Vol. 4 - 7 No. 1 June, 2020 ISSN-1821-6986
KIVUKONI JOURNAL A Journal of The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy
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Kivukoni Journal iii Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 KIVUKONI JOURNAL
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief Dr. Parit Ole Saruni The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Associate Editor Dr. Bertha Losioki The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Editors Prof. Eliuther Mwageni Ardhi University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Prof. Justin K. Urassa Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro Tanzania Prof. Dmitri Bondarenko Institute of African Studies of the Russian Academy of science, Moscow - Russian Dr. Venance Mutayoba The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Dr. Solomon Mhango Tengeru Institute of Community Development (TICD), Arusha- Tanzania Dr. Ebby Chagala-Odera Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Nairobi, Kenya Dr. John Msinde Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro Tanzania Dr. Provident Dimoso Institute of Rural Development Planning (IRDP), Dodoma, Tanzania. Dr. Cosmas Mbogela Mzumbe University, Morogoro, Tanzania Dr. John Wakota University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Dr. Ellie Paris Miranda University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, USA Dr. Olivia S. Kamkwamba University of North Carolina (USA) Dr. Nnanna O. Arukwe University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria Dr. Steward N. Lulamye The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Dr. Rehema Ndumbaro The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Dr. George Babune The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Dr. Kenneth Mlelwa The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Kivukoni Journal iv Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Published bi-annually by The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania ISSN 1821-6986 Annual Subscription Rates Tanzania: TAS 15,000/=; African countries: USD 40; Rest of the world: USD 50. These rates include postage and may be reviewed and changed without notice. Payment of subscriptions should be made in crossed cheques payable to: KIVUKONI JOURNAL, P.O. BOX 9193, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Email: [email protected] Website: www.mnma.ac.tz
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Kivukoni Journal v Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Editorial Note
The Kivukoni Journal of the Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, which was established in 2011, aims at fostering discussions and exchange of ideas on multidisciplinary issues, which are relevant to the current research and development agenda to the Global and Tanzania Societies. We wish to urge and encourage our esteemed readers and the community of researchers to make use of this scholarly journal to find responses and solutions to the challenges currently facing our societies.
The world’s development under globalization and liberalization depends largely on the research-based solutions that illuminate on social, economic, political, and cultural development for the betterment of the society.
Thus, Kivukoni Journal offers the opportune forum for review and scholarly debates on multidisciplinary subjects that are relevant to development. The Journal caters for a wider readership among the members of the academia who are utilizing their knowledge for the best interest of the society.
Kivukoni Journal is published bi-annually. The Editorial Board has recently been reviewed to include members from different institutions across the world with the aim of meeting the global publication standards. The countries that are represented here include Tanzania, United States of America, Russia, Nigeria, and Kenya. In this regard, the Editorial Board invites articles, book reviews that are relevant to socioeconomic and cultural development.
As is the practice of most scholarly journals, Kivukoni Journal aims at high standards articles that are reviewed and screened by the Editorial Board with the objective of providing knowledge for the interest of our esteemed readers.
Kivukoni Journal vi Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania
Roland S. Mushi and Richard Y.M. Kangalawe ...... 1-21
2. Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania
Japhet Ringo and Edmund Mbigili...... 22-37
3. Utilization of School Libraries by Students in Selected Schools in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania-
Huruma H. Mogha and Christian Mubofu...... 38-46
4. Assessment of Rice Price Volatility and Trend in Dar es Salaam Markets, Tanzania
Venance Mutayoba and Parit Ole Saruni...... 47-68
5. Market Information and its Contribution to SMES’ Access to Loans From Banks in Tanzania: A Case of Selected SMES in Dar Es Salaam City
Badi Lwidiko., Samwel Lunyelele and Moses Kusiluka...... 69-84
6. Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania
Erick Kwesigabo...... 85-103
7. Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar Es Salaam
Rose I. Mbwete...... 104-119
8. Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among the Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District
Lucy Massoi and Parit Saruni ...... 120-139
Kivukoni Journal vii Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 9. Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania
Angela M. Jesse and Suzan Ongara...... 140-155
10. Assessment of Teaching and Learning Environment for Science Subjects in Secondary Schools in Mkuranga District, Tanzania
Bertha Losioki...... 156-173
11. The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania
Jocelyne Mushi and Jeremia Makindara ...... 174-194
12. Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania
Edwın E. Ngowi ...... 195-211
13. Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies
Vivian C. Kapilima...... 212-231
14. Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality
Ambiliasia P. Mosha...... 232-249
Kivukoni Journal viii Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania Roland S. Mushi and Richard Y. M. Kangalawe
Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, P. O. Box 35097, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy in Tanzania. This study was conducted to assess the climate change impacts on coastal tourism along the coast of Tanzania focusing on Bagamoyo District. Specifically, the study aimed at identifying climate change impacts on coastal resources that are used as tourist attractions, the vulnerability of coastal tourism and it is adapted to impacts. Data collection methods include Geographical Information System and remote sensing, key informants and household interviews, participant observation as well as review of secondary data sources. The results from the analysis of rainfall data from 1950-2007 showed that the rainfall availability trend declined by about 23 percent from about 1100 mm in the 1950s to 850 mm in 2007. This was mainly associated with variations and changing patterns. The mean maximum and minimum temperature increased by approximately 0.5°C and 2°C respectively, whereas the average annual temperature increased by 1°C from 1978 to 2008, causing discomfort to tourists as well as local communities. The impacts such as sea level rise and coastal erosion are evident, causing destruction of infrastructures such as hotels, cultural, historical, and archaeological sites, and sea walls and seawater intrusion into hotels compounds. The occurrences of climate-related diseases such as malaria, dysentery, and skin rashes were common, posing a threat to coastal tourism activities. Generally, incidences related to climate change are increasing and have impacts on coastal tourism. Thus, emphasis should be on adaptation measures, enforcement of institutional capacity building and policy, including proactive forward planning on coastal management, enhancing public awareness on climate change impacts among the coastal communities, tourism stakeholders, private sectors, and government officials in the affected areas.
Key words: Climate change, Coastal tourism, Adaptation, Tanzania
Kivukoni Journal 1 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change is one of the main global issues of the 21st century, and which will severely affect the world at various levels. The average global surface temperature is reported to have warmed by 0.8°C in the past century and 0.6°C in the past four decades (Hansen et al., 2006). Globally, climate change and the rise of sea level together will expose many coasts to increasing risks, including coastal erosion and inundation (IPCC, 2007). Climate change places tourism at risk, particularly in the coastal zones and mountain regions. The economic benefits of tourism in Africa, which accounts for about 3 percent of the worldwide tourism, may change with the change of climate. Although scientific evidence is still limited, it is probable that destruction of tourist infrastructures such as hotels, recreational facilities, beaches erosion, flood risks, and water-pollution-related diseases in low-lying coastal regions, as well as coral reef bleaching would have a negative impact on tourism.
Tanzania has an area of 945,000 km2, which includes the three coastal islands of Mafia, Pemba, and Zanzibar, and a coastline that is about 800 km long (Agrawala et al., 2003). The coastal area covers about 15 percent of the total land area and supports approximately 25 percent of the population of Tanzania. The coast is characterized by a wide diversity of habitats including coral reefs, sea-grass beds, and mangrove forests, which support a wide variety of living organisms and various economic activities such as tourism, fisheries and agriculture (Kairu and Nyandwi, 2000).
Tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy in Tanzania. For the past few decades, the sector has grown steadily and has contributed significantly to nature conservation, economic development, and poverty reduction in rural and remote areas where it is carried out (URT, 2004). Apparently, the coastal areas of Bagamoyo District have also become an important area for tourist activities. The main attractions in Bagamoyo coastal areas include cultural and natural attractions ranging from wildlife, white sandy beaches, mangrove forests, geological formations, or other natural resources that could be of interest to tourists. Bagamoyo District is blessed with an amazing historical and cultural heritage and was recently designated a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site (UN, 2009; Mkama et al., 2013). Bagamoyo has developed beach hotels that attract many visitors and tourists from Dar es Salaam and beyond.
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However, the fact that most of the facilities are within 60 meters of the highest tidal mark, makes them vulnerable to the impacts of climate change such coastal erosion and storm surges associated with the rise of sea level. Cultural attractions include historical and archaeological sites such as Kaole ruins, which were built in the 13th century, the ancient German architecture (German BOMA built in 1897), and Old harbour and Customs House (1895). Others include, the first church in East Africa (1868), the first multi-racial school in Tanganyika (1898) and the Arab Fort, performing arts, traditional lifestyles and other cultural or human resource that could be of interest to tourism (TCMP, 2001). Other attractions include man made features such as magnificent beach hotels and other structures established for tourism purposes that contribute significantly to the national economy (Toroka, 2003).
Despite the diversity of the tourist resources that can be used for coastal tourism, more understanding is needed on how these resources have been impacted by climate change, how vulnerable such resources are, and how coastal tourism is likely to perform in the midst of the changing climate. This study is particularly necessary now given the growing importance of coastal tourism in general and the fact that Bagamoyo District has become an important tourist destination along the western coastline of the Indian Ocean (Mkama et al., 2013). This study was conducted to assess the impacts of climate change on coastal tourism along the coast of Tanzania focusing on Bagamoyo District. Specifically, the study aimed at identifying climate change impacts on coastal resources that are used as tourist attractions, the vulnerability of coastal tourism and adaptation associated with climate change impacts.
2. METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted in two villages in Bagamoyo District namely, Dunda and Kaole (Figure 1) in Dunda Ward. Bagamoyo is located at 6°26′S 38°54′E. It lies 65 km north of Dar es Salaam on the western coast of the Indian Ocean. The District covers an area of 9,842 km2. About 855 km2 are covered by water (Ocean and Rivers) while the remaining part is occupied by dry lands. Bagamoyo District was selected for the study due to its cultural and historical background, as well as its large coastal tourism activities taking place in the district.
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Figure 1: Map of Dunda Ward showing location of study areas. The Insert shows the location of Bagamoyo district within Tanzania.
Source: IRA GIS Lab
Climatically, Bagamoyo is more or less the same as the rest of the coastal areas of Tanzania mainland, which are hot, humid, and tropical in general (URT, 2006). Bagamoyo District experiences moderately high temperature 32°C and humidity of as high as 98 percent. The district has two main rainy seasons with the average annual rainfall ranging from 800 to 1200mm. The first season, which is the main rainy season, is characterized by long rains (masika) which lasts for three months beginning from March to May. The second season is called short rainy season (vuli) and lasts for four months beginning from October to January each year. Sea surface temperatures exhibit seasonality that is influenced by changes in the water masses of the Indian Ocean and climate factors (URT, 2006). The seasonality experienced in the area is among the factors influencing tourism-related activities in the area,
Kivukoni Journal 4 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Roland S. Mushi and Richard Y. M. Kangalawe such as beach erosion and inundation of tourist facilities. Among the examples of tourism-related activities is the rain-fed crop production where most crops are grown during the more dependable long rainy season (masika). This is because the short (vuli) rains have increasingly become irregular and although farmers make use of the rains opportunistically to grow second season crops such as maize or cowpeas. However, the outcome is not reliable (URT, 2015). Thus, any variation in climatic patterns may have significant impacts on food production causing subsequent decline in supply of such products.
Data collection for the study used GIS and remote sensing, key informants and household interviews and participant observation. Both secondary and primary data were collected in order to complement each other and to enhance accuracy of information collected as a way of triangulation. Secondary sources included rainfall and temperature data obtained from Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA), and other relevant sources. Primary data were collected using key informant interviews, focus group discussions with a total of 8-15 participants per village, household interviews to 5 percent (133 households) of the total number of households per village, and direct field observations. The diversity of methods was intended not only as a triangulation technique but also as a mechanism of soliciting information from various groups of stakeholders involved in and/or influenced by coastal tourism. Data from household interviews were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), where cross-tabulation allowed a comparison of different study parameters in the two villages. Qualitative data from focus group discussions, key informants interviews, and participant observation were analysed using content analysis. Temperature and rainfall data from meteorological stations were analysed using Microsoft Office Excel 2003 to establish temporal patterns and trends of rainfall and temperature.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Local perceptions of climate change and its impacts An inquiry was made on how the local communities perceived climate change in their contexts. The coastal people of Bagamoyo District appeared to be much aware of the climate change and they could associate it with years dominated by extreme climatic conditions and other significant events leading to destructions, disturbances, and even loss of life (Table 1).
Kivukoni Journal 5 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania Table 1: Climate related extreme events and impacts on Bagamoyo coastal areas, 1969-2009
Year Event Affected places Human deaths, loss or damage of properties 1969 Coastal RC Church and some There were structural destructions storm surge few coastal places at the RC Church and some ancient buildings, for instance, the cock symbol at the top of the church was destroyed, and some roofs, walls at the ruins were destroyed. 1976 Rise of sea Kaole village and some Houses were destroyed, 9 people died water levels parts of Bagamoyo town and dhows were destroyed as a result coastline of strong winds and strong waves. 1997/ El Niño Most parts of Tanzania Inundation of some parts, the road to 1998 associated including Bagamoyo Kaole ruins was impassable, Kaole ruins with coastal areas were were somehow destroyed through excessive inundated, crop water infiltration leading to cracking of rainfalls destructions and the ruins (this affected tourism sector). outbreak of diseases such as cholera, dysentery and malaria 2005 Storm surge Ancient German Destruction of tourist attractions and heavy buildings, Arab Tea House (heritage sites) winds were dilapidated, roofs destroyed 2007 Storm surge Areas around Paradise Destruction of sea walls around associated Holiday Resort and Livingstone Club and Paradise Resort. with abrupt Bagamoyo coastal areas Disrupted tourism activities rise of sea levels 2008 Droughts Coastal parts of Drying up of crops, occurrence of Bagamoyo human diseases , such as malaria, boils, dysentery, skin rashes 2009 Storm surge The whole of Bagamoyo Nine people died, boats and dhows and sea coastline, as well as were destroyed because of heavy level rise occurrence of marine blowing winds, and the rise of sea levels. accidents around This disrupted tourism activities. Customs and BADECO areas Source: Antiquities Department and RC Museum (2009).
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Rainfall and temperature trends based on empirical data Local perceptions of farmers with respect to changes in temperature as well as increasing rainfall variability revealed close relationship to empirical analysis of rainfall and temperature trends using the data obtained from TMA. About 28.9 percent out of 133 respondents in Kaole village complained that nowadays the rains come at an unexpected seasons and they are erratic. This has often caused crops to dry up in the farms. The respondents in Dunda village (34.9%) were of the same opinion that rainfall trend is going down compared to previous years. About 24.4 percent of the respondents in Kaole reported that they were now experiencing high temperatures compared to previous years. The case was more significant in Dunda village whereby about 41.8 percent of the respondents reported of increased temperatures causing discomfort to both tourists and local communities.
Trend analysis of rainfall data shows that annual rainfall has fluctuated to an average of about 1100 mm in 1950s to about 850mm in 2007 (Figure 2), indicating a decline of about 23 percent over this period. However, it is noted that as from 1970s to 2008 rainfall has been decreasing over time. The decrease from the annual average of about 1000mm to as low as 600mm in recent years is significant, and an issue for concern. In addition, there was a concern on an increase in temperatures as confirmed by TMA temperature data (annual average temperature increase of 1°C from 1970-2008 (Figure 3). The trends cited in Figures 2 and 3 do not only confirm the local people’s perception that there have been changes in their environment, but have implications on the main economic activities in Bagamoyo such as small- holder farming, artisanal fishing, livestock keeping and mariculture (Mkama et al., 2013), that provide supplies to the local tourism-related investments such as beach hotels. These economic activities are climate dependent (Gautum, 2009). Thus, changes in rainfall and temperature can affect the coping strategies of not only the local communities but of various sectors, including tourism (URT, 2007).
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2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 Rainfalls (mm) Rainfalls 200 0
1950 1953 1956 1959 1962 1965 1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 Years
Figure 2: Annual rainfall variability for Bagamoyo 1950-2007
Source: Computed from Tanzania Meteorological Agency (2009) data
27.5
27.0
26.5 (°C) 26.0
25.5
25.0 Temperature Temperature
24.5 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Annual Average Temperature (°C) Linear (Annual Average Temperature (°C))
Figure 3: Average annual temperature for coastal areas of Bagamoyo
Source: Computed from Tanzania Meteorological Agency (2009) data
The increasing temperature trend was also confirmed by respondents during household surveys. The respondents asserted that the area has become warmer throughout the year, cooler periods have become shorter while hot periods have become much longer. In addition, these respondents reported that this condition
Kivukoni Journal 8 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Roland S. Mushi and Richard Y. M. Kangalawe has made them more vulnerable to diseases such as malaria, cholera, dysentery, boils, and skin rashes. While the observation by the respondents was not supported by hospital records regarding the prevalence of these diseases, studies elsewhere have confirmed that these diseases are enhanced by warmer climatic conditions (Viner and Agnew, 1999; Yanda et al., 2007; Olago et al., 2010). Given the confluence of increasing rates of tourism, increased awareness of environmental issues and significant interest in the conservation of coastal resources by Bagamoyo District, the time seems right to examine the status of tourism in the district in a changing climate.
The average annual temperature increased by 1°C over a period of 38 years from 1970-2008 (Figure 3). It can be seen from Figure 3 that during this period the average annual temperatures increased from 25.5°C to slightly above 26.5°C. Such a change validates that global warming can be revealed even at local scales.
Change detection of shoreline at Dunda and Kaole villages from GIS data Participant observation was conducted to collect more information from the field and the people interviewed were asked about the status of the shoreline in relation to previous years. Their responses were in line with GIS analytical findings (Figure 4, 5 and 6) that showed changes in shoreline over the years, which are evident through the disappearance of indigenous trees as well as a decrease of land size resulting from the rise of the sea level, coastal erosion, and human activities. Figure 4 presents the analysis of coastline status between 1988 and 1995. The findings showed that during this period the coastline was much relatively intact with about 41 ha of land being recorded as natural vegetation cover (bushed grassland).
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Figure 4: Coastline status, 1988-1995
Source: GIS Lab (IRA)
Figure 5 shows the coastline status between 1995 and 2000. About 5 ha of land equivalent to 31 percent was eroded and about 8 ha of water coverage advanced into the eroded land. The blue line in the map represents seawater and the dark blue line represents shoreline change. Much of the erosion occurred at the northern part of Dunda village. In addition, about 82 percent of vegetation cover was removed by different human activities in the area and according to the local narratives the impacts from the rise of seawater occurred during the period from 1995-2000.
