freedom Summer SPRING BREAK!!!!! Week 8: Gender and the Ironies of Leadership in the Freedom Movement March 10 § The Intersection of Race and § Danielle McGuire, “They’d Kill Me If I Told,” and Gender in the Freedom “Negroes Every Day are Being Molested,” in At the Movement Dark End of the Street, pp. xv – 83 (OAKS) § Black and White feminism § King and Hayden, “Sex and Caste,” in Major § Gender and Violence in the Problems in American History Since 1945, pp. 510-512 Movement (OAKS) § “Bridge Leadership” and the § Belinda Robnett, “African-American Women in the role of women in the Civil Rights Movement,” pp. 1661-93 (OAKS) Movement § Research Paper Outline Due

March 12 § Queering the Civil Rights § Patrick Moore, “The Rise of the East Village,” Movement “New Role Models” and “The Sexual Flåneur,” in § Sexuality and Liberation Beyond Shame (OAKS), 77-120 § Stonewall Rebellion

Week 9: Students and Teachers of the Civil Rights Movement March 17 § Myles Horton and the § Myles Horton, “The Beginnings of Highlander,” Highlander Folk School and “Reading to Vote: The Citizenship Schools,” in § Citizenship Schools The Long Haul, pp. 56-81; 96-112 (OAKS)

March 19 § The Mississippi Freedom § Scott Baker, “Pedagogies of Protest” (OAKS) Schools § Jon Hale, “Students as a Force for Social Change,” § Black Panther Liberation pp. 1-31 (OAKS) Schools § Curricular Resistance Week 10: White Resistance and the Moderation of Federal Politics March 24 § Massive Resistance § Joseph Crespino, “Introduction,” and “Practical § Practical and Economic Segregation,” in In Search of Another Country, pp. Segregation 48. (OAKS) § Citizens Council § Lisa McGirr, “The Grassroots Goldwater Campaign,” in Suburban Warriors, pp. 111-146. (OAKS) § OAKS Discussion Prompt #5

March 26 § Barry Goldwater § Kevin Kruse, White Flight, pp. 3-130. § The Sun Belt and the Rise of the New Right § White Flight § Urban Restructuring and Re- segregation

Week 11: The North and the Civil Rights Movement March 31 § de facto segregation and the § Jeanne Theoharis, “’I’d Rather Go to School in the North South,’” in Freedom North, pp. 125-153 (OAKS) § public school re-segregation § Clarence Lang, “’What Do We Want?’” and § The New Right and “Law and “Broken Bloc,” in Grassroots at the Gateway, pp. 186- Order” 244 (OAKS)

April 2 § the Midwest and the West as § Patrick Jones, “Police Community Tensions and the critical battlegrounds of the 1967 Riot” and “The Struggle for Open Housing” movement in The Selma of the North, pp. 143-209 (OAKS) § Open Housing Movement § Jeanne Theoharis, “Alabama on Avalon,” in Black § Poor People’s Campaign and Power Movement, pp. 27-54 (OAKS) the Assassination of Dr. King

Week 12: The Roots of Black Power and Competing Ideologies in the Movement April 7 § Economic Protest § Timothy Tyson, “Robert F. Williams,” pp. 540-570 § Self-Defense (OAKS) § Roots of Black Power § Akinyele Umoja, “’We Will Shoot Back,” pp. 271- 294 (OAKS)

April 9 § Armed Self-Resistance and § Lance Hill, “Beginnings,” “The Deacons are Born,” the Deacons for Defense and “In the New York Times,” in the Deacons for § Black Panther Community Defense, pp. 10-62 (OAKS) Programs § Joy Ann Williamson, “Community Control with a § Culturally Relevant and Black Nationalist Twist,” in Black Protest Thought and Separate Schools Education, pp. 137-158 (OAKS)

Week 13: The Black Power Movement April 14 § Stokely Carmichael, Cleveland § Hasan Jeffries, “We Gonna Show Alabama Just Sellers and the Black Panther How Bad We Are,” and “Tax the Rich to Feed Party the Poor,” in Bloody Lowndes, pp. 143-206. § The Meredith March and § Book Review Due Lowndes County Organization

