Molluscs from the Stone and Mud-Brick Tombs in Abusir (Egypt) and the Provenance of So-Called “Nile-Mud”

Volume IV ● Issue 1/2013 ● Online First

Interdisciplinaria archaeologica Natural Sciences in Archaeology

homepage: http://www.iansa.eu IV/1/2013

Molluscs from the Stone and Mud-brick Tombs in Abusir (Egypt) and the Provenance of so-called “Nile-mud”

Martin Odlera*, Veronika Dulíkováa, Lucie Juřičkováb aCzech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Celetná 20, 110 00 Prague 1, Czech Republic bDepartment of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Viničná 7, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic

Article info Abstract

Article history: More than 200 archaeological features were looted in Abusir during the Egyptian Lotus revolution in Received: 27. February 2013 January 2011. The survey of the looted features brought to light among other material mollusc shells Accepted: 24. June 2013 from mud-brick, mud plaster and layers covering and filling tombs and shafts. Sixteen features could be dated to the Old Kingdom (5th–6th dynasty, ca. 2435–2118 BC); there are two possible features Keywords: from the 3rd dynasty or early 4th dynasty (ca. 2543–2436 BC) and one feature datable to the Late Abusir Period (664–404 BC). Four species of gastropods and five species of bivalves were identified. A Old Kingdom number of the species are now either extinct or have a limited range in the Nile with these including: Late Period Unio elongatulus, Coelatura aegyptiaca, Anodonta cygnaea, and in all probability Etheria elliptica. Molluscs The most frequent freshwater species in the corpus, from slow flowing or stagnant waters, could be Environment evidence for the environment from which the mud for mud-brick and mud plaster was extracted. It mud-brick could have been the Lake of Abusir, irrigation channels or the slower flowing part of the Old Kingdom Old Kingdom pottery west branch of the Nile. shells

1. Introduction should therefore provide information about the environment in which the so-called “Nile-mud” was gathered for the Concerning the area of the concession of the Czech Institute production of mud-brick and mud plaster. The freshwater of Egyptology, more than 200 archaeological features were malacofauna of the Nile Basin was summarised recently looted in Abusir during the Egyptian Lotus revolution in a volume concerning the River Nile (Van Damme, in January 2011. The looters broke into storerooms and Van Bocxlaer 2009). An overview of Ancient Egyptian sealed tombs, ransacked the entire area and damaged as yet molluscs is provided by entries in Lexikon der Ägyptologie unexcavated tombs and shafts (Figure 1).1 The nearby so- (Feucht 1982; Seyfried 1986).2 Molluscs in Ancient called Bonnet’s cemetery, dating back to the Early Dynastic Egyptian mud-brick, mud plaster and pottery have not, to our period and excavated only partially (Bonnet 1928), was knowledge, been examined in the literature as yet. Species of taken over by the village of Abusir in March 2011 as an molluscs were thus determined and only published as finds enlargement of an existing Muslim cemetery. A number of in archaeological contexts, most recently e.g. from the Satet the preliminary results of the survey of the looted structures temple on the island of Elephantine (Falkner 1982, 155–163), in the field are presented here with a focus on the finds of from Tell el-Dab’a (Boessneck, Driesch 1992, 43–44), from malacofauna and their provenance. Buto (Boessneck, Driesch 1997, 214–215), from the Qubbet Malacofauna is a well-known indicator of the natural el-Hawa cemetery (Edel, Seyfried, Vieler 2008, LXXXII– environment – molluscs in mud-brick and mud plaster LXXXIII) and from the Early Dynastic site Tell el-Farkha

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] 2The detailed information in the chapter on marine and freshwater shells in 1Preliminary report on the looting in Abusir was only published in Czech Ancient Mesopotamian material culture is, however, not yet surpassed by (Bárta 2011a). any work in Egyptian archaeology (Moorey 1999, 129–140).

Figure 1. Looted features in the concession of the Czech Institute of Egyptology in Abusir with total station coordinates. The satellite image of the Memphite necropolis is used as a basemap (Bárta, Brůna 2006).