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Figure 5: Coastline status, 1995-2000
Source: GIS Lab (IRA)
It was also revealed by the tourism operators and tour guides that these changes affect much of the coastal tourism activities in the studied areas. For instance, during the entire period of 1988-2000 (Figure 6), about 2 ha (17%) of land (bush land with scattered cropland) was eroded in the studied areas. Seawater intrusion into the land covered about 1 ha (13%) more than the coverage from the original shoreline. Most of these changes were locally associated with the rise of the sea water level. A study by Mkama et al. (2013) confirms that the natural resources related to coastal tourism in Bagamoyo are vulnerable to coastal erosion and shoreline changes, as evidenced by eroded beaches and shifting shorelines that affected old historical buildings and destructed beautiful beach sceneries (Figure 7). These changes in turn affect coastal tourism, one of the increasingly booming activities in Bagamoyo District (Mkama et al., 2013). GIS analysis carried out for
Kivukoni Journal 11 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania the present study demonstrate backward shifts in coastal boundaries due to the rise of sea level destroying infrastructure, fauna and flora, consequently disrupting coastal tourism activities of the area forcing the people to emigrate. Also, during the period covered by this study about 38 ha of bushed grassland were removed due to various human activities such as cutting down of mangroves and clearing of land for agricultural activities, thereby increasing the rate of erosion and reduction of beach areas.
Figure 6: Coastline status, 1988-2000
Source: GIS Lab (IRA)
Data on tourism for the study area is scanty, however five year data for Kaole Ruins, located in one of the study villages, indicate that between 2005 and 2007 the number of foreign tourists increased and decreased thereafter until 2009 (Table 2). The latter period also experienced a decrease in rainfall and an increase in temperatures (see Figures 2 and 3), partly showing the link between tourism and
Kivukoni Journal 12 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Roland S. Mushi and Richard Y. M. Kangalawe changing climate. On the one hand, other factors such as storm surges, heavy winds and the rise in sea levels have effects on coastal erosion and destruction of beaches and coastal investments thereby increasing the maintenance or mitigation of costs, which have to be recovered from the tourist operations. On the other hand, the rise in sea level has caused seawater intrusion into freshwater systems (URT, 2007) that have been used by native communities and could as well be used by visitors.
Table 2: Number of visitors to Kaole Ruins, 2005-2009
Period/Year Foreign Resident Adults Students 2005 605 1795 7729 2006 1230 10821 12659 2007 1485 5191 15184 2008 NA NA NA 2009 1263 3866 15962 Source: Gautum (2009); NA=Not available
Figure 7: Beach erosion collapsing old Boma important tourist visit areas at Customs, Bagamoyo.
Source: Mkama et al. (2013).
Kivukoni Journal 13 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania Local narratives on the impacts of climate change on coastal resources
Coastal natural resources of Bagamoyo are also used for tourism purposes. However, these natural resources are being impacted by various factors including human-led activities such as tourism development, sea level rise and increased temperature associated with global warming. Mangroves degradation is common in Bagamoyo District resulting from cutting down of trees for charcoal production, construction purposes, fuel wood, creation of wider expanses for beaches fronts and recreational purposes (Torell et al., 2006). In addition, the results from key informants interviews and household surveys (Table 3) indicate that sea level rise and increased temperature have negative impacts on mangrove ecosystems because these ecosystems survive in a certain amount of salinity. Degradation of coral reefs is due to tourism activities and global warming, there is evidence of coral bleaching after the El Niño of 1997/1998 along the Indian Ocean. However, the results from household surveys indicated that only 8.2 percent of the respondents associated the impacts of climate change to corals, possibly due to limited knowledge on the impacts of climate change on marine resources such as corals. Dunda village had the least proportion respondents attributing the impact of climate change on corals (Table 3). Rather they linked the destruction of coral reefs in the areas to human activities. Similar concerns were also raised by Nelleman and Corcoran (2006).
Table 3: Percent response on impacts of climate change on coastal resources
Coastal resources impacted Village Kaole Dunda Average Impacts on beaches 40.6 39.6 40.1 Impacts on mangroves 21.9 32.4 27.2 Impacts on fish availability 25.0 23.7 24.4 Impacts on Coral reefs 12.5 4.3 8.2
The impacts of climate change are also seen in the form of beach recession. The results showed that beaches are shrinking from the original state resulting from the rise in sea level, coastal erosion (Figure 8), and removal of mangrove forests.
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Figure 8: Exposed roots demonstrating beach erosion due to oceanic waves (top left), Sea wall defence at the Millennium Sea Breeze Resort (top right), Sea walls defence at Livingstone Club (bottom left) and Paradise Holiday Resort (bottom right).
Source: Mushi (2009).
The findings from household surveys showed that the reduction of beach areas has affected tourism activities in these areas; for instance, movement of tourists nowadays is likely to be restricted to smaller area compared to previous years. Further discussion with Livingstone Club and Paradise Holiday Resort staffs revealed that beach reduction and increasing coastal erosion are threats to the tourism sector. Similar concerns are reported by Linden and Lundin (1995).
Fish availability is also declining with an increase of sea surface temperature as it was observed by local fishermen, and supported by Roessiget al. (2004) and Fick et al. (2005). According to the Bagamoyo District Fishery Department, this situation may cause shortage of nutritious food for local communities and tourists in the area, and may negatively affect the tourism sector, because fish is also a source of food for tourist hotels around Bagamoyo.
Kivukoni Journal 15 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania The vulnerability of coastal tourism to climate change
The whole of Bagamoyo town is a historical town with a history dating back to the 13th Century. Ruins such as those at Kaole of 13th century, German ancient buildings, Arab fort, Old market, and Old customhouse are among the historical tourist attractions. However, the destructions due to the changing climate are obvious nowadays especially with the German cemetery and Kaole ruins. The findings from this study showed that tourism activities in Bagamoyo are indeed threatened by the changing climate, particularly through its impacts on the rise of sea level. The most notable negative impacts on coastal tourism include the destruction of tourist infrastructures such as hotels and other recreational facilities, sea walls, boats, roads, cultural heritage sites (historical and archaeological sites). For instance, on 25th December 2007, the Paradise Holiday Resort management had to close down all activities around the resort because some parts of the hotel were surrounded by the sea water, an apparent indication of global warming associated with the rise of sea water (see Figure 7 and 8). This prompted the Hotel Management to reinforce the built sea walls. According to Bagamoyo Forestry Department, coastal erosion and the rise of sea level have led to shoreline changes leading to a decrease of beach areas, disappearance of indigenous trees such as Casuarina trees, Coconut trees, and Terminalia trees, and destruction of archaeological sites. All these phenomena contribute to the alteration of the natural appearance of the coastal environment affecting coastal tourism. The shoreline changes, beach erosion, unreliable rainfall, and an increase in temperature in dry seasons, not only affect the Bagamoyo community coastal agriculture and fisheries activities but also the booming tourism industry (Mkama et al. 2013).
Impacts of climate change on cultural, historical and ar- chaeological sites
About 46.7 percent of the respondents in Kaole village indicated that the cultural heritage sites of Bagamoyo are being negatively impacted by climate change through the rise of sea level, coastal erosion (see Figure 8), increased temperature, and other extreme events such as storm surges, coastal flooding, and excessive rainfalls especially during El Niño of 1997/1998. If proper adaptation measures are not implemented, the deterioration of cultural heritage sites in Bagamoyo will continue to affect the tourism sector severely. This is because there are many tourists who come to Bagamoyo purposely for the history, cultural and archaeological sites of Bagamoyo (Kimaro, 2006). It was also reported by the Kaole Conservator that the
Kivukoni Journal 16 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Roland S. Mushi and Richard Y. M. Kangalawe changing climate of the modern world, particularly the rise of sea level is a threat to the existence of Kaole ruins, which have stood the test of times and persisted against natural forces such as winds, rains, and temperatures over the centuries.
Impacts of climate change on seaside tourism activities
In Bagamoyo coast, seaside tourism is done in the sea, whereby tourists use hired boats to visit areas special for diving, snorkelling activities, watching ornamental fishes (samaki wa mapambo) around coral reefs and lagoons, and viewing water birds. On 18th February 2009, there was a sudden powerful storm, and an abrupt rise of sea level along the Bagamoyo coast, a situation that led to the deaths of 9 people and destruction of few boats. Although such extreme events may not necessarily be attributed to changing climate, extreme weather events have often associated with climate change (URT, 2007; IPCC, 2007), and may increase vulnerabilities in a context of multiple stresses. As a result, the following days all tourist activities on the sea were stopped. Basing on situations like this, the results from key informant interviews and focus group discussions in both villages indicated that seaside tourism activities would be among the highly impacted areas of tourists’ activities with an increase of extreme climate related events as the ones witnessed nowadays, thus affecting coastal tourism, and causing loss of revenues and employments. The increased frequency of extreme weather events such as El Niño floods in 1997/98 and drought are few but important evidences of the effects of climate change in Tanzania (URT, 2007).
Coastal tourism adaptation to climate change
There is an increase of evidence that climate change will strongly affect low-lying coastal areas, and will be one of the challenging issues for future development and economic activities such as tourism (Huq et al., 2004). In realising such challenges, the study revealed that tourism stakeholders, hoteliers and Antiquity department have established various climate change adaptation measures, the most notable ones being construction of sea walls in most of the hotels, and pilling up of sand bags, and enhancement and rehabilitation of ancient buildings and ruins. Hotels such as Livingstone Club, Paradise Holiday Resort, and Millennium Sea Breeze have constructed sea walls, although they are being destroyed every now and then by rising sea levels. The adaptation strategies used by Antiquities Department include the enhancement and rehabilitation of the ruins whenever destruction occurs.
Kivukoni Journal 17 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania 4. CONCLUSION
The results from this study have shown that the impacts of climate change on coastal tourism along the coastline of Bagamoyo are becoming evident in various ways. Beaches are shrinking as a result of the rising sea levels, an increase of coastal erosion and coastal flooding leading to deterioration of coastal cultural heritage sites, which are among the major tourist attractions of Bagamoyo. The reported changes in the characteristics of the rainfall patterns and its unpredictability, and the increased annual average temperature are likely to cause considerable discomfort that may affect economic activities of the area, including tourism. Climate change and subsequent sea level rise are adding pressure on the coastal resources affecting coastal ecosystems, tourism infrastructures and other climate dependent economic activities, threatening the livelihoods of coastal population and growth of coastal tourism along the Bagamoyo coast. To address the challenges emanating from the impacts of climate change it is recommended that there should be a regular monitoring of coastal ecosystems to provide natural resource managers and the tourism sector with current information on the state of the coastal environment and to assess their vulnerability to climate change. Also institutional and policy frameworks that address the vulnerability of coastal tourism due to climate change have to be in place so as to enhance adaptation strategies and mitigate other potential impacts. On the other hand, coastal tourism stakeholders should provide more awareness campaigns regarding climate change impacts.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam for providing logistical support during the study, and for partial funding support. We also appreciate the invaluable comments from our colleagues at the Institute of Resource Assessment. Finally yet importantly, the authors are also thankful to the reviewers for reviewing this manuscript and making the most needed comments. However, we remain accountable for the content of the paper.
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Barahona, C. and Levy, S. (2003). How to Generate Statistics and Influence Policy Using Participatory Methods in Research: Reflection on the Work in Malawi 1992- 2002. IDS Working Paper 212, Pp 57. Environmental Protection Management Services (2006). Adaptation to Climate Change through Shifting of Shallow Water Wells Affected by Inundation on the Coast Regions-Bagamoyo, South North Adaptation Team -Tanzania Fick, A.A., Myrick, C.A., Hansen, L.J. (2005). Potential impacts of Global Climate Change on Freshwater Fisheries. A Report for WWF, Gland, Switzerland Gautum, A. (2009). Profile of current coastal tourism in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania and opportunities for development of ecotourism. TCMP Technical Report. Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership for Sustainable Coastal Communities and Ecosystems in Tanzania. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island. Hansen, J.R., Ruedy, M.S. and K.L. (2006), NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and Columbia University, Earth Institute, New York. Available at: http://data.giss.gov/ gistemp/ [Accessed on 3rd September, 2008] Huq, S., Reid, H., Konate, M., Rahman, A., Sokona, Y and Crick, F. (2004). Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change in Least Developed Countries (LDC’s). Climate Policy 4:25-43 IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007. Impacts, Adaptation and vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Summary to Policymakers. Pp 16-34. Available online: http://www.ipcc.ch (Accessed on 3rd May, 2009). Kairu, K and Nyandwi, N. (2000). Guidelines for the Study of Shoreline Change in the Western Indian Ocean Region. Manual and Guides 40. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO Workshops. Paris. Pp 98. Kimaro, J.W.S. (2006). Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) in Kilwa: Towards a Sustainable Conservation and Management of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara World Heritage Sites. University of Dar es Salaam. Pp 68-71 Linden, O and Lundin, C.G. (Eds.) (1995). Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Tanzania, Ministry of Natural Resources Tourism and Environment. Institute of Marine Science, University of Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam. Pp 31
Kivukoni Journal 19 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources Used as Tourist Attractions and Vulnerability of Coastal Tourism: A Case of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania Mkama, W., Msuya S., Mahenge, J., Mposo, A., Jason, A.N., Amanzi, A., Chausiku, A. and Kundengukila, F. (2013). Bagamoyo District coastal climate change rapid vulnerability and adaptive capacity assessment, Bagamoyo District, Tanzania. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI, 26 pp. Nelleman, C. and E. Corcoran (Eds.) (2006). Our Precious Coasts: Marine Pollution, Climate Change and the Resilience of Coastal Ecosystems. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, Norway, Pp 40. Olago, D., Marshall, M., Wandiga, S., Opondo, M., Yanda, P., Kangalawe, R., Githeko, A., Downs, T., Opere, A., Kabumbuli, R., Kirumira, E., Ogallo, L., Mugambi, P., Apindi, E., Githui, F., Kathuri, J., Olaka, L., Sigalla, R., Nanyunja, R., Baguma, T. and Achola, P. (2007). Climatic, socio-economic, and health factors affecting human vulnerability to cholera in the Lake Victoria Basin, East Africa. Ambio 36(4): 350-358. Roessig, J.M., Woodley, C.M., Cech, J.J and Hansen, L.J. (2004). Effects of Global Climate Change on Marine and Estuarine Fishes and Fisheries. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. pp 251-275. Semesi, A.K. and Howell, K.M. (1999). Coastal Resources of Bagamoyo District Tanzania: Proceedings of a Workshop on Coastal Resources of Bagamoyo. Faculty of Science, University of Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam. Simpson, M.C., Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M. and Gladin, E. (2008). Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the Tourism Sector: Frameworks, Tools and Practices. UNEP, University of Oxford, UNWTO, WMO: Paris, pp 13-19 TCMP (2001). Coastal Tourism Situation Analysis: Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership Support Unit. Coastal Tourism Working Group. Pp 6-15 Torell, E., Aviti, M. and Penny S. (2006), Bagamoyo Governance Baseline: Coastal Resources Centre, University of Rhode Island. Pp. 4-24 Toroka, N. (2003). The Effect of Tourism in Tanzania: The Case of Bagamoyo Coastal Area. University of Dar es Salaam. pp 5-77 United Nations - UN (2009). Tanzania: Bagamoyo urban sector profile. United Nations Human Settlements Programme. Regional and Technical Cooperation Division. 36 pp
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UNFCC (2006). Preparedness for Climate Change: from Available at: http://unfcc.int/ files/national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/cge/application/ pdf/pfcc_2006- 07_2p.pdf (Accessed on 02nd December, 2008) United Republic of Tanzania - URT (2004). National Report on Coastal Tourism: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tourism Division, VPO-Division of Environment. Dar es Salaam. Pp 1-15 United Republic of Tanzania - URT (2005). Initial National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Vice President’s Office. Dar es Salaam. pp 141 United Republic of Tanzania - URT (2006). State of the Environment, Vice President’s Office, Division of Environment. Dar es Salaam. Pp 41-58 United Republic of Tanzania - URT, (2007). National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), Vice President’s Office, Division of Environment, Dar es Salaam. United Republic of Tanzania - URT (2008). State of the Environment Report 2008. Division of Environment, Vice President’s office, Dar es Salaam. pp 162-165 United Republic of Tanzania - URT (2015). Tanzania Livelihood Baseline Profile. Bagamoyo-Morogoro Maize and Sesame Midland Livelihood Zone (TLZ 08), March, 2015 Viner, D and Agnew, M. (1999). Climate Change and its Impacts on Tourism. Climatic Research Unit, WWF-UK. University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK. P 3 World Heritage Convention (2006). The Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties: UNESCO Headquarters in Paris March 16-17 2006, Paris, Pp 1-18 World Tourism Organization (2005). Tourism Vision 2020.World Trade Organization, Washington, District of Columbia. Available at: http://www.world-tourism. org /facts/wtb.html (Accessed on 23rd April, 2009). Yanda, P.Z., Kangalawe, R.Y.M. and Sigalla, R.J. (2006). Climatic and socio-economic influences on malaria and cholera risks in the Lake Victoria Region of Tanzania. ICIFAI Journal of Environmental Economics 4(3): 44-70
Kivukoni Journal 21 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania Japhet Ringo¹ and Edmund Mbigili²
¹Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Dodoma, P.O. Box 395, Dodoma, Tanzania ²UNDP Sub Office, Zanzibar, Tanzania
Author correspondence: Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Environmental deterioration can exert pressure on the deprived livelihood and subject environmental resource to conflicts. Local communities residing within the proximity of natural resources bear the greatest brunt of the environmental devastation. However, the information on how environmental by-laws have some influence on enhancing conservation is scarce. This paper assesses the effectiveness of conservation by-laws in enhancing the environmental conservation in Kondoa District. Household survey, key informant interviews, observations, and documentary reviews were used in data collection from 120 respondents and 10 key informants. Findings indicate that 91.7 percent of the responses hold that there was a poor condition of environmental conservation before the introduction of conservation by-laws due to severe environmental pollutions, deforestation, soil erosion, and land degradation. It was further revealed by 97 percent of the responses that there were some improvements in conservation after introducing by-laws. Therefore, the local government in Kondoa District had to review the outdated clauses from the environmental conservation by-laws, and establish implementation strategies, as well raise conservation education among the local people.
Key words: By-laws, conservation, environment, Kondoa, natural resources
1. INTRODUCTION
Environmental management and conservation by-laws are one of the legal frameworks that have been enacted to enhance sustainable environmental
Kivukoni Journal 22 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania management and conservation practices, at the local levels globally (Solomon, 2010). This is due to the persistence of environmental devastations exacerbated by the increased human population, changing land uses, and the ever-increasing need for goods and services from the ecosystems (Paul, 2012). The situation entails the unsustainable usage of environmental resources, subsequently, the demand for environmental protection and restoration becomes crucial (Ezeizabarrena, 2002; Dovile and Vilmante, 2019).