April 16 § Pan-Africanism § Yohuru Williams, “A Red, Black and Green § Ethnic identity development Liberation Jumpsuit,” in The Black Power § Students and Black Power Movement, pp. 167-192. (OAKS) § Black Power on college campuses § Peniel Joseph, “Black Studies, Student Activism, and the Black Power Movement,” in The Black Power Movement, pp. 251-278 (OAKS)

Week 14: South Carolina and the Civil Rights Movement April 21 § Denmark Vessey § Kari Frederickson, “The Cold War at the § African American Churches Grassroots: Militarization and Modernization in and the religious base of the South Carolina,” in The Myth of Southern Movement Exceptionalsim, pp. 190-209. (OAKS) § The Avery Institute an Burke § John White, “The White Citizens Council of High School Orangeburg County,” in Toward the meeting of the waters, pp. 261-273 (OAKS)

April 23 § The Hospital Strike § Jack Bass, “The Massacre,” “The Aftermath,” and § The Orangeburg Massacre “The Victims,” in The Orangeburg Massacre, pp. 61- § The Jackson State Murders 120. (OAKS) § (Kent State) § Research Paper Due

Course Bibliography

Allen, R. (1969). Black awakening in capitalist america: An analytic history. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Anderson, J. (1988). Education of Blacks in the South. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Anderson, J. (1998). Bayard rustin: Troubles I’ve seen. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Baker, Jr. H. A. (2008). Betrayal: How black intellectuals have abandoned the ideals of the civil rights era. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Baker, R. S. (2006). Paradoxes of desegregation: African american struggles for educational equity in charleston, south carolina, 1926-1972. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.

Baker, R.S. (2011). “Pedagogies of Protest: African American Teachers and the History of the Civil Rights Movement, 1940–1963.” Teachers College Record. Volume 133, Number 12.

Bald, Vivek, Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2013)

Bass, J., & Poole, S. (2009). The palmetto state: The making of modern south carolina. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.

Beals, M.P. (1994). Warriors don’t cry: A searing memoir of the battle to integrate little rock’s central high. New York, NY: Pocket Books.

Biodi, M. (2003). To stand and fight: The struggle for civil rights in postwar new york. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bradley, S. M. (2009). Harlem vs. columbia university: Black student power in the late 1960s. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Branch, T. (1988). Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-63. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Branch, T. (1998). Pillar of fire: America in the king years, 1963-65. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

Carson, C. (1984). In struggle: SNCC and the black awakening of the 1960s. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Charron, K. M. (2009). Freedom’s teacher: The life of septima clark. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Collier-Thomas, B., & Franklin, V.P. (Eds.). (2001). Sisters in the struggle: African american women in the civil rights- black power movement. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Crespino, J. (2007). In search of another country: Mississippi and the conservative counterrevolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Countryman, M.J. (2006). Up south: Civil rights and black Power in philadelphia. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Dittmer, J. (1994). Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Douglass, F. (1995) Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. Norton Anthology of American Literature. Shorter Fourth Edition. New York: W.W. Norton.

Drago, E.L. (1990). Initiative, paternalism, and race relations: Charleston’s avery normal institute. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.

Du Bois, W.E.B. (1935,1983). Black reconstruction in America: An essay toward a history of the part which black folk played in the attempt to reconstruct democracy in America, 1860-1880. New York, NY: Antheneum.

Du Bois, W.E.B. (1997). The souls of black folk. Boston, MA: Bedford and St. Martin’s Press. Era. New York, NY: Routledge.

Fairclough, A. (2001). Teaching equality: Black schools in the age of jim crow. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.

Gore, D. F., Theoharis, J., & Woodard, K. (Eds.). (2009). Want to start a revolution?: Radical women in the black freedom struggle. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Harvey, P. (2005). Freedom’s coming: Religious culture and the shaping of the south from the civil war through the civil rights era. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Hill, L. (2004). The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Hogan, W.C. (2009). Many minds, one heart: SNCC’s dream for a new America. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Horton, M. with Kohl, J. & Kohl, H. (1998). The long hall: An autobiography. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Jeffries, H.K. (2009). Bloody lowndes: Civil rights and black power in alabama’s black belt. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Jones, P. D. (2009). The selma of the north: Civil rights insurgency in milwaukee. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Joseph, P.E. (2006). The black power movement: Rethinking the civil rights-black power era. New York, NY: Routledge.

K’Meyer, T. E. (2009). Civil rights in the gateway to the south: Louisville, kentucky, 1945-1980. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.