0 800 m

Figure 2. Looted features with molluscs in the concession of the Czech Institute of Egyptology in Abusir. Three other archaeological contexts with molluscs are added to the map, excavated tombs AS 37 (Neferinpu), AS 54 and AS 57.

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Figure 3. Vaulted mudbrick tomb RD T 81 dated preliminarily by the pottery into the Late Period. Part of the vault was destroyed and the mud-brick laid scattered around along with human bones and mummy wrappings. Limestone sarcophagus was also smashed with its lower head part lying near the right lower corner of the picture (photo M. Frouz).

(Abłamowicz 2012, 418–419). Species of molluscs found in from Lahun had, among other data, an entry on the levigating the feature AS 57 in Abusir were determined by L. Juřičková of clay on the east bank of a water body for the production of and published by Z. Sůvová (2011); finds from the Lake of mud-brick (Collier, Quirke 2006, 12–15). Abusir were published by L. Juřičková (Cílek et al. 2012). A fundamental monograph on Ancient Egyptian mud-brick was published by Spencer (1979). Environmental studies of 2. Methodology Ancient Egyptian mud-brick are scarce, with existing articles focused on erosion (Spencer 1994) and sedimentology of The rescue expedition of the Czech Institute of Egyptology mud-brick (Tell el-Moqdam: Morgenstein, Redmount 1998; arrived at site in March 2011 with the main aim of Karnak: Kemp 2000, 80–81; Amarna: Kemp 2000, 80–81). documenting the damage in the field and in the storehouses. Pollen determination and analysis of mud-brick contents has The robbers’ illicit digs were documented by GPS and total been published from Giza (Ayyad, Krzywinski, Pierce 1991) station coordinates, photographs, description of the tombs, and Abusir (Pokorný et al. 2009, 36). Information on shafts and unidentifiable features in the field. The material environmental sources is also complemented by written remaining after the looting near the features was sampled, sources. The Middle Kingdom papyrus UCL 32190, III.1 primarily pottery and occasionally other find types, yet

Figure 4. The mollusc shell in situ in the mud mortar of Neferinpu’s tomb (AS 37) (photo M. Odler).

(2011) Reference unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished Bárta (2013) Bárta (2011b) Vymazalová et al. unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished unpublished Pottery

of beer jar with plastic rib; frg. Early Dynastic – dynasties 3–4 Late Period pottery frgs. of beer jar and bowl; Old frg. Kingdom – dynasties 5–6 miniature bowl; of beer jar, frg. Old Kingdom – dynasties 5–6 platter; Old of beer jar, frg. Kingdom – dynasties 5–6 of beer jar and bowl; Old frg. Kingdom – dynasties 5–6 frg. of beer jar with plastic rib, frg. bowl with internal ledge, bowl; Early Dynastic – dynasties 3–4 of stand; Old Kingdom – frg. dynasties 5–6 of beer jar; Old Kingdom – frg. dynasties 5–6

? × 13 9 28 × 14 ? 30 × 10 ? 24 × 12 ? 22 × 11 × 7 22 × 11 29 × 14 9 24 × 12 8 ? × 13 6.5 26 × 12.5 8 20 × 10.5 7 27 × 13.5 8 Dimensions of 21.5 × 10.5 7 29.5 × 14 7–8 mudbrick (cm) 36–37 × 16.5 9 21–23 × 10.5 6.5

Mudbrick description dark brown with addition of and pottery sherds chaff dark brown with addition of pottery sherds, shells, chaff and sand dark brown with addition of sand dark brown dark brown light brown dark brown light brown sandy material light brown sandy material dark brown dark brown light brown dark brown