Unsustainable usage of environmental resources needs regulations at all levels so as to have a balanced equality in access to and control of environmental resources in place and time. Furthermore, conservation by-laws are formulated with the aim of protecting environmental resources at the local levels, partly because most of the environmental resources are found at the local areas while most of the management and conservation laws are prepared through top-down approach. URT, (1997) and WSLRL, (2016) revealed that, local authorities represented the most dependable tier of the government, hence, they provided the most accessible channels for people to express their concerns, take actions, and create sustainable conditions. Since many of the environmental problems and solutions have their roots in the local activities, local authorities are a determining factor in implementing environmental by-laws.
Furthermore, environmental conservation by-laws have been enacted with the intention of strengthening partnership between the central governments and the local authorities, in the management and conservation of the environmental resources (Willy, 1997; Pallangyo, 2007; WSLRL, 2016). Moreover, granting people the right to manage and conserve their resources locally, constitutes a starting point, which likely strengthens democracy, participation, and active empowerment of the people in the process of sustainable environmental development (Goldstein, 2005; Dovile and Vilmante, 2019).
However, it is important that we consider how environmental by-laws can influence the efforts made in the management and conservation of environmental resources. Generally, as observed by Swallow et al., (2006) through by-laws, formal authority shifts from the national conservation agencies to the decentralized multi- stakeholder communities and local user groups.
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In Tanzania, at the national level the government assign conservation mandates into the central and local governments. The central government includes Ministries, parastatal organizations (Tanzania National Parks and Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority) and independent departments, while the local government includes District Councils, Wards, and Village Councils (MNRT, 2007).
According to the Tanzania Environmental Management Act (URT, 2004), the role of the central government is to articulate a clear national policy and regulatory frameworks for the promotion, protection, and a sustainable management of the environment in Tanzania. On the other hand, local government authorities are responsible for implementing the Act. District Councils, Wards and Village Councils, have a role of providing a regulatory extension services and lead other agencies, in the implementation of the Act in their areas of jurisdiction through formulating and enforcing by-laws, providing technical support and conservation education to villages, and preparing a sound physical and development plans which protect environmental resources.
As calls to formulate by-laws have been vested to the local authorities, the efforts of formulating and enforcing environmental conservation by-laws have been in place in most of the Districts and Village Councils in Tanzania (URT, 1999). In Kondoa District (Dodoma region), there are conservation by-laws which govern local peoples’ interactions with environmental resources. Conservation by-laws were adopted in 1982 and revised in 2012 in Kondoa District. These conservation by-laws, govern the management and conservation of environmental resources at the District, Wards, and Village levels. The principal assumption that conservation initiatives start and operate at the local level is more likely to succeed than rules and laws imposed from the top. This research specifically seeks to (i) Assess the status of environmental conservation before and after having environmental conservation by-laws, and (ii) suggest the way forward of strengthening the performance of conservation by-laws for the conservation of environmental resources.
2. Materials and Methods
The study area This study was conducted in Kondoa District. Four villages (Kidongo Cheusi, Poise, Bicha, and Wisikwantisi), were selected for the study. The district lies between
Kivukoni Journal 24 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania 4° 54′ 23′ S and 35° 46′ 4′ E. It is also between 1650-2000 meters above the sea level with hills and escarpments separated by flat or gently undulating land (Mung’ong’o et al., 2004). The district has Miombo woodland forests with Brachystegia being the most common woody genus (Mung’ong’o et al., 2004). The criteria for the selection of the study area include presence of diverse social characteristics, presence of conservation by-laws, presence of various environmental resources, and accessibility.
Data collection and analysis
The target population in this study encompassed household members (aged ≥18 years old) and the leaders (Ward Executive Officers, Village Heads, District Natural Resource Officer and the Chairpersons of the Village Environmental/Natural Resources Committees). The sampling frame for this study involved households listed in the village registers, lists of respective district and village/ward specializations registers, and the respective registers in both public and government institutions.
Data for this study were collected through household questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews, field site visits, and documentary reviews. Face to face administration of questionnaires was done to 120 households who were randomly sampled from the village register books. Four field research assistants were recruited from each village and were also used in the pre-testing of questionnaires. In each household, one member aged ≥18 years was picked for filling the questionnaires. Questionnaires covered the effectiveness of conservation by-laws before and after the formulation of the same, socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, factors affecting implementation of the by-laws, and measures needed to strengthen implementation of the conservation by-laws.
Structured interviews were also held with 10 key people in the study area and these included the Ward Executive Officer, Village Heads, District Natural Resource Officer, and the Chairpersons of the Village Environmental/Natural Resources Committees. These were involved due to the experience they had in the management of local authorities, their positions, and conservation issues. Interviews were guided by the checklists. Checklist issues included available conservation by-laws, the trend of conservation before and after having conservation by-laws, factors influencing performance of the conservation by-laws, and the way forward of strengthening performance of the by-laws.
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Four field site visits were also planned in all the four study villages. Visits were meant to assess and/or observe the actual situation in the field regarding the natural resources conservation. Field site visits were organized in collaboration with both wards and village leaders.
A review of a series of both published and unpublished documents related to the topic under study was also accessed. Archive information helped to triangulate and broaden information gathered from the primary data. The archive information included reports, debates, local government records, and conceptual materials.
Most of the collected data were of a qualitative nature, which necessitated the usage of qualitative data analysis such as content analysis and memoing. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (version 16.0 for Windows) was used in the analysis of data particularly from household questionnaires. The analyzed data were presented in different forms such as tables, frequencies, and graphs.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Respondents socio-economic characteristics
The results show that males were more than females by 54.5 (n=120) and 45.5 percent respectively. This situation could have happened by chance. As for the ages, the results revealed that, 89 percent of the respondents were aged between 18-60 years old. This implies that majority of the respondents were economically active to pursue economic activities and involved in conservation. Regarding education level, majority (67%) of the respondents had primary education for the reasons that there were limited secondary schools and also due to the influence of cultural background, whereby parents were satisfied with their children attaining primary school education. This indicated lower levels of literacy on issues demanding more understanding and for a concrete analysis. In terms of economic activities, agriculture was the main economic activity in all the four villages and which on average, was practiced by 73.4 the respondents of the population (Table 1).
Kivukoni Journal 26 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
Sex % Age % Level of educationEconomic % activities %
Villages M F 18- 36- >6 IE PE SE AS AG LI EM 35 60 0 Kidongo 63 37 50 33 17 33 47 10 10 73 17 10 Cheusi Poise 53 47 30 60 10 3 80 10 7 69 23 8 Bicha 48 52 20 70 10 2 77 19 2 70 24 6
Wisikwantisi 54 46 30 63 7 14 64 17 5 76 20 4 Total 218 182 130 226 44 52 268 56 24 288 84 28 Average 54.5 45.5 32.5 56.5 11 13 67 14 6 72 21 7
M=Males, F=Females, IE=Informal Education, PE = Primary Education, SE = Secondary Education, AS=Above Secondary, AG=Agriculture, LI=Livestock, EM=Employed.
Status of conservation before (1980’s) having environmental conservation by-laws
The status of conservation before having by-laws was assessed. Results have shown that on average 91.7percent of the respondents were of the view that the status of environmental conservation before the enactment of conservation by-laws (1980’s) was not good, entailing that there was deterioration of the environmental resources in place at that time (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Status of conservation before having environmental conservation by-laws.
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Furthermore, the respondents were asked to give reasons as to why conditions of environmental conservation were not good before the enactment of the by- laws. The results indicated that the reasons provided by them encompassed a devastated environment, which was associated with severe deforestation, soil erosion, pollution, and land degradation (Table 2).
Table 2: Views of conservation problems before having conservation by-laws
Responses %
Villages Pollu- Deforesta- Land Bush Soil tions tion degrada- fires erosion tion Kidongo 16.7 58.3 13.4 8.3 3.3 Cheusi Poise 17.2 29 27.7 3.8 22.3 Bicha 3.3 39.1 43.3 1 13.3 Wisikwantisi 20 36 23.3 4 16.7
The respondents’ views on the state of conservation before the introduction of the environmental conservation by-laws, concur with the information provided by key informants. During the interview, Kondoa District Natural Resource Officer had this to say,
“…real most of the environmental problems in our district before the enactment of by- laws were soil erosion, land degradation, and deforestation. It was the time that everyone used resources without thinking about the others and the future generation.”
Regarding deforestation, for instance, the Officer reported that, forests were cleared due to charcoal burning, firewood, and the encroachments for both farming and grazing. Furthermore, the Bicha Village Chairperson had this to say;
“An excessive cutting of trees in our areas was due to slash and burn farming, which was a popular practice, as well hunting of wild animals including birds, and for building purposes.
These views imply that forest resources on the unreserved land could be under enormous pressure, from the expansion of agriculture, livestock grazing, fires, and other human activities due to lack of proper management.
Kivukoni Journal 28 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania Similarly, environmental pollutions, were reported by 14 percent of the respondents as a problem before the enactment of environmental conservation by-laws. Respondents’ views were in line with the findings in a study by Mung’ong’o, (1995) and Mbegu, (1998) who asserted that water pollution, land pollution, and air pollution due to charcoal making, livestock grazing, and slush and burn farming system, exacerbated environmental pollutions in Kondoa District. In practice, these problems existed in the study area because there were no regulations at the local level of controlling access to natural resources and make people abide by environmental conservation practices. In Poise village, a natural spring for instance, by sharing the resource between livestock and people led to pollution, siltation, and its disappearance. Similar situation was also observed in Kidongo Cheusi.
Meanwhile, soil erosion was mentioned by 14 percent of the respondents as a problem before having the by-laws. This finding was also in line with the records from “Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma” (HADO) that, showed soil erosion was exacerbated by overgrazing and poor farming practices without regulations on access and control over land resources. This information was consistent with the previous report by Wenner, (1983), Mbegu (1996), and Mwakipesile, (2014) showing that, soil erosion was a severe conservation challenge in Kondoa District due to various reasons, including lack of adoption of various land conservation measures such as tree planting, contour farming, and zero grazing.
Land degradation also was reported by 27 percent of the respondents as existing before having by-laws. Records from HADO maintain that land degradation was exacerbated mainly by overgrazing, soil erosion, slush, and burn farming system, and charcoal burning. these practices reduced fertility , which was easily eroded by the wind as a result,. The factors leading to land degradation are similar to the findings reported in a study by Mung’ong’o, (1995) and Christiansson, and Kikula, (1996).
Status of conservation after the enactment of environmental conservation by-laws
The respondents’ views on the status of conservation after the enactment and operation of environmental conservation by-laws were assessed. The results indicated that 97 percent of the respondents revealed that the status of conservation has improved after having the environmental conservation by-laws (Figure 2).
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Figure 2: Status of conservation after having environmental conservation by-laws.
Furthermore, the respondents were requested to mention and explain reasons for the improvements in conservation after having by-laws. The reasons provided, include the reduction of the intensity of environmental devastations, which were severe before having by-laws. Moreover, conservation devastations, which were reported by the respondents to have improved after having environmental conservation by-laws were explored. The respondents had the opinion that excessive pollution, deforestation, encroachment, land degradation, and soil erosion were mitigated when compared to the situation before having environmental conservation by-laws.
The respondents’ views on the improvement concur with the results of recent studies in Kondoa District (e.g. Kabula, 2014; Mwakipesile, 2014; Mwakipesile, 2015). For example, a report by Kabura, et al., (2014) revealed that, the intensity of anthropogenic factors led to the reduction of deforestation in the district. The reasons for these improvements encompassed the presence of land degradation control measures such as destocking, contours and ridges farming, and tree and forest planting (Ligonja, and Shrestha, 2015; Mwakipesile, 2015).
Likewise, information from the Department of Natural Resources in the district suggests a reduction of encroachments to the water sources, reduction of the dumping of solid wastes including plastic bags, and the reduction of uncontrolled charcoal burning. These results, therefore, maintain a substantial improvement in conservation compared to the situation before the enactment and operation of the by-laws.
The results indicate further that there were aspects that were associated with the enactments and operations of the by-laws that enhanced the improvements
Kivukoni Journal 30 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania in conservation. Discussions with Kondoa District Natural Resource Officer revealed that, the usage of fines to people involved in resource mismanagement were effective. For example, section 8 of the by-laws punishments states that, “…if someone set a fire in the forest have to pay a fine of not less than Tsh. 10,000/= and not exceed Tsh. 50,000/= and have to pay compensation for the damages. Section 5 of the by-laws punishments also states that, “Livestock which will be found by the officer or patrol unit in the forest reserve without permit, the officer or patrol unit have to take the livestock to the village government office”
In addition, discussions with Ward Executives maintained that the presence of conservation patrol groups in the study area had revitalized conservation. Jumuiya ya Hifadhi Mazingira Tarafa ya Bereko na Kolo (JUHIBEKO), was one of the conservation patrol groups reported to operate in the area. Patrol guards were trained by the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) and Village Natural Resources Committee (VNRC) members who were involved in patrolling activity.
As observed by Karidozo and Osborn, (2007), a well-funded and equipped conservation patrol units are instrumental in environmental conservation. Meanwhile, Ringo and Kaswamila, (2014) emphasized that a strong conservation patrol units were decisive tools in thwarting bushfires, encroachment, poaching, and deforestation. Furthermore, discussions with the Chairpersons of the Village Environmental/Natural Resources Committees disclosed that, the presence of posters around forest reserves and water sources alerting about punishments encompassed in the by-laws were also instrumental in raising local peoples’ awareness about the by-laws, hence, improved conservation.
Suggestions for improving performance of the environmental conservation by-laws
The respondents and key informants were asked to suggest mechanisms, which could make the governing by-laws more effective. They suggested awareness rising on by-laws, establishment of by-laws implementation strategies, and a review of conservation by-laws fines (Table 3) as suitable mechanisms..
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Table 3: Suggestions for improving environmental conservation by-laws
Responses %
Villages Awareness rising By -laws Review of on by-laws implementation by-laws strategies fines Kidongo Cheusi 54 2 7 19 Poise 3 9 33 28 Bicha 20 4 7 33 Wisikwantisi 3 7 2 6 37
The results revealed that, 37.5 percent of the respondents had the views that awareness on conservation by-laws was important to them. In practice, by raising awareness among the local peoples on conservation by-laws was crucial in enhancing performance of the by-laws and in achieving a sustainable environmental conservation. As Nyahongo (2010) argues, formulating and implementation of conservation regulations were instrumental, besides it sounds effective if people whom regulations were made for, were well acquainted about those regulations. similarly Kaswamila andMrisho, (2013), were of the view that natural resources management and conservation policies and/or legislations in Tanzania are formulated without the involvements of local communities and at times, documents were rarely accessible and where accessible they were always in English, which is not a user-friendly language for the intended stakeholders. Further, as empathised by URT (1997), for effectiveness, environmental laws and by-laws must be understood by the people to whom it was aimed. According to Ngailo et al., (2007), awareness education is an instrumental tool in one’s efforts of eradicating the prevailing problems, as she/he could apply her/his level of awareness to initiate alternative options easily an opposed to a person with low level of awareness. In this situation, awareness raising on the conservation by-laws should be provided to the people in the study area. This could be implemented through village meetings, seminars, and workshops at the local level by conservation extension officers.
Furthermore, the study revealed that, 33.25 percent of the respondents were of the view that the by-laws implementation strategies were vital in enhancing conservation. Having conservation by-laws implementation strategies, was a crucial
Kivukoni Journal 32 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania in meeting the goals of attaining effective environmental conservation. This enables the authorities to raise public awareness on conservation aspects stipulated in the by-laws.
It is crucial to involve local people in the formulation of conservation by-laws and implementation strategies so as to make strategies user friendly to the local people as ascertained by Kaswamila and Mrisho, (2013). In the same way, this makes the formulated strategies the product of the local people, who interacted daily with their surroundings, hence, it becomes easy for the local people to abide by them. More broadly, local community participation is regarded as one of the cornerstone for good governance. It helps to enhance accountability, transparency and ensures sustainability of development or any related initiatives. The significance of community involvement has also reported elsewhere by Thanyani, (2014).
Reviewing and amending outdated issues is important in strengthening the effectiveness of the by-laws. The existing conservation by-laws were last reviewed and amended in 2012. Issues such as a fine of Tsh. 10,000/= ($ 4), is currently smaller than the damages that a person may inflict on the environment. Some of these are outdated and/or are not realistic from the point of view of the local culture and practices and the changing of socio-economic and political context. In this scenario, amending environmental conservation by-laws is crucial.
Conclusion
This study indicates that people in the study area perceived the usage of conservation by-laws as a practical means for environmental conservation, which could subsequently reduce environmental detriments. By-laws were reported to be effective on enhancing improvements in conservation, as there were signs of successes. These signs ranged from the reduction of the severity of pollution, land degradation, soil erosion, and deforestation.
Recommendations
In practice, the reduction of these conservation havocs was principally attributed by the usage of punishments and patrol units, which are encompassed in the by- laws. Hence, the study recommends that, Kondoa District Council together with lower level local government authorities (i.e. village governments) initiate measures
Kivukoni Journal 33 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Japhet Ringo and Edmund Mbigili that would geared at sustaining conservation by-laws that proved successful in the area. This, should be done through rectifying and filling in the gaps that existed such as participation of local communities in decision-making, enhancement and strengthening of conservation extension services at the village level. The measures put in place should be based on what people wanted and could afford from the environment.
Acknowledgements
Authors express sincere acknowledgements to leaders of the Kondoa District Council and Village Councils (Kidongo Cheusi, Poise, Bicha, and Wisikwantisi). Similarly, communities in Kidongo Cheusi, Poise, Bicha, and Wisikwantisi villages are highly acknowledged.
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Christiansson, C. and Kikula, I. (Eds.). (1996). Changing environments. Research on man-land interrelations in semi-arid Tanzania: Regional Soil Conservation Unit, Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency.
Dovilė Šorytė and Vilmantė Pakalniškienė (2019): Why it is important to protect the environment: reasons given by children, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education.
Ezeizabarrena, X. (2002). International environmental law. University of Basque country, Spain.
Goldstein, G. (2005). History and the law’s effect on indigenous people and community conservation in Tanzania. Georgetown University Law Center.
Kabura, J., Dos Santos, S., and Arild, V. (2014). The cost of managing forest carbon under REDD+ Initiatives: A Case of Kolo Hills Forests in Kondoa District, Dodoma, Tanzania. International Journal of Forestry Research. Volume 2014, Article ID 920964. Hindawi Publishing Corporation.
Karidozo, M. and Osborn, F. (2007). Human-elephant conflict trials in Zimbabwe: Can bees deter elephants from raiding crops? In mitigating human-Elephant
Kivukoni Journal 34 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania conflict: Case studies from Africa and Asia. Cambridge, UK. Fauna and Flora International. 21 (12): 29-36.