Kruse, K.M. (2005). White flight: Atlanta and the making of modern conservatism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Lang, C. (2009). Grassroots at the gateway: Class politics and black freedom struggle in st. louis, 1936-75. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Lau, P. F. (2006). Democracy rising: South carolina and the fight for black equality since 1865. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.

Lassiter, M.D. and Crespino, J. (2010). The Myth of Southern Exceptionalsim. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lawson, S. F. (2003). Civil rights crossroads: Nation, community, and the black freedom Struggle. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.

Lazerow, J., & Williams, Y. (Eds.). (2008). Liberated territory: Untold local perspectives on the black panther party. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Lee, C. K. (1999). For freedom’s sake: The life of fannie lou hamer. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Levine, E. (1993). Freedom’s children: Young civil rights activists tell their own stories. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam’s Sons.

Levy, P. B. (2003). Civil War on Race Street: The Civil Rights Movement in Cambridge, Maryland. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

Lipsitz, G. (1988). A life in the struggle: Ivory perry and the culture of opposition. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Manning, M. (2007). Race, reform, and rebellion: The second reconstruction and beyond in black america (3rd ed.). Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.

McAdam, D. (1988). Freedom summer. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

McAdam, D. (1982). Political process and the development of black insurgency, 1930-1970 (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

McGirr, L. (2001). Suburban warriors: The origins of the new American right. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

McGuire, D. (2010). At the dark end of the street: Black women, rape, and resistance – a new history of the civil rights movement from rosa parks to the rise of black power. New York, NY: Vintage Books.

McMillen, N.R. (1989). Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Moore, Jr., & W. B., Burton, O. V. (2008). Toward the meeting of the waters: currents in the civil rights movement of south carolina during the twentieth century. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.

Morris, A.D. (1984). The origins of the civil rights movement: Black communities organizing for change. New York, NY: Free Press.

Moses, R. P., & Cobb Jr., C.E. (2002). Radical equations: Math literacy and civil rights. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Oshinsky, D. M. (1996). “Worse than slavery”: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice. New York, NY: Free Press.

Patterson, J. T. (1991). Brown v. board of education: A civil rights milestone and its troubled legacy New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Payne, C. M. (1995). I’ve got the light of freedom: The organizing tradition and the mississippi freedom movement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Peniel, J. E. (2006). The black power movement: Rethinking the civil rights-black power. New York, NY: Routledge.

Pearlstein, D. (1990) “Minds Stayed on Freedom: Politics and Pedagogy in the African American Freedom Struggle” in Black Protest Thought and Education. Edited by William H. Watkins. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2005.

------. “Teaching Freedom: SNCC and the Creation of the Mississippi Freedom Schools.” History of Education Quarterly 30 (Autumn 1990): 297-324.

Ransby, B. (2003). Ella baker and the black freedom movement: A radical democratic vision. rights. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Rothschild, M. “White Women Volunteers in the Freedom Summers: Their Life and Work in a Movement for Social Change”

Scott, J.C. (1990). Domination and the arts of resistance: Hidden transcripts. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Smith, R. C. (1996). We have no leaders: African americans in the post-civil rights era. Albany, NY. SUNY Press.

Strain, C. B. (2005). Pure fire: Self-defense as activism in the civil rights era. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.

Patricia Sullivan, Lift Every Voice: The NAACP and the Making of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: The New Press, 2009)

Theoharis, J. F., & Woodard, K. (Eds.). (2003). Freedom north: Black freedom struggles outside the south, 1940- 1980. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Theoharis, J. F., & Woodard, K. (Eds.). (2005). Groundwork: Local Black Freedom Movements in America. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Thompson, H. A. (2004). Whose detroit?: Politics, labor, and race in a modern american city. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Tyson, T. B. (1999). Radio free dixie: Robert F. williams and the roots of black power. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Umoja, A.O. (2002). “We Will Shoot Back’: The Natchez Model and Paramilitary Organization in the Mississippi Freedom Movement,” Journal of Black Studies 32: 36-56.

Wilkerson, I. (2010). The warmth of other suns: The epic story of america’s great migration. New York, NY: Random House.

Wood, Peter, Black majority: Negroes in colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York : Knopf : Distributed by Random House, 1974)

Woodruff, N. E. (2003). American congo: The african american freedom struggle in the delta. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.