1.5 3.63 1.32 1.98 1.25 by robbers Depth of shaft dug

1.1 × 1.06 0.81 × 0.80 1.36 × 0.93 0.95 × 0.98 × 1.05 Dimension of shaft opening Dating dynasty 3–4 Late Period dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 late dynasty 5 late dynasty 3 dynasty 5 dynasty 3–4 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 dynasty 5–6 Specification stone tomb mud-brick tomb mud-brick tomb mud-brick feature mud-brick feature mud-brick feature mud-brick feature stone tomb mud-brick tomb mud-brick tomb tafl shaft mud-brick shaft mud-brick tomb mud-brick tomb mud-brick tomb mud-brick tomb stone tomb mud-brick tomb mud-brick tomb stone tomb mud-brick tomb tafl shaft feature Type of Type tomb tomb tomb unidentified feature unidentified feature unidentified feature unidentified feature tomb tomb tomb shaft shaft tomb tomb tomb tomb tomb tomb tomb tomb tomb shaft ID of feature RD T 74 RD T 81 RD T 83 RD T RD U 63 RD U 151 RD U 153 RD U 161 AS 37 AS 54 AS 57 Features with mollusc shells found during the survey of the looted structures in Abusir (March 2011). Three other archaeological contexts with molluscs are added to the table, excavated tombs AS 37, tombs excavated table, to the added are molluscs with contexts archaeological other Three 2011). Abusir (March in structures looted survey of the shells found during the mollusc with 1. Features Table AS 57. AS 54 and RD S 62 RD S 64 18 RD T 21 RD T 29 RD T 43 RD T 50 RD T 58 RD T 61 RD T 65 RD T 71 RD T RD S 38

Online First IANSA 2013 ● IV/1 ● Online First Martin Odler, Veronika Dulíková, Lucie Juřičková: Molluscs from the Stone and Mud-brick Tombs in Abusir (Egypt) and the Provenance of so-called “Nile-mud” * cygnaea Anodonta * Coelatura aegyptiaca * * * Unionidae # & & cf. Mutela sp. # elliptica cf. Etheria * * * & & Unio elongatulus * * * & & & & & Corbicula consorbina & Eremina ehrenbergi * # & Bulinus truncatus * # # * * * * # & & & & *, & Gabbiela senaariensis * # * * * * * * & & & *, & unicolor Bellamya RD S 62 RD S 38 RD S 64 RD T 18 RD T 21 RD T The occurrence of the molluscs in the archaeological contexts. Explanation of symbols: * – mud-brick, # – mud plaster, & – layers covering the tombs and filling shafts. The occurrence of the molluscs in archaeological contexts. Explanation symbols: * – mud-brick, # mud plaster, 2. Table RD T 43 RD T RD T 29 RD T RD T 58 RD T RD T 50 RD T 71 RD T 74 RD T 83 RD T RD T 81 RD T RD U 63 RD T 61 RD T 65 RD T AS 54 AS 57 RD U 151 RD U 153 RD U 161 AS 37