Kaswamila, A. and Malipula, M. (2013). Influence of governance and institutional structures on conservation nd livelihoods: The case of villages adjacent to Saadani and Ruaha National Parks, Tanzania. International journal of modern social sciences. 2(2). Modern scientific press, Florida, SA.
Kikula, I. (1999). Lessons from twenty-five years of conservation and seven years of research initiatives in the Kondoa Highlands of central Tanzania. Ambio 28: 444-449.
Ligonja, P. and Shrestha, R. (2015). Soil erosion assessment in Kondoa Eroded Area in Tanzania Using Universal Soil Loss Equation, Geographic Information Systems and Socioeconomic Approach. Land degradation and development, 26: 367–379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2215
Mbegu, A. (1988). The HADO project, what, where, why how? Dar es Salaam: Forestry and Beekeeping Division, Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism.
Mbegu, A. (1996). The problems of soil conservation and rehabilitation lessons from the HADO project. pp. 147-157 In: Christiansson, C. and Kikula, I.S. (eds.) Changing environments. Research on man-land interrelations in semi-arid Tanzania. Nairobi: Regional Soil Conservation Unit, Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency.
Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) (2007). The Wildlife Policy of Tanzania. Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. Govt. Printer, Dar es Salaam.
Mung’ong’o, C. (1991). Environmental degradation and underdevelopment in a rural setting in Tanzania: the case of Kondoa District. Dar es Salaam: Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam. Research Paper No. 29.
Mung’ong’o, C. (1995). Social processes and ecology in the Kondoa Irangi Hills Central Tanzania. Meddelanden series B 93. Stockholm: Department of Human Geography, Stockholm University.
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Mung’ong’o, C., Kilula, I., and Mwalyosi, R., (2004) Geographical and social-political dynamics of environmental conservation in Kondoa district, DUP Dar es Salaam.
Mwakipesile A. (2014). Factors for unsustainability of land Conservation initiatives: The case of HADO project in Kondoa District, Central Tanzania. PhD Thesis. University of Dodoma, Tanzania.
Mwakipesile A. (2015). Adoption of land conservation methods in Kondoa Eroded Area, Central Tanzania. International Journal of Modern Social Sciences. 4(2): 174-187.
Ngailo, J., Mwakalimbe, P., and Kaijage, J. (2009). An analysis of socio-economic impacts of involuntary resettlement of livestock keepers from the Ihefu Wetlands: REPOA Internal Report, Dar es Salaam.
Pallangyo, D. (2007). Environmental law in Tanzania. Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro- Tanzania.
Paul, M. (2012). Wildlife conservation education in Kenya. The George Wright Society press.
Ravenstein, E.G. (1885). The Laws of Migration. Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. 48. No.2. Blackwell Publishing for the Royal Statistical Society.
Ringo, J. and Kaswamila, A. (2014). Effectiveness of a general management plan in mitigating human-wildlife conflicts and enhancing conservation. A case study of Wami-Mbiki Wildlife Management Area, Tanzania. International journal of environment and bioenergy. 9(1): 44-55.
Solomon, E. (2010). Environmental ethics, law and education. Journals of environmental planning and management. Georgetown University of law center. Mexico
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United Republic of Tanzania, (1997). National Environmental Policy. Vice President Office. Government Printer, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Kivukoni Journal 36 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Effectiveness of Conservation By-laws on Enhancing Environmental Conservation in Kondoa District, Tanzania United Republic of Tanzania, (1998). National Forest Policy. Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Forest and Beekeping Division, Government Printer, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
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World Summit for Local and Regional Leaders, (2016). The Role of Local Governments in Territorial Economic Development. UCLG Policy Paper.
Kivukoni Journal 37 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Utilization of School Libraries by Students in Selected Schools in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania Huruma. H. Mogha and Christian M. Mubofu [email protected], [email protected]
Department of Social Studies, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam.
ABSTRACT
The study investigated the utilization of school libraries by Students in selected schools in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Data were collected from 147 respondents using questionnaire, interview, and covert observation. Qualitative data were subjected to content analysis while quantitative data were analysed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 18.0 computer software programme. Findings revealed that students from both private and government schools rarely used the school libraries. However, the majority (25%) of private school students use libraries everyday while only 1percent of the students from government owned schools use library every day. Moreover, the study revealed that books and newspapers are the main available resources for school library information in the school libraries. Furthermore, the study findings revealed that self-reading, doing assignments, reading notes, and borrowing books are the main activities conducted by students in school libraries. The study concludes that students’ utilization of school libraries is low in government schools as compared to private schools. The study concludes further that books and newspapers are the main information resources found in the selected schools libraries while the main students’ activities in school libraries are self-reading, doing assignment, reading notes, and borrowing books. The study recommend that head teachers in both private and government schools should lobby top management from the Ministry of Education Science and Technology to consistently allocate adequate funding for building school libraries and library collections, training school librarians and conducting information literacy training programmes for both students and teachers.
Key words: Libraries, School libraries, Information resources, Library utilization, Students’ activities
Kivukoni Journal 38 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Utilization of School Libraries by Students in Selected Schools in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
1. INTRODUCTION
Students need information, which is relevant, current, and timely for them to excel in academic issues and school libraries are available to support this mission (Mahwasane, 2017). A good library is first judged by the quality, currency, relevance, and size of its collection. Collection development requires adequate funding and innovative planning in order to be sustained. Trained staff, coherent, effective, and active library policy is also important. Secondary School students need to use library information resources effectively in order to understand and widen their knowledge. On the relationship between the curriculum and the school library Khanyisiwe (2007) reveals that, secondary school libraries should meet the needs of the curriculum in that, library information resources should relate to the curriculum of a particular institution. On the role of libraries in students’ performance in Columbia, Laitsch (2003) reveals a need for library specialists to support both students and teachers in the effective use of the library in the teaching and learning process. Library specialists need the teacher’s and the principal’s support in order to be effective. Library specialists serve as both teachers to students and in-service providers to teachers.
However, in Tanzania most of the School libraries are faced with a number of problems that make students more dependent (Mubofu and Malekani, 2019). For example, Newton Tanzania Collaborative (2011) visited different schools in Tanzania and discovered different problems including lack of library materials. Furthermore, Hossain (2019) identified lack of information materials and inadequate funding as the problems faced by school libraries.
Additionally, Mubofu and Malekani (2019) identified lack of reading habit by students and teachers, lack of resources, inadequacy of space, lack of maintenance in the libraries, and lack of trained school librarians as part of the problems facing school libraries in Tanzania. Others include lack of funds, lack of interest by Head of Schools, and lack of interest by the Tanzanian Government Officials. In some of the schools in Tanzania, Government Secondary Schools and in particular Ward Secondary Schools school libraries are almost non-existent. As a result, most secondary school students proceed to universities and colleges without being able to make effective use of this important resource. From these findings, the study discovered that the usability of libraries by students and teachers in secondary school libraries was poor. It is however, important to note that for any library to
Kivukoni Journal 39 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Huruma. H. Mogha and Christian M. Mubofu provide good information services to clients, the government should ensure that libraries have sufficient stocks of books that reflect the curriculum being taught at the school. There should also be well-trained teacher librarians to run the school libraries. Contemporary scholars (i.e. Babayi, Abubakar, and Mohammed, 2019; CLN and Usman. 2019) noted that school libraries are valuable in literacy work from the earliest stage because it nurtures good reading habits of children awhile still at young age and also helps pupils to increase their knowledge and improve their speaking, writing, argumentation, and critical thinking skills.
Despite the great potential of school libraries in students’ performance, the usage of school libraries is still low (Mahwasane, 2017, Phillips and Recker, 2018; Shonhe, 2019; Tofi and Agipu, 2019; Babayi, Abubakar, and Mohammed, 2019; and Mubofu and Malekani, 2019). The study investigated the school library utilization by students’ in selected secondary schools in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
2. METHODOLOGY
This study surveyed both private and government Secondary Schools in Dar es Salaam Region. The study involved three Secondary Schools in Temeke, Kinondoni, and Ilala Districts, therefore, amounting to nine (9) secondary schools. The three districts were selected because of the availability of a large number of both private and government secondary schools. The study used both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. The method was appropriate to the study because it helped the researchers to get in-depth information from respondents. It also helped to get the real and natural data from the study area. A hundred and forty seven (147) respondents participated in this study. Out of these, 18 were teachers, 9 were Library staff, and 120 were students. Teachers and students were selected because they were directly involved in using library information resources while library staff were involved in providing the information services. Both probability and non- probability sampling techniques were used in selecting the respondents. Simple random sampling was applied to select students’ respondents while purposive sampling techniques was used to select the library staff. On the other hand, teachers were conveniently selected for inclusion in this study.
Data were collected using a combination of methods in order to improve validity and reliability. Therefore, a structured standardised self-administered questionnaire with both closed and open-ended questions was administered to respondents.
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Interviews and overt observation were included in data collection. Questionnaires were administered to students while interviews were conducted to library staff and Teachers in selected schools in Temeke, Ilala, and Kinondoni Districts in Dar es Salaam. The collected data were organised, coded, analysed and presented qualitatively and quantitatively. Quantitative data were analysed using a statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 18.0 computer software programme while qualitative data were subjected to content analysis.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Frequency of library usage by students in secondary schools The study wanted to find out how often students use the library for different class activities. This is because a library is part of the school’s knowledge resource and its use is very necessary in the teaching and learning process. The findings revealed that, 10 (25%) students in private schools used the library every day, 6 (15%), used the library once per week, 5 (12%) used it twice a week, and 4 (10%) used it three times a week. Furthermore, 15 (38%) students used the library rarely and no respondent failed to use the library at all. With regard to government schools the findings revealed that, 1 (1%) students used the library everyday, 5 (6%) use the library once per week, 2 (3%) used the library twice a week, while 3 (4%) used the library three times a week. About 52 (65%) students used the library rarely and 17 (21%) did not use the library at all
Therefore, it is evident that, students in both private and government owned schools rarely use the school library. Sixty five (65%) of the students rarely use school libraries in government schools while only 38% use school libraries in private schools. This is an indication that the habit of using the library regularly is not well nurtured among the pupils. Moreover, the study findings indicate that the majority of the students especially in government schools do not use the library. A study by Babayi, Abubakar, and Mohammed (2019) on the state of school libraries in Adamawa State in Nigeria established that school libraries aim at ensuring that the school community including teachers and students have access to information resources for academic use. This goal can only be attained if teachers and students make effective use of the libraries (Babayi, Abubakar and Mohammed, op. cit.).
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Information resources available in school libraries Any library should be equipped with different types of reading information resources that meet students and teachers’ academic needs. Students through questionnaires were required to mention different information resources found in their school libraries. The findings revealed that 120 (100%) of the students cited books, 77 (64.1%) of the students cited journals, 96 (80%) cited computer and Internet, 97 (80.8%) cited Newspapers, and 49 (40.8%) of the students cited magazines. The findings reveal further that students were familiar with different materials, which were available in the library. In addition, they understood that computer and Internet services were part of secondary school library information resources. Newspapers were mentioned by 97 (80.8%) students. This reveals that they were aware of the current information, which was supposed to be in the libraries every day. The study revealed that six (6) of the surveyed secondary school libraries had no current newspapers. Newspapers were received once a week. There were also no computers in all the government surveyed school libraries while in private secondary schools there were few computers. However, the libraries were not automated.
Although books are 100 percent available in the surveyed libraries, this does not guarantee their access and use because the books were not used by teachers in preparing their teaching notes. There were also ill equipped library staff in those libraries (Babayi, Abubakar, and Mohammed, 2019). The main objective of any library regardless of its type is to acquire, process, and disseminate relevant information resources such as books, journals, and newspapers to the intended targets. However, school libraries had library staff with low ability of providing proper information services to clients (Babayi, Abubakar, and Mohammed, 2019). This implies that the government and private school owners should work together to ensure that library staff in the schools are employed through the Tanzania public service recruitment agency in order to get t competent employees who would help their libraries to provide the right services, to the right customers, and at the right time.
Activities conducted by students in school libraries Students were asked to mention different activities, which they conducted in the library. The findings revealed that, 90 (75%) of the students respondents cited ‘self- reading,’ 41(34.2%) cited reading notes,’ and 58 (48.3%) cited doing assignments. Others were 41 (34.2%) who cited borrowing books, 32 (26.7%) cited writing
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notes, 7 (5.8%) cited doing discussion and 40 (33.3%) cited reading news. The findings show that majority 75% of students used the school library asaself- reading room. This is probably because a library provides a suitable environment for students to have private study and librarians are available to ensure that silence prevails in the library. However, the findings from covert observation revealed that some students used the library as a place for sleeping while others considered the library as a discussion room. The study revealed further that some students visited the library during the examination period only and they used libraries to read their notes instead of reading the available library information resources. This was confirmed by the library staff during interview.
This is an examination week that is why you see many students in the library trying to prepare themselves for the examination. When there are no examinations, you will see empty chairs. However, under normal circumstances students hardly come to the library.
The study revealed further that, students treated the library as a leisure place because they never know the use of the library and its information resources. It is therefore crucial for the librarians and the school management to ensure that students are well oriented on the use of school libraries. Orientation is primarily concerned with ways of introducing the user to the general techniques of library usage and services available, and the organisation, layout and facilities of a particular library. Failure to orient students on how to make use of the libraries would lead to sustained abuse of libraries making students fail in their examinations because of misuse of libraries causing students mass failures in our schools (Laddunuri, 2012).
Students and teachers’ use of school library During the interview, teachers were asked to state the reasons as to why most of the students and teachers do not visit their school library for study purposes. Teachers cited lack of books as a factor that makes them and students fail to visit school libraries. For instance, teachers interviewed noted the following reasons for not visiting school libraries:
u Small number of mixed information resources
u Lack of books for advanced level
u Inadequacy of current books
Kivukoni Journal 43 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Huruma. H. Mogha and Christian M. Mubofu
u Insufficiency of reading materials such as teachers’ notes
u Inadequacy of appropriate materials for teachers to prepare students notes
u Students are not aware of using library materials for class activities
The findings from these interviews indicate that there is a problem with the information resources available in school libraries. The information resources are outdated unavailable or students and teachers are not aware of their availability. The issues identified during the interview need to be arrested if at all school libraries are to be helpful to learners since libraries act as the heart of any educational institution (Laitsch, 2003; Benard, and Dulle, 2014;Dilshad and Akhtar, 2019 and Babayi, Abubakar and Mohammed, 2019). Furthermore, during face-to- face interviews, teachers claimed that students are not aware of libraries. This makes it difficult to plan activities in the library, and most of students like to be spoon-fed. It was also reported that most of the students visit the library during the examination period. The researchers observed that teachers and students do not have the habit of attending the library on a regular basis. School libraries play a central role in education and contribute greatly to academic achievement of Students (Benard and Dulle, 2014).
Researchers revealed that students and teachers who are key stakeholders and users of school libraries are discouraged in using school libraries because of inadequacy of appropriate information resources, absence of computers, and lack of internet that could be used to retrieve online information sources (Mubofu and Malekani, 2019). It is evident therefore, that much attention is needed to support school libraries in terms of appropriate information resources, funding, and staffing for them to contribute much to students’ academic performance.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study concludes that students’ utilization of school libraries is low in government schools as compared to private schools. Most (65%) of the students in government schools rarely use school libraries for solving their information needs while only 38 percent of students in private schools rarely use school libraries. Furthermore, the study concludes that students in private schools use school library and 21percent of students in government schools do not use their school library at all.
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Moreover, it is concluded that books and newspapers are the main information resources found in the selected secondary schools libraries in Temeke, Kinondoni, and Ilala Districts in Dar es Salaam region. The study also concludes that self- reading, doing assignments, reading notes, and borrowing books are the main activities conducted by students in school libraries. Other activities include reading newspapers, writing notes, and discussion.
Furthermore, the study concludes that students and teachers’ visit to school library is poor because of small number of mixed information resources, lack of books for advanced level, inadequacy of current books, and insufficiency of reading materials such as teachers’ notes. Others include, inadequacy of appropriate materials for teachers to prepare students notes, and unawareness of students on using library information resources for class activities
The study recommends that head teachers in both private and government schools through their Boards of Directors should lobby top management from the Ministry of Education Science and Technology to consistently allocate adequate funding for building school libraries and library collections, training school librarians and conducting information literacy training programmes for both students and teachers.
REFERENCES
Babayi, B. U., Abubakar, B. A., and Mohammed, H. (2019). The State of School Libraries in Adamawa State. ATBU Journal of Science, Technology and Education, 7(3), 16- 24.
Benard, R. and Dulle, F. (2014). Assessment of access and use of school library information resources by secondary schools students in Morogoro Municipality: Tanzania. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal): Retrieved from: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1107
CLN, R. E. O., and Usman, A. (2019). Public Relations Practices for Enhanced Services Delivery and Library staff ‘image in School Libraries in Abia State, South East Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice, 1-21.
Dilshad, S. A., and Akhtar, M. M. S. (2019). Relationship between the Uses of Library Facility and Students’ Academic Achievement in the University of the Punjab. International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL), 5(1), 43-53.
Kivukoni Journal 45 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Huruma. H. Mogha and Christian M. Mubofu
Hossain, Z. (2019). Status of Non-Government Secondary School Libraries in Bangladesh. In IASL Annual Conference Proceedings.
Hossain, Z. (2019).Status of secondary school libraries and librarians in Bangladesh. IFLA Journal, 45(2), 157-167
Khanyisiwe D. F. (2007), The School Library as an Integral part of the Curriculum: A Case Study of Peri-urban High School around Durban, http://gdl.handle.net/10413/922
Kothari, C.R., (2010). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2nd ed. Wiley Eastern limited, New Delhi, India
Laddunuri, M. M. (2012). Status of school education in present Tanzania: and emerging issues. International Journal of Educational Research and Technology, 3 (1), Retrieved from www.soeagra.com/ijert.htm
Laitsch, D. (2003). School Libraries and their Impact of Students Performance, Columbia, ASCD Publications
Mahwasane, N.P. (2017). The Influence of School Library Resources on Students’ Learning: A Concept Paper, International Journal of Educational Sciences, 17:1-3, 190- 196, DOI: 10.1080/09751122.2017.1305739
Mubofu, C., andMalekani, A. (2019). Challenges of School Libraries and Quality Education in Tanzania: A Review. Library Philosophy and Practice, 1-12.
Newton Tanzania Collaborative, (2011). Library andTextbook Projects, Newtontanzania. org/libraryandtextbookprojects
Phillips, A. L., Lee, V. R., and Recker, M. M. (2018). Supporting School Librarian Learning: New Opportunities for Instructional Technology Collaboration with School Librarians. In Educational Media and Technology Yearbook (pp. 53- 60). Springer, Cham.