unpublished. The features were identified by the abbreviation were thus visible by a macroscopic survey in approximately RD (robbers’ dig), a shortcut of the feature type (T – tomb, S 20% of the features. The archaeological context of the – shaft, in the case of unknown architectural elements other finds is: mud-brick (13 contexts), mud mortar and plaster than a shaft: U – unidentified) and the number of the feature. (4 contexts) and layers covering tombs or shafts (the molluscs During the survey, the molluscs were also collected were removed from the layers left excavated by the robbers from the mud-brick, mud plaster and mortar and the filling in the vicinity of the features; 8 contexts) (Table 2). The of the tombs and shafts (the specification of the contexts malacofauna contained in the mud-brick and mud plaster is in Table 2). Samples from macroscopically visible is a more credible source, both types of contexts provide contexts were removed along with the data concerning terminus ante quem for the dating of the molluscs. their archaeological context. An example of the context is The primary architectural type of the surveyed features with photographed in Figure 4, the mollusc shell in situ in the the malacofauna is a tomb built of mud-brick (16 features; mud plaster of the tomb of Neferinpu (AS 37). The nature examples in Figures 3 and 4), while the rest are two tombs of the corpus is selective, influenced by the visibility of the built of limestone blocks and a mud-brick core, including shells in the archaeological contexts and the limited time of mud-brick shafts, with in one case the shaft being hewn into the rescue survey in the field, simple charting and mapping the tafl bedrock. The dimensions of the shaft openings were of the presence/absence of the species is chosen instead of a approximately 1×1 m. detailed description of the amount and fragmentarization of The dating of the tombs is complicated by the lack of the mollusc shells and statistics. proper archaeological excavations. The dating must be Three other contexts are incorporated into the examined based on observable features: the architectural types of the corpus, the molluscs found in the mud-brick of the AS 57 tombs, the size of the mud-brick and the occurrence of other feature (Sůvová 2011) and the as yet unpublished finds from datable material, in this case mainly pottery. The fragments the features AS 37 (Bárta 2013; molluscs from the mud consist of typical examples of Old Kingdom vessels, datable plaster on the western side of the superstructure) and AS 54 to the 5th–6th dynasty (ca. 2435–2118 BC),3 without the (Bárta 2011b; mollusc find from the tomb chapel). possibility of finer dating (Table 1). The fragments near the RD S 62 shaft and the shaft of the RD T 74 tomb only contained pottery datable to the 3rd dynasty or early 4th 3. Results dynasty (ca. 2543–2436 BC), similar material was published by Arias Kytnarová (2010). The RD T 81 feature is to be 3.1 Features and their dating dated in accordance with the architecture and pottery (dated Molluscs were found in 19 features out of the 168 surveyed robbers’ digs (Figure 2, Table 1). The robbers’ digs in Bonnet’s cemetery were not surveyed because of the inclusion of this 3A chronology of Ancient Egypt published by Hornung, Krauss, Warburton part of the Abusir site into the Muslim cemetery. Molluscs (2006) is followed in this article.

16 RD T 50 RD S 62 14 RD T 21 RD T 43 k 12 i c

r RD T 61 - b

d 10 RD T 65 u m

RD T 71 f

o 8 RD T 81 h t

i d RD T 83

W 6 RD T 58 RD U 151 4 RD U 153 RD S 64 2

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Length of mud-brick

Figure 5. The scatter plot of the mud-brick length and width in the corpus of the features.

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Bellamya Gabbiela Bulinus Eremina Corbicula Unio cf. Mutela sp. cf. Etheria Unionidae Coelatura Anodonta unicolor senaariensis truncatus ehrenbergi consorbina elongatulus elliptica aegyptiaca cygnaea

Figure 6. Number of the archaeological contexts with molluscs in the corpus of the features.

0 1 1 3 4 0 1 8 1 1 5 1 3 9 1 3 8 3 4 3 7 4 7 8 2 6 5 6 3 5 6 5 5 7 5 6 1 7 8 6 2 8 2 6 4 5 6 3 6

1 1 1

T T T T T T T T T T T T T S S S S S S U U

U U U A A A

D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

Bellamya unicolor Gabbiela senaariensis Unio elongatulus Corbicula consorbina Bulinus truncatus Coelatura aegyptiaca Anodonta cygnaea Eremina ehrenbergi Mutela sp. Eitheria elliptica Unionidae

Figure 7. The occurrence of the species in the corpus of the features. by K. Smoláriková, personal communication) in the Late mud-brick from the 3rd dynasty to the 6th dynasty.4 A detailed Period (26th–27th dynasty; 664–644 BC) (Figure 3). The chronological and chorological study of the Abusir mud- pottery could not be decisive for the dating of the tombs, the brick dimensions is needed for a more convincing argument. fragments were found in the already excavated filling of the The observed features of the architectural structures enabled tombs and shafts and there is no detailed information about the dating of the surveyed structures to the 5th–6th dynasty, the original context of the fragments. without a more accurate chronological division of the corpus. An indication of the dating of the features could be the size The RD S 62 and RD T 74 features could be traced to the of the bricks (Figure 5). The dimensions of the mud-brick are 3rd dynasty – early 4th dynasty according to the pottery. The clustered in an interval of 20–30 cm, apart from the RD T archaeological excavation of the looted structures is the only 81 tomb with larger mud-brick. The dating of the tombs at possible future means of more precise dating of the surveyed Abusir by virtue of the mud-brick dimensions is complicated structures in all the cases apart from RD T 81. by the occurrence of an interval of 20–30 cm among the The dating of the three remaining structures is secure, based on archaeological excavations and evaluation of the finds (Table 1): tomb AS 54 is dated to the late 3rd dynasty 4 rd 3 dynasty tombs are in this interval e.g. in the tomb of Ity (Bárta 2001, 4), (Bárta 2011b; Jirásková 2011), tomb AS 57 to the 5th dynasty the tomb of Hetepi (Bárta et al. 2010, 6) and AS 33 tomb (Bárta et al. 2010, th 57); the Lake of Abusir Tomb 1 contains this dimensions but also longer (Vymazalová et al. 2011) and tomb AS 37 to the late 5 mud-brick (Bárta 2001, 27). dynasty, its owner was Neferinpu (Bárta 2013).

3.2 Molluscs far less known. Molluscs in Ancient Egyptian mud-brick, Four species of gastropods and five species of bivalves were mud plaster and pottery have not, to our knowledge, been determined in the archaeological contexts. Each of them examined in the literature; however they could provide contains five or less mollusc species (Tables 2–3, Figure 6). interesting evidence about the ancient environment. The most frequent species were Bellamya unicolor, Gabbiela senaariensis and Corbicula consorbina (Figure 7). Other 4.1.1 Gastropods species are rarer with a number of them only occurring Three species of gastropods are freshwater and one once and in a fragmentary state of preservation. The spatial terrestrial. Bellamya unicolor from the Viviparidae family data indicate a regular occurrence of the species Bellamya is living in the lakes, rivers and perennial streams of Africa, unicolor, Gabbiela senaariensis and Corbicula consorbina including the Nile (Ghamizi et al. 2010). It was found in in the surveyed part of Abusir (Figures 8–10). This spatial mud-brick; mud plaster and layers (Figure 8, Table 2). distribution in all probability indicates a high frequency of A number of the earlier finds of this species were published these species in the source or the sources of the mud for the by Van Damme (1984). It is found in Egypt from the production of mud plaster and mud-brick. Neolithic (Boessneck 1988, 147, Abb. 242), through the Second Intermediate Period (Boessneck, Driesch 1992, 44) to the Late Period (Boessneck, Driesch 1997, 215). Finds at 4. Discussion the Lake of Abusir are assumed to have been redeposited by wind erosion (Cílek et al. 2012, 10). 4.1 Mollusc species Gabbiella senaariensis from the Bithyniidae family is a The most important information concerning the molluscs is freshwater snail, living in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation their habitat and ecology. Previous research was primarily channels, including the Nile (Ghamizi et al. 2010). It was focused on freshwater molluscs of northern Africa, due to found in mud-brick, mud plaster as well as in the layers in their parasitological importance. Terrestrial molluscs are the tombs and shafts (Figure 9, Table 2). There was only

A B

0 2 cm

0 2 cm D C

0 2 cm

Figure 8. Examples of most frequent species in the corpus from Abusir: A – Bellamya unicolor (feature RD U 153), B – Corbicula consorbina 0 2 cm (feature RD U 43), C – Unio elongatulus (feature RD U 161), D – Gabbiela senaariensis (feature RD U 151) (photo M. Ottmar).

Figure 9. The spatial range of the Bellamya unicolor species in the corpus of the features.

0 400 m

Table 3. The habitats of the determined mollusc species. Species Habitat Range Archaeological contexts in Egypt Bellamya unicolor freshwater; This species occur in lakes Nile and western Africa from Neolithic period to and slowly flowing rivers of tropical recent Africa, common also in fossil records. Gabbiella senaariensis freshwater; The species of large rivers afrotropical species, including Nile and lakes, recently known from the Nile and Southern and Western Africa. Fossil records from Fayum (Egypt), the second Nile Cataract (Sudan) and also from Chad and Nigeria. Bulinus truncatus freshwater; Eurasia and Africa oases Kharga, Dakhla, Bahriya Eremina ehrenbergi terrestric unknown from Early Dynastic period to recent