Shonhe, L. (2019). A Consolidation of Challenges Faced by School Libraries in Developing Countries. Library Philosophy and Practice, 1-12. Tofi, S. T., andAgipu, O. L. (2019). Availability and Utilization of School Library Resources in Selected Secondary Schools in Makurdi Metropolis. Library Philosophy and Practice, 1-32.
Kivukoni Journal 46 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Rice Price Volatility and Trend in Dar es Salaam Markets, Tanzania Venance Mutayoba1 and Parit Ole Saruni2
1Department of Economics, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam. 2Department of Social Studies, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam.
ABSTRACT
The high food prices experienced over recent years across the world have led to a widespread view that food price volatility has increased. However, volatility has generally been lower over the two most recent decades than was the case previously. This paper evaluated the patterns and trends in rice real price volatility in wholesale markets in Dar es Salaam region of Tanzania. Rice volatility was evaluated using the standard deviation of returns by employing the web-based Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA) Tool. The findings revealed that most of the prices were very close to the average signifying reliability of the data used for analysis. Furthermore, the findings revealed some episodes of unstable rice prices. It appears that international price shocks can be transmitted into local markets. The paper recommends that in the event of volatility, policy interventions should focus on the role of trade and unimpeded access to global supplies as well as the use of established national food reserves with great conformity to market fundamentals. In addition, an improved surveillance system on food demand and production is imperative.
Key Words: Rice price volatility, Rice price trend, city food markets, Tanzania.
1. INTRODUCTION
Background Rice is the most rapidly growing staple food in Africa. Though its production is steadily increasing, the consumption is still out-pacing the production (Hallberg, 2019; Maertens and Velde, 2017). Rice is the second most important staple food and commercial crop in Tanzania after maize; it is one of the major sources of employment, income and food security for Tanzania farming households (Trevor and Lewis, 2015). Tanzania is the second largest producer of rice in Southern Africa
Kivukoni Journal 47 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Rice Price Volatility and Trend in Dar es Salaam Markets, Tanzania after Madagascar with production level of 2,621,034 tonnes per year (FAOSTAT, 2017). The cultivated area is 681,000 ha; this represents 18 percent of Tanzania’s cultivated land. About 71 percent of the rice grown in Tanzania is produced under rain-fed conditions. Irrigated land comprises 29 percent of the total area for rice production most of which is carried out in small village level traditional irrigation systems. The average yield is very low, 1.6 to 2.4/ha, but with irrigation, production can increase to more than 5t/ha (USDA, 2018). However, its domestic output is expanding. Farmers grow a number of traditional varieties such as Machale, Supa, Bora Kupata, Kahago, Tule na Bwana and Kibakuli (Rugumamu, 2014). These varieties have long maturity and yield is affected by irregular rainfall pattern coupled with occurrence of pests such as rice stem borer (Leonard and Rwegasira, 2015; Rugumamu, 2014) and disease particularly rice blast disease (Duku et al., 2016; Chuwa et al., 2015) and bacteria leaf blight (Duku et al., 2016) which adversely contribute to the yield decline.
Rice accounted for 10 percent of The Total Dietary Energy Supply (DES) in 2005-07 worldwide (Mandela, 2016; Bentsen et al., 2015). On average, over the period 2004- 08, Per Capita Consumption of rice was 20 kg/year (Nigatu et al., 2017; Laizer et al., 2018) and a self-sufficiency ratio of 85 percent(Ismail and Ngadiman, 2017). Rice is a staple food consumed in both urban and rural areas. Among the urban area, Dar es Salaam, which is the principal end market, is of greater importance as it accounts for about 60 percent of the national consumption (Trevor and Lewis, 2015). In Dar es Salaam, a network of brokers, wholesalers, intermediaries, and retailers ensure that the product gets to the final consumer (Mutayoba, and Ngaruko, 2018; Lenné, and Ward, 2010; Rondinelli, 1987). Overall, there is considerable cash transactions involved in this process, making rice an extremely good crop for stimulating economic activity. It is therefore the crop that touches many lives of the poor households of Tanzania and plays an important role in the food security and economic livelihoods.
Price Volatility: The Concept Price volatility measures the rate at which prices rise or fall over a specific period of time. Here we are explicitly concerned with variations in agricultural prices over time (FAO, 2010). Not all price variations are problematic; a good example is when the prices move along a smooth and well-established trend reflecting market fundamentals or when prices exhibit a typical and well-known seasonal pattern. However, variations in prices become problematic when they are large, sudden, and cannot be anticipated;, as a result, they create a level of uncertainty which
Kivukoni Journal 48 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Venance Mutayoba and Parit Ole Saruni increases risks for producers, traders, consumers, and governments; and may lead to sub-optimal decisions (FAO and OECD, 2011and FAO, 2010). Variations in prices that do not reflect market fundamentals are also problematic as they can lead to incorrect decisions. Some degree of price volatility usually arises in agricultural commodity markets because of three fundamentals of the market (FAO, 2012). First, agricultural crop production varies each season because of natural shocks such as weather events (droughts, floods, etc.) and pests and diseases. Second, since demand for agricultural commodities and supply are relatively inelastic, broad-based price adjustments may be necessary to clear the market, especially where the stocks are low. Third, since in agriculture, production takes a long time, the supply cannot keep pace with price changes in the short term; otherwise, stocks must be available elsewhere to counteract changes in production. High price volatility makes it difficult for farmers to take production decisions because of uncertainty about future prices. It also affects food security of vulnerable populations whose access to food is reduced by high prices and who cannot afford to buy in bulk when prices are low.
Price volatility in agricultural markets is still an important matter in the discussion at political, analytical, and technical levels. For instance, the food price crisis of 2007/08 resulted in increased price levels and the negative consequences on food security and poverty in developing countries. It also increased volatility on key markets (most notably grains) that triggered many studies at both conceptual (Oyo, et al., 2018 and Clapp, 2017) and empirical (Anderson, 2012, Apergis and Rezitis, 2003; von Braun and Tadesse, 2012) levels. In addition, this prompted a shift in policy thinking towards the need of making global markets less fragile and more resilient. For instance, according to Oyo et al. (2018), smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa co-exist whereby the non-resilient households offer labour to the resilient households for survival during turbulent seasons irrespective of the magnitude of the external shocks and stressors. In addition, non-resilient households cannot be liberated by external handouts but rather through building their capacity for self- reliance.
Volatility becomes an issue of concern and of possible policy response when it induces risk averse behaviour that leads to inefficient investment decisions and when it creates problems that are beyond the capacity of producers, consumers, or nations to cope. What constitutes excessive volatility depends very much on the situation of the individual or nation. Poor consumers without access to adequate social support in developing countries are most immediately affected by
Kivukoni Journal 49 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Rice Price Volatility and Trend in Dar es Salaam Markets, Tanzania price surges. Small resource constrained farmers face particularly severe problems when prices fall. Most developing countries dependent on rice imports, the episode periods result into severe economic, social, and political stress because of high prices and fears of scarcity. Indeed, most countries engage in at least some food trade, even if they are actively promoting food self-sufficiency (Clapp, 2017).
Analyzing rice price volatility and seasonality in local markets is an important issue. This is achieved by looking at the long-term volatility in domestic rice prices using standard statistical measures using real prices. Food price volatility has been extensively studied at international level but empirical studies of domestic prices instability are still scarce. It is also believed that large cities such as Dar es Salaam are likely to be characterized by better storage infrastructure and competitive markets that could help stabilize prices. In addition, large cities are able to draw supplies from larger markets when needed., there is also domestic rice production that can stabilize its price and dampen prices of imports. This paper therefore evaluates the patterns and trends in rice real price volatility in the markets of Dar es Salaam region of Tanzania.
Overview of rice industry in Tanzania There are active markets for paddy and rice throughout the year (Wilson and Lewis, 2015). Both products store well, can be kept from one year to the next, and are therefore extensively traded. Rice in Tanzania is mostly sold to consumers as polished milled rice. The preferred type for consumption is aromatic long grain rice but there is also a demand for sticky white long grain rice. Very few other products are available although there are limited supplies of brown rice and rice flour. Value added products such as rice crackers, as produced in Thailand, appear to have no place in the Tanzanian market.
Rice is a staple food and is consumed in both urban and rural areas. The urban area of greater Dar es Salaam is the principal end market and accounts for about 60 percent of the national consumption. Mbeya and Morogoro Regions are the main sources of supply. Dar es Salaam had the Tanzania’s highest Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita of US$ 1 741 compared with the national average of US$ 1 471 in 2010, due to the highest urban population (Achandi and Mujawamariya, 2016; Wilson and Lewis, 2015). Rural consumers include smallholder rice farmers, who retain about 370 kg of their production for consumption by their own household of around five persons (West and Haug, 2017; Wilson and Lewis, 2015). Consumers usually purchase rice loose from bulk sacks either from traditional small retailers or
Kivukoni Journal 50 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Venance Mutayoba and Parit Ole Saruni at farmers’ markets (Kikuchi et al., 2016). Quality differentiation is limited mainly to the amount of broken rice present (e.g. 80 percent whole grain, 20 percent broken grain), to whether it is aromatic or non-aromatic, and to whether it is local or imported. There is no significant premium for < 5 percent broken rice as demand is largely for 20 percent broken. Processors therefore mix broken and unbroken rice to achieve 20 percent broken; they also mix non-aromatic with aromatic rice, as there is little demand for the former. Tanzanian rice achieves a premium over imported rice (Wilsonand Lewis, 2015). There are also regional (‘place-of-origin’ or ‘geographic’) preferences. rice is often labelled as being from regions that are perceived by consumers as offering special qualities; rice from Kyela is considered to be the best, followed by rice from Mbeya; Morogoro rice is viewed as good quality, but inferior to Kyela and Mbeya; and Shinyanga and Mwanza rice is viewed as low quality as it is less aromatic. Historically Shinyanga and Mwanza rice is believed to contain larger amount of foreign matter (Ibid).
Causes and types of price volatility: The theoretical framework Volatility is a directionless measure of the extent of the variability of a price or quantity (Gilbert, and Morgan, 2010; Regnier, 2007). In a purely descriptive sense, volatility refers to variations in economic variables over time. Here, the explicit concern is on variations in agricultural prices over time. There is emerging consensus that the country’s food system is becoming more vulnerable and susceptible to episodes of extreme price volatility. As markets are increasingly integrated, shocks in the national economy can now transpire and propagate to domestic markets faster than was the case before (Ramey, 2016). Increased vulnerability is triggered by an apparent increase in extreme weather events (Azoulay, 2016; Maco et al., 2018; Ma et al., 2019 ), where harvest outcomes are prone to weather vagaries as well as greater reliance on international trade to meet food needs at the expense of stock holding. One of the main factors behind food price volatility in international food markets is lack of reliable and up-to-date information on food supplies (cereal crops in particular) (Sekhar, 2017; Fasanya, and Olawepo, 2018) export availabilities, and import requirements. In this framework, stocks data are seen as the most problematic.
In an attempt of distinguishing how different factors affect price changes, three groups of potential causes have been singled out, exogenous shocks, also called ‘‘root’’ causes; ‘‘conditional’’ causes, and ‘‘internal’’ drivers (Fig. 1). Root causes, such as extreme weather events, oil price shocks, production shocks, and demand shocks are independent core factors affecting food price fluctuations. They are
Kivukoni Journal 51 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Rice Price Volatility and Trend in Dar es Salaam Markets, Tanzania exogenous because the possibility of a causal relationship going from the agricultural sector to root causes is minimal. The exogenous shocks are expected to generate food price spikes and volatility, and the magnitude of their impacts depends partly on the political and economic environment of a given country. In other words, a second group of factors related to specific political and economic conditions – labelled here as conditional drivers—can dampen or exacerbate the exogenous shocks. Some of these factors (such as a high concentration of production or low transparency in commodity markets) are rather time-invariant and difficult to measure. The third group of causes consists of factors that are triggered by the same price dynamics, and these internal causes are endogenous shock-amplifiers and include discretionary trade policies, speculative activities (driven by price expectations), and declines in world food stocks.
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of causes of food price volatility (Adopted from Tadesse, et al., 2014)
Two types of volatility are generally analysed in literature (Huchet-Bourdon, 2011; Tothova, 2011): realized or historical volatility (Lahmiri, 2017; Christensen, and Hansen, 2002; Mayhew, 1995) and implied or future volatility (Cao et al., 2010; Christensen, and Hansen, 2002; Mayhew, 1995). While historical volatility, which is the focus of the study, is related to the observed past trend of prices, implied volatility refers to the market expectations in terms of volatility at the beginning of the period (Lahmiri, 2017). According to IFPRI (2011) and FAO (2012), when prices are volatile, households can reduce their inputs spending and this may have an impact on the quantity and quality of the food supply. These variations have an
Kivukoni Journal 52 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Venance Mutayoba and Parit Ole Saruni impact to farmers and poor people whether they are theoretically predictable or not because their response possibilities can be rather inelastic due to fixed land size and small budgets. Additionally, food price volatility deteriorates the balance of payments of the government, for both net importers and net exporters of agricultural commodities (McCombie and Thirlwall, 2016; Woertz, 2017) and thus affects their investment capacity and ultimately growth (Jawad and Niazi, 2017).
Countries respond to the food price surge through a spectrum of policies (FAO, 2010). Many countries chose to intervene directly in the market by managing food reserves in order to stabilize domestic prices. Several food importing countries reduced import tariffs, while many producing countries limited or even banned exports in order to avoid food shortages and further increases of price. For instance, food prices decreased in Tanzania in 2008 because of a good harvest and export bans (HLPE, 2011).There have also been proposals for establishing international mechanisms to either counteract speculation in futures markets or establish regional physical food reserves. However, as Sarris (2011) notes, such programmes require a sizable commitment of resources.
Producers are more concerned about low prices, which may threaten their living standards as well as their longer-term viability when income is too low to provide for the farm family or for the operational needs of the farm (Wodon and Zaman, 2008). Uncertainty may result in less than optimal production and investment decisions (Martins-Filho et al., 2010). In developing countries, many households are both producers and purchasers of agricultural products. For this group, the impacts of price volatility are complex, with net outcomes depending on a combination of many factors (Rapsomanikis, 2009).
Tanzania is one of those developing countries, which were affected by the 2008 food crisis. Agricultural commodity prices represent a large proportion of the final price poor consumers pay for food items, and that food expenditures are a relatively large part of their household expenditure. For instance, the budget share of food expenditure is about 70 percent in Tanzania and 45 percent in Pakistan against an average of 10 percent in the United States (HLPE, 2011). This makes poorer countries much more responsive to changes in food prices than are wealthier ones (Regmi et al., 2001).
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Rice and price volatility
Globally, rice is not closely linked in terms of either production or consumption with other major grains. It is produced on different types of land and largely in different countries, and it is mainly consumed by different groups of consumers. As a result, there is little transmission of price changes from other grains to rice, or vice versa. Rice prices therefore tend to follow their own peculiar path. Financial activity on future markets has little impact. Nevertheless, rice prices did rise sharply in 2007–2008 and remain high in 2009. The rice story in 2007–2009 is peculiar and in some sense pre-modern (Christiaensen, 2009; Timmer, 2009). Rice differs from other food commodities in that only a small proportion of the world rice enters international trade (most major consumers are also major producers), and that much rice which is traded is bought or sold at contracted, and not free market prices. The free market is therefore residual and has the potential of exhibiting high volatility. Globally, there were no significant production or consumption shocks in the rice market, which was in surplus through the whole of 2007–2008.
The international rice market is evidently highly problematic as well as politically important. Most of the so-called food riots in 2007–2009 involved rice. It is urgent and important that steps are taken to avoid a repeat of this episode (Timmer, 2010). In our view, however, it would be an error to see the problems affecting the rice market as generalizing to other grains markets or to wider agricultural markets. Both the sequence of events over 2007–2009 and the volatility statistics in the subsector underline that ‘rice is different’. The analysis of food price dynamics and volatility has become more and more important for producers, consumers, traders, and policy makers (Pio-Lepetit and M’Barek, 2011, Gaetano et al., 2018 and Huffaker et al., 2018).
2. METHODOLOGY
Study area Dar es Salaam is the coastal largest commercial city of Tanzania with a population projected at 5,147,070 million people with an annual growth rate of 5.6percent (URT, 2018) indicating a higher potential market for food. Dar es Salaam was purposively selected because it is the principal end market accounting for about 60 percent of the national consumption (Ibid). The city is also well connected with other local markets that supply the commodity when needed.
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The data Secondary price data from Regional Agricultural Trade Intelligence Network (RATIN) price database were used for analysis (http://www.ratin.net/). Network (RATIN) is a reliable source of grains price data whose database regularly gets updated. Monthly average wholesale price in local currency (Tanzanian Shillings) in tonnes from major markets of Dar es Salaam covering 13 years (January 2006-October 2018) was obtained. The network was developed by Eastern Africa Grain Council (EAGC) where farmers, traders, and processors can get regional market information covering five countries including Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and Rwanda. The study used monthly price data covering January 1980 to March 2011. For the analysis of changes in volatility, it is useful to have a somewhat longer time series with large proportion of observations (Cabrera et al., 2018). It is worth mentioning that price series used were real prices, deflated by the Consumer Price Index (CPI). CPI measures the average change in the price paid by consumers for consumer goods and services.
Measuring food price volatility Volatility can be measured using the coefficient of variation (CV) (Carriero et al., 2016; Bellemare, 2015; Patton, and Sheppard, 2015), defined as CV = s/µ, where s is the standard deviation of the variable of interest over a given time and µ is the mean value over that period. According to Alagidede and Ibrahim (2017), one advantage of this measure is that it has no unit. This is because it allows easy comparison of, for example, domestic price volatility measured in different markets and countries.
Another measure of volatility can be obtained using the standard deviation of returns (Alan and Kyre, 2019; Davis, 2018; Baillie and DeGennaro, 1990; Schwert, 1990). The return is defined as the proportional change in price from one period to the next. The return is generally measured as the difference in the logarithm of prices from one period to the next. The return is also referred to as unconditional volatility. It is unconditional in that, it does not take into account any prior information; it is based only on observed variation in returns. It is argued that using standard deviations of log prices is a better measure than other potential metrics because the former avoids the issue of defining trends (Gilbert and Morgan 2010). It is for this reason that standard deviations of (logarithmic) price differences or returns are widely used to measure realized volatility (Minot, 2012; Rosa and Vasciaveon, 2012). Thus, in this study, using Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA) Tool, the measure of price volatility used is the standard deviation of the log monthly price changes
Kivukoni Journal 55 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Rice Price Volatility and Trend in Dar es Salaam Markets, Tanzania for the preceding 12 months. Alongside this, the average of the log monthly price changes for the preceding 12 months is also plotted, helping to determine the general trend in prices over the period, which is independent of the volatility. All calculations in FPMA tool are based on prices in real terms.