Coelatura aegyptiaca freshwater; rivers and lakes Nile – Aswan dam and southwards; from Old Kingdom to recent western Africa Etheria elliptica freshwater; fast flowing waters, Nile: western part of delta and from Old Kingdom to recent waterfalls, lakes northern Sudan Unio elongatulus freshwater; flowing and stagnant waters Mediterranean; extinct in Nile mancus/dembae Anodonta cygnaea freshwater; slow flowing and stagnant Eurasia and northern Africa Old Kingdom? – Qubbet waters (Algeria, Morocco) el-Hawwa Corbicula consorbina freshwater; rivers Lower Egypt in Nile

Figure 10. The spatial range of the Gabbiela senaariensis species in the corpus of the features.

0 400 m

one find of this species in the trenches of the Lake of Abusir freshwater bivalve, occurs in the Nile in Lower Egypt (Cílek et al. 2012, Figure 7), which is somewhat surprising spreading through planktonic larvae. It was discovered in in comparison with its frequency in the mud-brick and mud mud-brick and layers (Figure 10, Table 2). Pleistocene and plaster. Holocene finds from Egypt were published by Van Damme Bulinus truncatus from the Planorbidae family is a (1984). freshwater snail with a current range in Eurasia and Africa. It Unio elongatulus mancus from the Unionidae family5 is was found in all three types of archaeological contexts in the found in freshwater rivers, lakes and channels. It requires Abusir tombs (Table 2). The Holocene sites were published clean water and is intolerant to pollution (Van Damme 2011b). by Van Damme (1984). It occurs in Egypt in the oases It is extinct in the Nile. It was found in mud-brick as well as Kharga, Dakhla and Bahriya (Wright 1973). It was also found in layers (Figure 11, Table 2). The taxonomy of the species at the Lake of Abusir (Cílek et al. 2012, Figures 7–8). This is unclear, the bivalves from Abusir could belong to the sub- species is the intermediate host of Schistosoma haematobium species Unio elongatulus dembae, occurring at present only causing schistosomiasis. in Tana lake (Van Damme, Van Bocxlaer 2009, 615). The Eremina ehrenbergi from the Helicidae family is a Unio genus was found in an undatable context in tomb 26 in xerophilous terrestrial mollusc, its detailed recent range is Qubbet el-Hawa, the Unionidae family in two more contexts, not known but it occurs in northern Africa. The only shell of the “Unionidae or Mutelidae” family in five cases (Edel, this species was found in the chapel of the late 3rd dynasty Seyfried, Vieler 2008, LXXXII–LXXXIII). tomb AS 54, in a layer of grey sand, and it could be of Etheria elliptica from the Etheriidae family is living in recent origin. Additional species of this family, Eremina freshwater water bodies, preferring fast flowing rivers, desertorum and Eremina irregularis, were found in Ancient Egyptian settlement layers (Boessneck 1988, 147), as well as Eremina desertorum in Buto, dated to the Early Dynastic and 5There is also another species in the Unio genus, extinct in Egypt during Late Period (Boessneck, Driesch 1997, 215). the Holocene, apart from Unio elongatulus. Unio abyssinicus is currently extinct in the Nile, it occurred in Egypt in the Palaeolithic and Neolithic 4.1.2 Bivalves archaeological contexts. Its extinction was dated to the beginning of the Early Dynastic period in Lower Egypt due to an increase in the water Five species of freshwater bivalves occur in the corpus from temperature (Falkner 1982, 159–160). It only occurs in Tana lake (Van Abusir. Corbicula consorbina from the Corbiculidae family, Damme,Van Bocxlaer 2009, 622).

Figure 11. The spatial range of the Corbicula consorbina species in the corpus of the features.

0 400 m

Figure 12. The spatial range of the Unio elongatulus species in the corpus of the features.