Data analysis The Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA) Tool, which was developed in collaboration with FAO’s Global Information and Early Warning System on food and agriculture (FAO-GIEW), was used to provide and analyze rice price information. The FPMA Tool is a web-based tool that provides an advanced technical solution for dissemination and analysis of price information. The tool is linked to the FPMA database, which includes monthly and weekly retail and/or wholesale prices for several food commodities in the selected markets of several countries including Tanzania. The Tool was developed in 2010 as part of FAO’s initiatives of addressing the soaring food prices.
The Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA) database includes over 1400 monthly domestic retail and/or wholesale price series of major foods consumed in 94 countries and weekly/monthly prices for 85 internationally traded foods. The Tool provides easy access to the data, allowing users to browse and analyze trends quickly of single price series, create comparisons among countries/markets/ commodities, and download charts, data, and basic statistics such as maximum and minimum levels, averages, percentage changes, and standard deviations over different periods.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Rice price volatility and trend The available monthly wholesale price data for 13 years (2006-2018) for Dar es Salaam rice markets, which were obtained from RATIN price database, were analyzed (Table 1 and Figure 2). Data in Table 1 show the summary statistics of the average rice prices per ton in Dar es Salaam markets. The data were obtained from 120 points equivalent to 80 percent of observations. This value is large enough to justify the reliability of the series. Additionally, the effect of missing data has been reduced by moving average method that is automatically processed by FPMA Tool.
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During the period, a tonne of rice averaged at about 1.1 million TAS. The minimum price of about 0.72 million and maximum price of about 1.83 million were observed in the year 2007 and 2012 respectively. In fact, the price more than doubled in five years. The price hike in the year 2012 coincided with the period when the world was experiencing price volatilities in various food crops particularly grains including rice (FAO, 2014). This finding could support the idea that instability in international markets is the main source of price volatility in Africa (FAO, 2010). With the mean of 1,109, 595.39, the standard deviation of 183, 878.54 is very low which means that most of the prices are very close to the average. This means that there is a small variance between the data and the statistical average, thus the data are reliable. Therefore, we can confirm that prices in 2012 were volatile. Volatility seems to spill across agricultural markets with markets experiencing common shocks, rather than being isolated from each other. On the rice market, the price explosion was particularly pronounced during this period (Policy Report, 2015).
Table 1: Summary statistics of average rice prices in Dar es Salaam markets, Tanzania (2006-2018) Start date End date Data points Percent change Average price Min. price Min. date Max. price Max. date Price change Std. Deviation Jan. 2006 August 2018 120 31.56 1,109,595.39 183,878.54 721,511.64 August 2007 1,834,324.88 May 2012 1,112,813.244
Figure 2 presents the average intra-annual volatility and price trend for the rice commodity at Dar es Salaam rice markets. The findings show that volatility ranged from 5 to 40 percent during the 13 year period. The prices of rice were particularly unstable in 2009-2012 and 2014-2017. No significant major trend emerged from the graphical analysis. This means that during the period, real rice price volatilities did not show any clear trend at Dar es Salaam markets in Tanzania. However, in a few instances, prices deviated by multiples of standard deviation from the average.
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Figure 2: Wholesale Real Prices at Dar es Salaam Rice Market showing price trend and volatility
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion
This paper therefore evaluated the patterns and trends in rice real price volatility in wholesale markets in Dar es Salaam region of Tanzania. Rice volatility was evaluated using the standard deviation of returns by employing the web-based Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA) Tool. The findings revealed that most of the prices were very close to the average implying that, the data were reliable. the findings revealed further that, the prices of rice were particularly unstable in 2009-2012 and 2014-2017. The earlier price hike coincided with global price volatilities, which swept across agricultural markets in Africa. Price instability in international markets is the main source of price volatility in Africa. This is because changes in the prices of some global commodities such as fossil fuel appear to have global effect. In addition, during the period under study, the real rice price volatilities did not show any clear trend at Dar es Salaam markets in Tanzania.
Recommendations
In the events of volatility, policy interventions should focus on the role of trade by allowing more imports particularly when volatility is caused by low domestic
Kivukoni Journal 58 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Venance Mutayoba and Parit Ole Saruni supplies due to underproduction. In the long run, budgetary provisions should allow the government to use food reserves through the National Food Reserve Agency (NFRA) to buffer volatility especially if the shocks last for short periods. Due regard must be given to ensuring that the basic requirements of a free market are not violated and that the operations associated with the reserve do not disturb the market’s orderly functioning. Instead of engaging in isolated measures such as price stabilization, the authorities should seek for better coherence and coordination in their policy responses. These must yield both greater assurances of unimpeded access to global supplies, and improved confidence and transparency in market functioning, especially in the major commodity exchanges such as rice. An improved surveillance system on demand and production particularly in large cities would help dampen uncertainty and enable markets to perform better before full impacts of crises transpire. Such measures would also help stabilize the market.
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Kivukoni Journal 68 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Market Information and its Contribution to SMES’ Access to Loans From Banks in Tanzania: A Case of Selected SMES in Dar Es Salaam City Badi Lwidiko., Samwel Lunyelele and Moses Kusiluka
Department of Economics, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam.
ABSTRACT
Market information is a necessary ingredient for SMEs performance, as it enables SMEs to solicit funds for expansion and improvement for business. Banks also need information that helps them understand creditworthiness of SMEs and operators in order to minimize risks of default and losses. This study assessed business-related information flow between banks (financial institutions) and SMEs operating in Tanzania. The study was carried out in three Municipalities of Dar es Salaam, namely, Ilala, Kinondoni, and Temeke. A survey involved fifty SMEs, five banks (four local and one foreign), one foreign non-bank financial institution and two micro-financial institutions which were purposively selected in order to collect data from a wider range of the targeted financial institutions (macro and micro) and to cover different industries in which SMEs operate. Interviews were conducted using a semi structured questionnaire guide that provided a checklist of questions relating to banks and financial market information to SME operators. The results showed that, a serious information asymmetry exists between these two parties and that; several factors underlie its existence. Market failure, inefficiencies existing among players in the private sector on the one hand, and banks on the other was the main cause of market information asymmetry. The study revealed further that SME operators have limited knowledge and skills of operating business, and financial management; and majority of them lack business ethics especially when they are required to disclose information required by bankers and other Financial Institutions for determining their creditworthiness. Thus, many SME operators resorted into deliberate cheating or presenting inappropriate information, in most cases and ending up being disqualified for loans. The study concluded that, there are serious information gaps between SMEs and FIs. Additionally, some FIs hide some important information. This increases repayment burden among some SMEs upon securing loans because of lacking all the required information. The study recommends for the enhancement of market information among the SME’s from FI’s. Further studies on information dissemination methods are also recommended.
Key words: SMEs, market information, banks and access to finance
Kivukoni Journal 69 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Market Information and its Contribution to SMES’ Access to Loans From Banks in Tanzania: A Case of Selected SMES in Dar Es Salaam City 1. INTRODUCTION
Market information is important to Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in order to improve their access to financial services worldwide. Studies (e.g. Magesa et al., 2014; Temba et al., 2016) admitted that, market information is a key parameter in improving markets and the entire production cycle. On the other hand, lack of sufficient information among the banks about SMEs especially in terms of their business and credit status compel them to cut down consciously loans lending to SMEs (Huang et al., 2014). Limited market information and market access have negatively affected farming entrepreneurs in Tanzania as well (Aku et al., 2018).
According to Beck and Cull (2014), Africa’s SMEs have little access to finance triggered by limited access to bank loans. Lack of collateral assets and information about payment abilities have been the main reasons for SMEs failure to access loans from the banks. These reasons implicitly suggest that there is a lack of effective bilateral information relationship between the banks and SMEs. According to Bbenkele (2007), it is important build a good relationship between SMEs and the commercial banks as a way of improving access to finance.
Therefore, in order to increase SMEs access to finance, market information on credit services and its appropriate dissemination is inevitable. Non availability of market information denies SMEs from making decision on how to finance their businesses. Moreover, literature reveals that, information asymmetry between financial institutions and SMEs constrain deny SMEs access to financial services (Huang et al., 2014); according to Harelimana (2017), access to finance improves SMEs profitability, efficiency, and solvency, solves liquidity problems, and increases assets quality. Hence, for SMEs to realize profitability, efficiency, and increase asset quality, the banks need to have adequate and appropriate market information for SMEs operators. Likewise, SMEs must get all the necessary market information on availability of financial services. Such information is paramount for both parties as it may upscale their business relations.
Although theories of information asymmetries and transaction costs aim at resolving the differences on information held between the two parties and reduce the implied costs, SMEs and financial institutions still have widened the information gap. Financial institutions consider SMEs as unprofitable business and unreliable for credit hence their applications for credits are mostly rejected. On the other side, SMEs fail to launch loans applications to financial institutions, as they are not sure
Kivukoni Journal 70 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Badi Lwidiko., Samwel Lunyelele and Moses Kusiluka of the criteria the banks impose or use for lenders to qualify for loans. Hence, each side remains hesitant to approach the other for a mere simple reason that market information sharing has been blocked by the worry created by one part or the other.
Despite the existing gap, both SMEs and banks are important pillars and among key stakeholders in the overall economic development. SMEs have a huge contribution to socio-economic development through employment creation, supporting economic development and improving social welfare in general (Ayyagari et al., 2011). In the other words, the banks contribute through financing economic projects by channelling money into economic system. Therefore, for the economic system to function efficiently, the two parties must work together harmoniously. Furthermore as IFC (2007) argues, supporting SMEs is a key factor in alleviating poverty as it contributes one third of GDP and creating employment in both developed and developing countries.
Besides their significant contribution, SMEs’ long term growth and competitiveness have been compromised by chronic and acute constraints on access to finance in the formal sector through banks and other lenders of capital (Wattanapruttipaisan, 2003). Therefore, the SMEs’ contribution to economic development is constrained. In addition, there is a general view indicating that, SMEs override other type of businesses. For example, among the European countries more than 90 percent of businesses are SMEs, while in Africa more than 95percent of businesses are SMEs. in Tanzania in particular, more than 95 percent are SMEs, which contribute about one-third of GDP and thereby stimulate economic growth (Mwita, 2012). However, it is reported that SMEs’ contribution could have been greater if the constraints on access to finance were reduced by the provision of market information to both parties.
Several studies have been carried out to address the constraints of SMEs’ access to finance (Kauffmann, 2005; Evanset al., 2015; IFC, 2007; Lindvert, 2017). The challenges mentioned include capital constraints, lack of access to finance, bureaucratic loan procedures, and poor partnership (Makorere, 2014; Mashenene and Rumanyika, 2014; Mashenene et al., 2014; Mashenene, 2015; Kimathi 2015; Anderson, 2017). other challenges include lack of business training, lack of motivation among business owners, lack of social capital, inborn individual attributes, and inadequate human and social resources (Anderson, 2017; Isaga and Musabila, 2017; Juma and Said, 2019; Nkwabi and Mboya, 2019).
Kivukoni Journal 71 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Market Information and its Contribution to SMES’ Access to Loans From Banks in Tanzania: A Case of Selected SMES in Dar Es Salaam City However, most SMEs feel that information about financial services and products is kept to the commercial banks and not disseminated to them (Kauffmann, 2005), whereas some studies argue that lack of SMEs’ access to financing is due to lack of collateral particularly land (Kasekende and Opondo, 2003; Wattanapruttipaisan, 2003; Kauffmann, 2005; IFC, 2007). Moreover, Evans et al., (2015) cited other factors to include problems associated with managerial skills, lack of equipment and technology, lack of collateral and the fear of taking risk.
Although many analytical studies have been carried out to address SME financing challenges, little attention in Tanzania has been directed to the investigation of the status of market information flow between SMEs and the banks. Other assessments were focused on limited market information and low SMEs performance in Kenya (Kiyeu and Ofafa, 2013), and limited information among women entrepreneurs in Tanzania (Nyangarika, 2017). Hence, this study seeks to investigate this status and provide information that would be used in enhancing relationships between financial institutions and SMEs. The study will address the following questions: i) what is the extent of market information flow from the banks to SMEs. ii) What type of market information do SME operators consider important to receive from the banks to qualify for loans? iii) What information do the banks need to get and verify in order to disburse funds to SMEs?
The study is justifiable because it will feed into developing Financial Economic Empowerment programme. This programme will make financial markets work better for the needy groups including SMEs scattered across Tanzania. According to Currin (2007), information is central for the sound functioning of financial markets. Further, the study will benefit the banks and FIs because it has revealed potential information they require from SMEs. On the practical point of view, this study will define information to be exchanged, the needed behaviour and benefits of realizing both parties. The appropriate information needed will strengthen the relationship between financial institutions and SMEs owners. The study has also contributed to the efforts of other stakeholders such as the Government and development partners who are striving to upscale the role of private sector in the economic development of the country.
Theoretical Framework The study adopted two theories to describe the existing relationship between SME’s and FI’s, and the extent in which these parties can benefit from the component of market information. Specifically, the description of this relationship is confined on
Kivukoni Journal 72 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Badi Lwidiko., Samwel Lunyelele and Moses Kusiluka the component of market information in the operation of these partners. These theories include The Theory of Information Asymmetry and the Agency Theory.
The Theory of Information Asymmetry holds that it is difficult to distinguish good and bad borrowers (Auronen, 2003). This results into adverse selection and the problem of moral hazard because the banks as lenders may make wrong choices and lend to someone who is not credit worthy and also may lend to people who actually have bad intention on money borrowed and therefore all the costs will fall to the lenders.
According to the agency theory, the relationship between the principal (lender) and agency (borrower) diverges because both parties have different interests and utility function. This situation normally makes the principal and agent prefer different actions because of different risk preference (Mori, 2018).
These two theories explain the situation existing between the banks and SMEs in the lending process. In the process of lending, the banks have been keen to ensure that they lend to reasonable and profitable businesses. Therefore, they take keen measures to ensure that the money advanced is not lost and it yields profits by making good selection of people and businesses that have good future. On the other hand, the banks and SMEs act as a principal and an agent respectively. The principal’s interest is to maximize profits while the agent aims at gaining benefits from the execution of its activities. The relationship between the principal and the agents breaks due to the differences in views, interests, and the risks embedded on each other. These theories explain the lending behaviour given the existence of the agency problem and the imperfect information existing between lenders and borrowers.
Definition of key terms Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) SMEs are the emerging private sector in both developed and developing countries and form the base for nation’s development and growth. Definition of SMEs differs across different countries. Small businesses in Europe are not the same as those found in developing countries like Tanzania. However, in most cases, SMEs definition includes some key words such as capital size invested, employment size, gross profit of the firm and of the sector involved (OECD, 2005). According to Tanzania, SMEs are defined as the micro, small and medium size enterprises in non-farm activities, which include manufacturing, mining, commerce, and services (URT, 2003).
Kivukoni Journal 73 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Market Information and its Contribution to SMES’ Access to Loans From Banks in Tanzania: A Case of Selected SMES in Dar Es Salaam City These types of business are differentiated by the number of employees, capital size invested, and turnover. Table 1 shows the main categories of SMEs according to Tanzania perspective.
Table 1: Categories of SMEs
Category of Number of Capital Invested Turnover Enterprises Employees (Tshs) in million (Tshs) in million Micro 1 to 4 up to 5.0 12 Small 5 to 49 5.1 to 200 150 Medium 50 to 100 201 to 800 300 Large 101 and above Above 800 300 Source: URT, 2002.
Banks The banks are very important part of the economy because they provide vital services for both consumers and businesses (McLeay et al., 2014). A bank is defined as a financial institution licensed to receive deposits and disburse loans (Demirgüç- kunt, 2008). The lending activities of a bank can be performed directly or indirectly through capital market. Banks may also provide financial services such as wealth management, currency exchange, and safe deposit boxes. There are several different kinds of banks including retail banks, commercial or corporate banks, and investment banks. Due to its important in the financial stability of the country, banks are regulated by the national government or central bank. For the purpose of this study, a bank is regarded as the lending institution that provides access to financial services to both individual and entities adopted from the definition of Demirgüç-kunt (2008).
Market information Market Information means information such as price curves, volatilities, interest rates, and similar information for which quotes are customarily available from reference market makers (Palumbo, 1970). In the previous management, marketing was area, which was often, neglected. It is only recently that many corporations have become aware of the need of marketing data for decision making process. This is true for the banks and financial institutions because market information takes a back seat to the operational system. The market information that SMEs needs from financial institutions and the banks includes interest rates, criteria, or condition for
Kivukoni Journal 74 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Badi Lwidiko., Samwel Lunyelele and Moses Kusiluka lending, collateral assets, and repayment modalities.
Access to finance Access to finance is defined as the ability of an individual to obtain financial services, including credit, deposit, payments, insurance, and other risk management services (Demirgüç-Kunt et al., 2008). The World Bank (2007) defines access to finance as an absence of price or non-price barriers in the use of financial services. This does not mean that all individuals and SMEs should be able to borrow unlimited amount at prime lending rates. This study has adopted a definition of access to finance that refers to the availability of financial services at affordable rates (Claessens, 2006).
2. METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out in Dar es Salaam City in three municipalities namely, Ilala, Kinondoni, and Temeke. The city was selected based on the fact that it is the largest commercial city in Tanzania hosting majority of SMEs (Magembe, 2019). A case study was adopted to collect data in the selected municipalities. The lists of registered SMEs were obtained from these municipalities, which were utilized as sampling frames. From each list, simple random sampling was utilized to select the required number of SMEs based on investment worthy between TZS 5 million and TZS 200 million guided by the classification criteria stipulated in the Tanzania SMEs Policy (URT, 2002).
The Operator for each selected SME was thereafter contacted and interviewed through a semi structured questionnaire guide. These SMEs were drawn from both urban and peripheral areas of the chosen municipalities. Overall, 50 SMEs were selected where 18 were from Ilala, 16 from Kinondoni and 16 from Temeke Municipalities. Furthermore, five banks (four local and one foreign), one foreign non- bank financial institution, and two micro-financial institutions were involved. One representative from each was interviewed as a key informant using an interview checklist.
The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative data. Views and opinion from key informants were analysed through thematic content analysis. Quantitative data elicited through surveys were subjected to SPSS programme. Descriptive statistics were utilized in which frequencies and counts were produced. Furthermore, a desk work review was extensively done on the existing literature to establish the existing debate on SMEs performance and its collaboration with FIs. This review
Kivukoni Journal 75 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Market Information and its Contribution to SMES’ Access to Loans From Banks in Tanzania: A Case of Selected SMES in Dar Es Salaam City was particularly key to supplement the primary data, which were collected through surveys and key informants interviews.
3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Extent of Information Flow from Banks to SMEs The study was interested in establishing financial information, which SME operators have regarding financial services. The questions were focused on the sources of information, the type of information they received, and the type of information they would prefer to get from the banks. Generally, all interviewed SME operators reported that they had information that the banks need SMEs in order to lend money to them (Table 2). However, of all respondents, 40percent of the operators were able to distinguish different sub types of financial institutions that lent money (i.e. different categories of macro- and micro financial institutions). For example, they mentioned banks and non-bank macro-financial institutions that provide loans in Dar es Salaam and were able to demarcate the threshold amounts these institutions could disburse as loans.
Nonetheless, 60percent had limited awareness of the subtypes of these institutions as they distinguished only two major types of financial institutions (macro- and the micro-financial institutions). Apart from distinguishing these FIs on the basis of the size of loans they could offer, no further attempt these entrepreneurs could make to describe other characteristics of the FIs. For example, they could not explain how the government regulated the operations of these organizations. Other forms of financial-lending firms that exist in Dar es Salaam, but were unrecognized by these SME operators include international non-bank financial institutions that offered loans/credits using diverse funding mechanisms, majority of the operators reported to have not been aware of them.
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Table 2: Distribution of the Respondents on Information Flow from Banks to SMEs Respondents Number of respondents Percent Low awareness 30 60 More aware 20 40 Total 50 100
SMEs’ Information Sources Regarding sources of information, SME operators mentioned a number of sources from which they derived information. These were media (TV, radio and newspapers) and normal conversation from their colleagues who had already secured loans from the banks. Others reported that some financial institutions were sending their officers to market their products directly to the SME operators; yet others had information about financial services from promotional activities of the FIs (mainly the banks). Normally, these banks went around the city suburbs on specially-made promotion trucks to promote their products.
In adapting to technological advancement, majority of the banks now own websites through which customers can browse and access the information they need. However, the issue of concern is whether the type of information displayed in these websites satisfactorily enables potential and ongoing customers to make right decisions. The National Bank of Commerce (NBC Ltd) for example summarized services it offered to her customers to include overdraft and term-loans, but did not explain issues related to collateral and how repayment was deducted on a monthly basis from borrowers, unless the borrowers had to read NBC’s Credit Policy which was not available at the website (www.nbctz.com, 2020).
Furthermore, SME operators were requested to explain their knowledge about computer and ICT application. Of all interviewed operators, 81percent reported that, they did not know how to use internet services. This linked their low understand with the lack of knowledge on computer application (Table 3). They argued that they were too busy to dedicate their time to learn computer applications. In this case, very few operators were able to use the bank websites to access market information to improve performance of their SMEs. Here are the views of the SMEs owners contacted.
Kivukoni Journal 77 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Market Information and its Contribution to SMES’ Access to Loans From Banks in Tanzania: A Case of Selected SMES in Dar Es Salaam City One SME operator based in Mbagala, for example, said,
“the information displayed by CRDB Bank PLC regarding corporate loans threatens SMEs, because it required a lot of supporting information which was too costly for entrepreneurs to bear.”
Another operator in Mwenge area was quoted saying,
“Although we occasionally hear about financial services offered by the banks from different sources, we cannot rely on every information source; we rely much on information sourced from our fellow entrepreneurs who have already secured loans and exhibit the benefits. The reason behind is that, some information sources that is, information delivered during promotion programmes is exaggerated to attract customers, hence, not much reliable. In addition, there is a limited chance of asking all necessary questions we would like to know their answers.”
Opinion regarding limited access to information sources on modern technology is also supported by a study of other scholars (e.g. Mpunga, 2016; Kabanda and Brown, 2017) who mentioned poor technological adoption as a barrier confronting SME development. Results from this and the other studies reinforce that utilization of electronic information sources among SMEs’ operators encounter challenges. However, science and technology remain key parameters in SMEs development. This necessitates further intervention to enable SMEs increase ICT applications in their operations. On the other hand, more devotion among SMEs to adopt new technology is inevitable to enable their prosperity and sustainability.
Information Type SMEs Receives from Banks (Financial Institutions) The type of information SMEs have on services offered by the banks is a key in making appropriate decision. This information can positively guide operators, or in the other way round it can mislead them and trigger poor decision making. Due to this fact, the study was interested in ascertaining the type of information SMEs have on financial services offered by the financial institutions. Distribution of SMEs operators and information they had received from FIs is presented in Table 3. The findings reveal that 88percent of SMEs operators who had already received loans from the banks (FIs) indicated that they received information about interest rate and the amounts they were required to pay on monthly basis and time they would spend to pay the loans. This is however, not the only information SMEs needed.
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The study also established whether the SME operators had received information about the total cost of borrowing money (fees, insurance and interest etc.), types of loans/credits offered, mortgage and collateral-related issues, repayment period, and models (reducing balance or constant rate models). Even those who received the information regarding these aspects, such information was cumbersome since it is in technical or legal language, which they could not understand. Due to their financial needs, many operators were obliged to comply with the conditions, which were imposed by FIs without really understanding the other hidden aspects. This eventually leads into the negative impacts resulting from the unforeseen increased loan charges.
This appeared to be a serious challenge among the SMEs operators who eventually encounter loan repayment problems. Coupled with low capital among most of SMEs (Kimathi, 2015; Mashenene, 2015; Lindvert, 2017) this challenge negatively affects the growth of most SMEs. This challenge partly emanated from their limited knowledge coupled with lack of transparency among some FIs. This calls for the joint collaboration in order for each part to benefit from the existence of the other.
Discrepancy elaborated in Table 4 implies existence of an information gap between what the financial institutions provide and what SME operators expected to receive. There is a serious information asymmetry surrounding SME lending. Regarding the information indicated in Table 4, 74percent of SME operators indicated that little initiative is pursued by banks to inform SMEs about loan charges unless they were requested to do so. This tendency appeared to be very serious among micro- financial institutions. These institutions do not inform SME but eventually they charge higher interest rates per month than the banks do.
Table 3: Distribution of Information Type SMEs Received
Number of respondents Information type Yes No Total (%) Interest rate 50 (100%) 0 (0%) 50 (100) How to calculate interest and principal 2 (4%) 48 (96%) 50 (100) Total borrowing cost (fees and interest) 6(12%) 44 (88%) 50 (100) Repayment schedule and modalities 23 (46%) 27 (54%) 50 (100) How long it takes to pay back the loan 50 (100%) 0 (0%) 50 (100) Collateral related issues 47 (94%) 3 (6%) 50 (100) Legal aspects to be met 11 (22%) 39 (78%) 50 (100) Loan evaluation procedure 1(2%) 49 (98%) 50 (100)
Kivukoni Journal 79 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Market Information and its Contribution to SMES’ Access to Loans From Banks in Tanzania: A Case of Selected SMES in Dar Es Salaam City Moreover, one of the implications is that enterprises had to pay extremely high interest per annum, which reduced their sales margins. For example, an interview with one SACCOS’ management staff in Mbagala and Kigamboni indicated that they were charged 3-5 percent that is accumulated to 36 to 60percent per annum. These rates were comparatively too high for some enterprises to bear particularly the microenterprises.
Further, SME operators indicated that they were aware of the two major loan facilities offered by banks (FIs) especially, the macro financial institutions (Banks and non-banks). Thirty nine respondents (78%) indicated that they knew two major loan facilities offered to the SMEs, the term loans and overdraft, but the remaining 22 percent indicated that they were unable to distinguish between the two. How could these decide whether to apply for a term loan or overdraft? The answer is probably an obscurity.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study established that, despite the fact that most banks (financial institutions) have tried to provide some information to assist SMEs to make decision before approaching them for loans/credit. SMEs reported that part of the information received was inappropriate to guide them towards making sound loan-application decisions. This leads to the conclusion that, majority of SMEs are not empowered because they were not well informed about FIs products. Consequently, this creates hardships for SMEs to access services from FIs especially securing loans for improving productivity. In particular, some SMEs operators were regretting after securing loans from some of the financial institutions because they were not transparent on certain important information. This leads to a conclusion that, some FIs do not really consider financial needs of SMEs as their potential stakeholders. Furthermore, the type of information available to SMEs on banks is more limited to collateral, interest rates, and the amount to be paid. This indicates the existence of low transparency among FIs to SMEs as their stakeholders in business.
The study recommends to FIs to enhance information awareness among SMEs in order to enable them to make the right decisions about loans applications. This may go hand in hand with establishing a strong network that may link the two parties and may have a value addition in information up scaling across these parties.
Furthermore, FIs should not confine themselves with particular loan information,
Kivukoni Journal 80 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Badi Lwidiko., Samwel Lunyelele and Moses Kusiluka rather they should increase transparency on different aspects involved on loan and the applications processes. This will increase the scope of clients especially, SMEs who will be empowered through the process.
Finally, the present study was limited on market information between two stakeholders namely SME’s and FI’s. This necessitates further studies to explore information dissemination methods and their effectiveness across these parties. This will increase a win- win attitude among these and other business partners.
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Kivukoni Journal 84 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania Erick Kwesigabo
Department of Economic Studies, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Gold mining plays a vital role in supporting the livelihood of the society along the Lake Victoria green stone belt. Value chain analysis can be a useful analytical tool for efficient allocation of resources and understanding the way in which supply chain participants participate in the national economy. This study assessed the artisanal and small-scale miners by identifying measures of upgrading mining products in the value chain. The study covers the selected artisans and small-scale miners in Mwanza, Tanzania. A purposive sample was chosen based on availability, proximity and the ability of getting relevant information. Data were collected from artisans and small-scale miners, brokers, dealers, and other key players along the chain. The findings indicate that artisans and small-scale miners face a number of constraints including poor investment in minerals beneficiation and value added activities. Also more than 70percent of the respondents confirmed that poor artisanal and small-scale miners’ participation in social economic development is associated with lack of significant access to credit facilities, lack of equipment and technology, and lack of significant training. However, the formulation of financial lending institutions, training and collective emphasis on beneficiation and value addition activities could create more employment and advance miners/Government revenue.
Keywords: Artisan and Small Scale Miners, Primary Mining License, Constraints, Opportunities
1. INTRODUCTION
Tanzania has a long history of artisan and small scale mining (ASSM) with an estimate of 1.5 million people directly involved, out of who around 27 percent are women (IGF, 2017; Tanzania Ministry of Energy and Minerals [MEM], 2011). Mining legislation in Tanzania does not directly define ‘artisanal,’ ‘small-scale mining,’ or ‘artisanal and small-scale mining’ but Section 4 of the Mining Act, 2010 defines a Primary Mining Licence (PML) as a licence for ‘small-scale mining’ operations, whose capital investment is less than USD 100,000 or its equivalent in Tanzanian
Kivukoni Journal 85 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania shillings (Tanzania Mining Act, 2010).
Emphasis was given to gold trading due to the fact that about two-thirds of Tanzanian ASSM are involved in gold extraction; other minerals mainly include gemstones (including diamonds), building materials, industrial minerals and metallic ores (copper) (MEM, 2012) as highlighted in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Percentage of ASSM engagement in some selected minerals
Source: Ministry of Energy and Minerals (2012)
It is estimated that around 58 percent of all ASSM activities are engaged in gold extraction, 24 percent participate in extracting building materials, 12 percent are involved in coloured gemstone mining, and 2 percent of ASSM are involved in diamond, salt and copper mining. Mwanza is within the Lake Victoria Goldfield (Greenstone Belt), where a high proportion of gold mining activities are undertaken.
According to the report on ASSM (Mutagwaba et al, 2018) a number of PMLs has been increasing from 35 licences issued in 1999 to a total of 5,171 PMLs issued in 2016. The elevation experienced in 2011 to 2013, took place as a result of the Government initiatives and various campaigns in creating awareness on the importance of having a PML. In addition, the changes made in the Mining Act in 2010 led to the decentralization of PML issuance from the Commissioner for Minerals to Zonal Mines Officers located in the mining hot spot up country areas. The cancellation and cessation of renewal of dormant PMLs led to a decline in the number of PMLs observed in 2013-2014. Later on in 2017, more mining sites were designated for ASSM whereby a total of 36 areas were designated for mining by small scale miners with a total area of 2,438 km2, and a total of 8,800 PMLs were
Kivukoni Journal 86 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Erick Kwesigabo issued in these designated areas [Tanzania Mining Commission (TMC), 2018].
In the study commissioned by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) on interaction of ASSM and agriculture, it that the number of active ASSM participants in Tanzania is estimated around 1.5 million with 9 million people depending on the sub-sector for their livelihoods (Hilson, 2016). The trend of registered artisanal and small-scale miners from year 1996 to 2016 is highlighted in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Trends of PML issued between 1999 and 2016
Source: Mutagwaba et al. (2018)
In May 2018, 7,000 approved mining licences were dispatched to their respective Zonal Mining offices and over 70 percent of the approved licences are owned by local artisanal miners (TMC, 2018). Furthermore, during the sector meeting held in Dar es Salaam on 22nd January 2019 the president of the Federation of Miners Association of Tanzania (FEMATA) reported that currently there are more than 6 million ASSM operating in Tanzania, whereby this number included licensed and unlicensed miners.
Moreover, the share of ASSM in total gold production grew from 3.2 percent in 1990 to nearly 28 percent in 2011. By 2013, small-scale mining was contributing about
Kivukoni Journal 87 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania 1.4 million ounces of gold accounting for 34 percent of the total gold production [Tanzania Minerals Audit Agency (TMAA), 2015. By the end of 2018, it is estimated that ASSM annual production was around 10 percent of the total productions; however only 8 percent of the minerals produced by small-scale miners was officially declared and hence accounted for in the official minerals exports (Mutagwaba et al., 2018). According to the National Environmental Statistics Report (NESR) 2017, issued by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) currently, Tanzania is ranked fourth in gold production in Africa - with an average annual production of about 50 tonnes. The first ranked is South Africa with an average annual production of 190 tonnes, followed by Ghana with average annual production of 88.6 tonnes. Mali is the third country with average annual production of 51.9 tonnes, Guinea is the fifth with average annual production of about 16.9 tonnes (NESR, 2017).
Despite the fact that the number of ASSM is growing, it is not well linked in mining supply chain since most of them are operating inefficiently. The supply chain due to diligence has demonstrated that companies acting as partners along the supply chain can contribute to improving conditions of mineral extraction, providing wide range of opportunities to build inputs industries and to provide key mineral based feedstock into the rest of the economy (Jourdan, 2016). For example, in gold trading, ASSM mostly occurs in rural mining sites where it is sold through local traders and occasionally with the mine owner acting as an intermediary whereby traders and mine owners often also act as creditors for ASSM operations (Abbi Buxton, 2013). As a result, the supply chain is often subdivided into several segments. That is, a local gold trader may sell his gold to a larger regional counterpart, who then sells it on to national gold traders and exporters. However, due to the complexity and unclear nature of these trading activities in the gold business, artisanal and small scale miners are faced with the risks related to oppression, exploitation, smuggling and sometimes money laundering. Therefore, based on these risks, the Government established mineral markets, whereby all small-scale miners are required to sell their gold to authorized dealers offices in those markets, although not well followed in practice.
Moreover, despite the risks faced and inadequate institutional development, small- scale mining in Tanzania is gradually becoming better organized with access to reliable markets, and focusing on value addition activities. There is, however, a little understanding on the necessity of value addition activities on gold produced by ASSM regardless the pressure from the Government.
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Conversely, the sector is still facing some constraints including,
u Limited technology and expertise,
u Lack of financial aid from financial institutions,
u Low level of integration with other sectors of the economy,
u Low level of minerals beneficiation and value addition activities, and Environmental degradation. (Schoneveld et al., 2017)
As it has been reviewed by various scholars, it is evident that artisans and small- scale miners face a number of challenges that impede their efforts of maximizing income. In turn, it affects individuals, families and finally the entire community. This paper took a closer look at ASSM value chain, identifying possible gaps for innovation, upgrading, and or downsizing.
Literature review
Porter (1985) describes value chain as a full range of activities that firms and workers perform to bring a product from its conception to the end use and beyond. This includes activities such as design, production, marketing, distribution, and support to the final consumer. Power-dependency theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the buyer-seller relationships (Caniels and Gelderman, 2007). Furthermore, Maloni and Benton (2000) postulate that, the significance and expansive effects of power and dependence on inter firm relationships hold direct implications in the value chain. According to Gereffi, Humphrey, and Sturgeon (2005), value chain framework focuses on the nature and content of the inter-firm linkages, and the power that regulates value chain coordination in a number of tiers across the chain. The activities that comprise a value chain can be contained within a single entity or divided among different entities. Figure 3 shows a simplified supply chain for minerals.
Kivukoni Journal 89 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania INPUTS
Technical services, Capital, Technology, Suspected mineral deposits etc
Locate Valu ate Establish Mine Transport Beneficiate Market Divest
OUTPUTS Health, Safety, Environmental issues, saleable products, Revenue etc
Figure 3: Simplified mining value chain
Source: Vorster (2001)
Field et al. (2006) in their study on value chain programmes suggest that local miners are often driven into ASSM by poverty and income they receive from it can improve their daily subsistence and reduce their impoverished status in their immediate term. However, the nature of the activity is such that it is labour intensive with less pay. It draws people away from other more sustainable activities such as fishing and agriculture, it does not produce long‐term wealth for individuals, and it creates debt. Therefore, ASSM helps the society to move from extreme poverty to poverty. Moreover, Nyambe and Amunkete (2009), argue that many mines are not technically planned and developed because they operate in unauthorized areas such that no permanent infrastructure is established.
Lives of most artisans and small-scale miners involves daily struggle, with many of them operating at the margin of survival (Dieke, 2003). They also lack the requisites to run their businesses along modern technology and management principles (Neupert, Baughn and Dao, 2006; SanjayaLall, 2000). Due to their small size and limited resources, the ASSM are not well equipped to tackle the risks (Herrmann, 2003; Esteves et al., 2010) as it would have been the case with large-scale producers.
According to Gavin and Hilson, (2006), artisanal miners typically present a suite of factors that make them unattractive to lenders. They usually lack collateral and rarely have the capacity or expertise to be able to present a viable business plan that clearly states their capacity to repay loans. In addition, ASSM statistical
Kivukoni Journal 90 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Erick Kwesigabo reports are rarely available and if available, they are not well-reported hindering risk analyses by creditors. Furthermore, there are other concerns for the health of communities around the mines that might impede effective ore extraction including exposure to chemicals and organic toxins in water supplies, inhalation of fumes, and the risks of explosions. Others include landslides or other crises associated with the destabilized terrain, increased levels of communicable diseases due to poor hygiene and lack of sanitation (Cross et al., 2010). A number of pits are left over after mining operations without following proper closure procedures resulting to environmental degradation and poor safety practices (Bryceson and Jonsson, 2012).