0 400 m

lakes, rapids and waterfalls and attaching to hard substrates environment in which the mud was extracted. A number such as rocky shores. The species is spreading due to of the discussed species were used for food, as pendants planktonic larvae. It only occurs in Abusir in one possible or as paint receptacles, they are an admixture of the mud- fragment, found in the mud plaster of the tomb RD T 63. brick matrix in the case of the mud-brick and mud plaster Its current range is in continental Africa, in the Nile in the contents. These species do not alter our information western delta, and consequently in the Northern Sudan concerning the environment in the past in the Abusir area, (Van Damme 2011a), Pleistocene and Holocene finds were but do demonstrate that the range of the species was broader collected by Van Damme (1984). than the already published archaeological contexts have G. Falkner (1982, 162–163) has referred to a regular provided. There are several possibilities for the habitats of occurrence in the waters of tropical Africa, while it is rarer molluscs in the Abusir area: the banks of the Lake of Abusir, southwards down the river from the first Nile cataract. Only the irrigation channels or the slower flowing part of the Upper Egyptian archaeological sites were cited by Falkner.6 Nile. The production of mud-brick on the bank of a water Lower Egyptian sites include Abusir in this corpus and body is confirmed by one of the Lahun papyri, dated to the three pieces in Buto, dated to the Old Kingdom (Boessneck, Middle Kingdom (Collier, Quirke 2006, 12–15). The Nile Driesch 1997, 214–215). According to the habitat of this was in all probability divided into two branches during the species, the Ancient Egyptian term inr n rA mw – “stone from Old and Middle Kingdom in the Memphite area, migrating the water shore” (Hannig 2006, 88) could be the term for the over time eastwards. The western branch was nearer the Etheria elliptica. Memphite necropolis (Lutley, Bunbury 2008; Jeffreys, There are also certain fragments of the Unionidae family Bunbury 2011, Figure 3; Jeffreys 2012; Bunbury 2012). in the mud-brick and in all probability the Mutela freshwater Based on the current state of research, it cannot be decided in species from the Iridinidae family, in the mud plaster and which kind of environment the molluscs found in the mud- layers (Table 2). brick were living. The exceptions are the terrestrial snail Two more species were found in the mud-brick of Eremina ehrenbergi and Etheria elliptica from the faster the tomb AS 57, an already published tomb dated to the flowing water, present only as fragments of shell. The latter 5th dynasty (Sůvová 2011). They are discussed here as further species could also be deposited either by wind erosion or by evidence of molluscs in Old Kingdom mud-brick. Coelatura unintentional or intentional importation to the site. aegyptiaca from the Unionidae family occurs in rivers and Another corpus of malacofauna from Abusir was excavated Lake Chad, in different types of substrates in larger surface and published from the former Lake of Abusir (Cílek waters. It occurs in the Nile at Aswan dam and southwards et al. 2012). The trenches in the Lake of Abusir provided from there (Van Damme, Ghamizi 2010). It was found in scarce finds of molluscs datable to the Old Kingdom; the Buto and dated to the Old Kingdom and Late Period. It was highest frequency of the shells is in the first metre of the used for food, as a pendant or could have only occurred in deposits above the Old Kingdom level (Cílek et al. 2012, the environment of the settlement (Boessneck, Driesch 1997, 8, Figure 7).7 However, the Bellamya unicolor and Bulinus 215). Pleistocene and Holocene finds were published by Van truncatus species, found in the Lake of Abusir trenches, Damme (1984). occur in the Old Kingdom mud-brick of our corpus. One Anodonta cygnaea from the Unionidae family is found source is thus complementing the evidence of the other. in the slow flowing and stagnant waters of Eurasia and Research at the Lake of Abusir also brought to light shells Northern Africa and was only found there in Algeria and of Bithynia tentaculata, a common European species, which Morocco (Sůvová 2011). There were fragments of the was found thus far only in Algeria and Morocco in Africa.8 bivalves from the Unionidae family or Mutelidae at the Macroscopic study could identify traces of fossilization Qubbet el-Hawa site, similar to the Anodonta genus (Edel, on the shells; they are different in various environments, Seyfried, Vieler 2008, lxxxii–lxxxiii). the origin and taphonomy of the determined mollusc shells could be diverse. The only possible means of a precise 4.2. Interpretation and evaluation of the mollusc finds dating of the molluscs is 14C method; but no samples can The dating of the features is only tentative; there are two be exported from Egypt. The only laboratory providing 14C diachronic phases, the Old Kingdom and the Late Period dating in Egypt belongs to the Institut français d’archéologie (tomb RD T 81). The excavations of the Czech Institute of orientale, mollusc samples for dating should weigh 50 g or Egyptology in Abusir have demonstrated the most frequent tomb building activity in the 5th–6th dynasties in Abusir. An internal division of the Old Kingdom corpus based on the finds of pottery is possible, but cannot be overemphasized in the current state of research. 7A similar stratigraphic situation with a high concentration of shells at the top of the section was observed during the Memphis survey at site 4 The most frequently occurring freshwater species from (Jeffreys, Bunbury 2005, 9). the slow flowing or stagnant waters are evidence of the 8This species also occurred in Post-Meroitic tumulus 1 in Sudanese Sabaloka, a concession of the Czech Institute of Egyptology. Tumulus 1 6More finds of the family and this species were published from Qubbet provides terminus ante quem in the Post-Meroitic period for Bithynia el-Hawa by E. Edel, K.-J. Seyfried and G. Vieler (2008, lxxxiii). tentaculata on the sixth Nile cataract.

more9 – none of the mollusc finds of this corpus weighed which could be evidence for the environment in which the 50 grams or more. mud for the mud-brick and mud mortar was extracted. It There are a number of additional references to the molluscs could have been the Lake of Abusir, irrigation channels or in Abusir mud-brick (e.g. Krejčí 2006, Tables 1.6.2–1.6.9); the slower flowing part of the Old Kingdom west branch of further research on the Abusir malacofauna should also focus the Nile. The molluscs from the layers covering the tombs or on these contexts to supplement other species. A survey filling the shafts are also freshwater species and could have of the looted archaeological features in Abusir enabled fallen out of the mud plaster or mud-brick. the identification of the mud-brick structures with higher contents of organic material. In the case of a further study of the mollusc shells, an analysis of comparable contexts Acknowledgements should be used (e.g. standard flotation and wet sieving of the same number of mud-brick from the selected structures). This study was written within the Programme for the A detailed description and statistics on the amount and state Development of Fields of Study at Charles University, No. of preservation of all the material would be meaningful. P14 Archaeology of non-European regions, sub-programme Another field of research could be the Old Kingdom Research of ancient Egyptian civilisation. Cultural and pottery in Abusir, containing molluscs as well as mud- political adaptation of North African civilisations in ancient brick.10 It would be interesting to compare the range of history (5000 BC–1000 AD). The original Czech version of species in mud-brick and pottery, as to whether there are any the paper was presented at the conference on environmental differences or common traits. Czech excavations in Abusir archaeology – KEA in České Budějovice in January 2013. have identified a workshop for the recycling of the mud- We would like to thank the following colleagues for their brick in the mortuary temple of Raneferef, dated to the reign support and discussions in the field and during the writing of 5th dynasty king Nyuserra (Krejčí 1995 and 2006, 114, of this paper: M. Bárta, L. Bareš, K. Arias, L. Suková and Figure 1.6.2; Verner et al. 2006, 66, 82–83, Figures 1.3.19 K. Smoláriková (Czech Institute of Egyptology), V. Brůna and 1.3.20). The pottery workshop was used in the nearby (Geoinformatic Laboratory, Faculty of Environment at the mortuary temple of Queen Khentkaus and is dated to the University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem), reign of Unas, the last king of the 5th dynasty (Verner 1992, Z. Sůvová (independent researcher), T. Rzeuska (Polish 1995). The production areas of the mud-brick and pottery Academy of Sciences, Institute of Mediterranean and were thus probably separated in the Old Kingdom; the source Oriental Cultures) and A. Wodzińska (University of Warsaw, of mud for both could be the same. Institute of Archaeology).

5. Conclusion References

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