Taylor (2005) postulated that the objective of value chain analysis is to improve supply chain performance, and to achieve this objective Gereffi, Humphrey, and Sturgeon (2005) suggested that, one needs to understand the structure of specific value chain, to identify the characteristics of its leading firms, and the ways they might wish to incorporate local producers in these value chains. For the case of minerals, they pass through multiple channels of miners, brokers, wholesalers and other intermediaries before they are polished, processed, and introduced to the markets. At every stage of the mineral value chain, from the mine to the market, there are economic activities that generate income (Nyaugwa, 2009). Although it is argued that small scale miners make higher profit margins than large scale miners do, the matter is always on the quantity mined (Mziray, 2008). However, the opportunity for maximizing profit margins are able through collaborating with refining and fabrication operations (Mziray, 2008), and which can be possible through value addition processes (Kaplinsky, Schmitz and Humphrey, 2004). Therefore, this study is in line with the observation advanced by Kaplinsky, Schimitz and Humphrey (2004) that participation in the value chain may induce a firm to improve its efficiency in individual activities, change the mix of activities (within its link and perhaps to expand into other links), or to try to innovate by moving into another value chain.
2. METHODOLOGY
The study approach and design Case study research strategy formed the core of this study. Given the descriptive nature of the study, qualitative research approach was used as the main research approach supported by quantitative techniques to some extent. The objective of employing qualitative research as the main research approach was to obtain a
Kivukoni Journal 91 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania deeper understanding on the issues connected to social economic development, which helped to identify the gaps in the local mining value chain. More specifically, the study employed a single case-embedded research design, carried out by means of interviews, structured and semi structured questionnaires. Other qualitative data were collected using key informants Interviews (KII) and Focus Group Discussions (FGD).
The study area and Sampling Rwamgasa in Geita and Ishokela-Hela in Mwanza region were purposely selected as study areas to represent diverse ASSM as over 80 percent of small-scale mining activities are carried in regions along Lake Victoria society. Mwanza is located within the Lake Victoria Goldfield/Green stone belt whereby a high proportion of gold mining activities take place (NESR, 2017). Systematic random sampling technique was used to select a sample of small-scale miners from a list of registered PML owners. The mine owners were interviewed assisted by a prepared interview guide and questionnaire sets. A total of 46 small-scale miners were selected and interviewed. Furthermore, FGDs were carried out among small-scale miners. Purposive sampling procedure was used in selecting the intermediaries along the value chain. A purposive sample of 17 participants was chosen from dealers, brokers, and mining practitioners depending on the accessibility of required information
Data collection techniques and analysis The study employed multiple data collection methods using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Questionnaire was used as the main tool for data collection in the first group of ASSM society. Other methods used included structured and semi structured interviews, administered to the second group of intermediaries along the chain. Quantitative data analysis methods were used in the study. Qualitative data obtained from interviews were further analysed descriptively, while quantitative data were analysed through computation of frequencies, histograms, cross tabulation tables, and correlation function.
3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Minerals beneficiation and value addition activities for small scale miners Minerals are a depreciating resource; thus, one has to consider whether they are
Kivukoni Journal 92 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Erick Kwesigabo exploited responsibly. Most of the interviewed small-scale miners, reported a range of constraints associated with low integration and concern in mineral beneficiation and value addition activities as displayed in Figure 4, and these include,
i. Urgency need of cash to sustain basic needs, ii. The belief among miners that engaging in value addition activities is capital tie up, iii. Relatively high cost of foreign labour to train the local ASSM, and iv. Lack of training opportunities in value added activities.
For instance during focus group discussion held in Rwamgasa – Geita, it was reported that, hiring a trainer from some countries that have advanced in mineral value addition activities such as India, China, and America, is pretty costly; and most mining associations cannot afford. It was reported further mining stakeholders rarely offer training opportunities and these do not accommodate a substantial number of practitioners thus impeding the initiatives of expanding the revenue obtained from value addition activities.
About 85-95 percent of gold produced by ASSM is of very low quality (purity) to be sold to earn sufficient profit; thus, value addition processing for lower grade material may generate and double the ASSM income. Most mine owners reported that people are less interested in engaging in beneficiation and value addition due to misconception of a tied up capital. Thus, when a small amount of gold is obtained, it is sold immediately to upstream parties along the chain in order to acquire cash to pay labourers, to bear operating cost such as food, and to meet basic family needs. Poor ornament jewellery making is a serious problem with most of the goldsmiths in towns. Thus, world-class décor, which finally could be used as a source of tourist attraction (mineral tourism), cannot be produced
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Figure 4: Constraints for ASSM value addition activities
Nature of engagement in ASSM The advancement of ASSM activities is linear linked with improvement in technology, equipment and other resources so that mineral extraction can be treated as a permanent routine activity on areas with abundant mineral deposits. ASSM is sometimes taken up as a sudden “rush” activity following the discovery of new mineral reserves, such as gold nugget or diamond rushes during which thousands of people hope to make fortune. ASSM at this time is seen as a seasonal activity and the occurrence of rush attracts a lot of people in mining activities since artisanal mining has less risk, less labour intensive, less capital intensive, and sometimes one could acquire large output with minimal input. In such circumstances ASSM is rarely treated as a full time activity in which 10.8 percent of the respondents revealed that, in some cases, miners were driven to engage in ASSM as a full time activity normally due to lack of alternative income generating activities.
Furthermore, 28.27 percent of the interviewed miners reported that ASSM is linked to ethnic community tradition. Miners often come from communities that have a long time tradition of small-scale mining and have strong cultural ties with the areas in which they mine. Communities from these areas perceive mining as a family activity inherited from their ancestors. It is this type of mining that creates absolute poverty since it requires many inputs without knowing exactly what will be earned. Table 1 summarizes the results of 46 interviewed respondents responding to the nature of engagement in ASSM activities. Some of the interviewees responded to more than one option.
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Table 1: Nature and scale of engagement in ASSM
Nature of engagement in ASSM activities Percentage (%) Full time 10.8 Part time 19.6 Seasonal/Rush 54.35 Traditional 28.27
ASSM Constraints ASSM face a number of constraints in their daily operation that, are linked either directly or indirectly with their prevailing poor social economic status. In Rwamgasa for example, local miners cited lack of access to credit facilities, lack of appropriate equipment and infrastructure, lack of training and non-use of geological data normally issued by Geological Survey of Tanzania (GST) as some of the constraints encountered. Frequency codes used in Likert scale and its interpretation are further displayed in Table 2.
Table 2: Frequency code used in Likert scale and its interpretation
Serial No. Likert scale Frequency Interpretation Description code 1. Strongly agree 5 Very high correlation 2. Agree 4 High correlation 3. Not sure 3 Moderate correlation 4. Disagree 2 Low correlation 5. Strongly disagree 1 Very low correlation
Correlation coefficient [a value between -1 and 1 inclusive, (-1≤ x ≤ 1)] was used to determine how strong two variables (anticipated ASSM constraints v/s ASSM constraints) are related to each other. As a correlation coefficient approaches +1 it indicates a perfect positive correlation, implying that the variables are directly proportional related to each other.
Table 3 summarizes the results of calculated non-parametric coefficient of correlation of 46 responses regarding key constraints facing ASSM; the frequencies are further displayed in Figure 5.
Kivukoni Journal 95 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania Table 3: Key constraints facing ASSM
S/N Constraints facing ASSM Frequency code Correlation 1 2 3 4 5 coefficient No. of respondents 1. Lack of access to credit facilities 3 4 2 15 22 0.87 2. Lack of appropriate infrastructure 4 5 1 16 20 0.82 3. Lack of training 3 7 1 21 14 0.69 4. Non-use of geological data 9 10 4 13 10 0.24
Figure 5: Frequency distribution of responses regarding constraints facing ASSM
Lack of credit facilities
From Table 3, lack of credit facilities with a correlation coefficient of 0.87 (-1 ≤ correlation coefficient≤ 1) implies a high correlation that lack of credit facilities could be the key constraint facing ASSM. The majority of ASSM lack access to credit facilities including banks, financial institutions for loans and grants. The respondents cited many reasons associated with this situation including lack of legally binding documents such as mining licenses, lack of economically feasible business plan identifying how loans would be recovered and lack of collaterals to apply for loans. Many financial institutions avoid dealing with ASSM because small-scale mining is associated with high risk such that there is no sufficient proof of returns on investment.
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Lack of appropriate infrastructure In Lake Victoria Zone, small-scale miners (predominantly gold-diggers and panners) - are highly nomadic and rarely spend more than two years in one particular mining or panning area. Consequently, they do not develop permanent infrastructure such as houses, water supplies, permanent production system, nor sanitation services. The condition leads to poor production; exposures to diseases associated with poor hygienic services, making mining activities become risky ventures.
Training Through FGDs respondents reported lack of opportunities for training on mining rules, laws, procedures, technical training, organizational and business as well as administration and labour management skills, making ASSM more labour intensive with less output, risky, and unreliable. Financial management skills are required in order to enable the ASSM society to control inflows and outflows of expenses to maximize revenue and maintain capital. Through discussions with various small- scale miners during FGD conducted in Geita, some of the miners reported that mining activities are shrouded with traditional myth of using animal sacrifices to acquire sufficient output.
Areas for value chain upgrading in ASSM Mineral beneficiation and value addition activities The Government has insisted on mineral value addition activities and has provided the guidelines that no mineral less than 5gm shall be exported raw. Awareness campaign followed by training is required for effective implementation of the sanction to enable ASSM society engage in value addition activities to create employment, raise the value of minerals, and finally raise individuals as well as Government revenue.
In order to create and strengthen value addition activities, Tanzania Gemmological Centre (TGC) and the Mineral Resources Institute (MRI) under the Ministry of Minerals need to be more incapacitated in order to provide mobile practical trainings in mining areas. The sector has few technicians in value adding activities. TGC, MRI, Vocational Educational and Training Authority (VETA), and other technical Institutions could have short term and long term plans to increase students’ enrolment in value addition courses as well provide a variety of courses relating to mineral value addition activities.
Kivukoni Journal 97 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania Effective use of newly established minerals markets Most of small-scale miners are reported to be more dependent on the prices fixed by local buyers and intermediaries than global market prices. They also sell their products in black markets thus subject themselves to exploitative practices of intermediaries or traders and thus rarely get fair prices. The prices received by miners also depend on the number of intermediaries involved in the entire business chain, the greater the number of intermediaries, the lower the price for the miners.
The Government has established minerals market in various minerals hotspot areas with the aim of eliminating intermediaries along the chain, and who always pay low prices. Trading with formal dealers in mineral markets will minimize mineral smuggling, enhance stable market with stable global prices and will finally enhance effective control of the sector and improve revenue collection. Awareness must be created among ASSM society on the advantages of using the established minerals markets where the prevailing global mineral prices are always indicated.
Collective integration with other sectors of economy Since Tanzania has been blessed with abundant mineral resources, the sector can expand its horizon, and integrate other sectors of the economy such as tourism and develop tourism related to mineral trading (mineral tourism). This can be done collectively for metal and non-metallic minerals including gemstones. In addition, the sector can establish rolling international mineral trade fairs across the country; the event would create a platform whereby mineral practitioners, miners, buyers, bankers, equipment manufacturers could meet and share opportunities/challenges and do business. Various activities involved in mineral value chain could be a source of tourism and thus create employment and raise revenue. The sector can also integrate sectors such as agriculture, health and others with the aim of enhancing economic diversification.
Establishment of ASSM financial support institutions ASSM face many financial constraints in achieving their objectives. Through discussions with miners, it was revealed for example, that sometimes one could secure a location with abundant mineral deposit but face a challenge of how to mine it, and thus just ending up securing deposits close to the earth surface. Lack of capital to invest in high capacity equipment and technology is among the major reasons for them to produce less regardless of the abundance of mineral deposits.
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The Government and the ASSM society through their associations such as FEMATA could strive to formulate a financial lending institution that would assist the ASSM society by providing loans with minimum interest to miners. To implement the activity successfully, the ASSM society should transform from routine mining to establishing mining sites based on geological findings and data. The fees for geological data need to be rated at an affordable rate and obtained with minimum bureaucracy such that small-scale miners could afford.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion From the findings, it can be concluded that, the major constraints facing ASSM emanate from multiple parties along the chain including the miners and, to some extent, Government agencies. The findings revealed further that, value addition activity is not a priority in ASSM. Improving the mineral quality, purity, and grading is critical for miners to fetch better prices; international buyers are interested in quality and not quantity. It was also noted that the ASSM community is often engaged in mining activities as an alternative economic activity in recession periods or in rush, or as a traditional activity of the family; geological data is rarely used by the ASSM which might assist in securing economically feasible mineral deposits. ASSM community faces many constraints including lack of access to credit facilities, lack of appropriate equipment, lack of permanent infrastructure, and lack of technical training. Other exposed external obstacles include ASSM environmental impact and safety; small-scale mining is associated with massive environmental degradation and pollution, destruction of arable land, water toxicities by chemicals and explosives. Awareness needs to be raised among ASSM to use effectively the established mineral markets in order to eliminate unfair chain due to a link of unnecessary intermediaries existing across the value chain.
Recommendations Basing on the research findings and discussions, recommendations are given to the Government as an overseer and the ASSM community in order to upgrade the value chain.
For ASSM to acquire better mineral prices, non-economically viable value chain intermediaries should be eliminated by emphasizing the use of mineral markets by addressing its advantages. In this respect, miners will have the opportunity of meeting different buyers. It would also minimize mineral smuggling, control black
Kivukoni Journal 99 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania market sale, minimize counterfeit mineral business by unfaithful dealers/miners, and would enable the Government earn more revenue as the escape loopholes would be minimized.
The Government should reinforce on the acquisition of PML by providing training to ASSM on the necessity of acquiring licenses. Upon legalization, ASSM shall possess a mining title (concession, claim etc.) that would enable them to obtain valid contracts with a concession holder, registration of the company with mining authorities, and payment of taxes (royalties, company taxes etc). Since the small- scale miners have been formalized and given permanent mining locations, it is easier for the authorities gradually to reinforce environmental, health and safety procedures; ASSM can now be included in routine mining inspections to ensure conformity and compliance to the healthy, environmental, and safety guidelines.
Effective registration and issuance of PMLs to ASSM will reduce conflicts over land ownership and reduce nomadic nature of ASSM community and thus enabling them to qualify for loans. The Bank of Tanzania being the overall controller of financial institutions should guide the Banks on how to assist the ASSM by providing loans with simplified conditions and minimum interest rate to qualified small-scale miners in fair dealings. This should include financial loans, technology, machinery and equipment loans.
Encouraging value addition within the production chain provides a means of enabling small-scale miners to generate additional income and thus creating more jobs within the local economy. Other means of adding value include transforming gold into jewellery.
Priority should be given to seeking ways of stabilizing business environment through developing other employment opportunities and ensuring that mining operations are integrated with other existing local economic activities. Ideally, mining should serve as a catalyst and anchor for other productive activities stimulating complementary and alternative productive ventures.
Priorities should be to find better ways of integrating the sector into the rest of the economy and encouraging mining communities to invest their revenues in other forms of economic activities and other communal services such as education (schools), agricultural activities and health services.
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Kivukoni Journal 101 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Opportunities for Value Chain Upgrading in Artisans and Small Scale Mining in Mwanza Region, Tanzania Humphrey, J. (2004), “Upgrading in Global Value Chains”. ILO Working Paper No.28, Geneva Humphrey, J., 2005, Shaping the value chain for Development: Global Value Chain for Agribusinesses, GTZ, Eschborn.
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Kivukoni Journal 103 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam Rose I. Mbwete Department of Social Studies, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy- Karume Campus Zanzibar, P. O. BOX 307 Zanzibar, Tanzania
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the existing policy and its link to the current social protection of the old in Kawe Ward of Kinondoni District. The study upon which this paper is based involved a random sampling of social welfare officers, the elderly, youth, officers from the ward office as well as non-governmental organisations and governmental officials. About 200 respondents comprising 82 males and 118 females took part in the study. The study used both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection such as structured questionnaires, in-depth interviews, narratives, and documentary reviews. These respondents were examined and subjected to statistical tests such as chi-square at a 0.05 level of significance and two-tailed test. The study findings reveal that old men are aware of the existing National Aging policy and its effects as opposed to older women who suffer disadvantages even when it comes to the acquisition of valuable information about these policies. The study revealed further that, National Aging Policy (2003) which is related to the provision of old people social protection in contemporary Tanzanian society was well known by government officials at different levels municipal, ward, and street levels. However, inadequate funding crippled the effective implementation of the much-needed interventions that could otherwise make a difference in the lives of the old people.
Key words: Old People, Policy Implications, Kawe Ward
1. INTRODUCTION
Growing old is compounded by a multifaceted process of physical, psychological and social change which is beyond human control (Mario, 2007, Maro, 2010) .Over 67 percent of old people are located in rural areas engaging themselves in agricultural activities while others are involved in unpaid work such as caring for children or grandchildren (HAI, 2009). In that, policies responsible for comprehending the state of affairs of the aged are inclusive. On the whole, contemporary society encompasses some challenges and complexities, which the aged experience in different ways. Variations stem from socio-economic characteristics, previous
Kivukoni Journal 104 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam employment history, gender, geographical location, and other circumstances that encompass the living environment. In this regard, the aged differently experience the risks, socio-economic inequalities, and vulnerability that are closely linked with the ongoing changes in the contemporary society. Basically, the rising inequality, risk, and vulnerability have led to the expansion of a set of instruments broadly classified under the heading of social protection. In this paper, social protection entails a collection of programmes that address risk, vulnerability, inequality and poverty through a system of transfers whether in cash or in kind (Barrientos and Hume, 2010).
African countries generally have pension schemes, which operate under daunting challenges, with many of these funds largely excluding the poorest people in the society from their coverage (Parker and Serrano, 2000; Hickey and Bracking, 2005). Therefore, the issue of social protection in Africa is fraught with controversy. In Tanzania, a strong social protection policy framework is emerging in the form of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty, NSGRP or MKUKUTA, as it is known by its Kiswahili acronym (2005) and the 2003 National Old Age Policy. These policy documents provide a range of provisions including the implementation of free access to healthcare services for poor older people.
Specifically, the National Aging Policy of 2003 clause 3.1 provides for directives on how to improve the provision of health services to older people. More emphasis is on free medical services for the aged, though in practise, the provision of free medical care to this segment of the population has generally proved a failure. The Legal and Human Right Report (2011) illustrates further that the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare reaches only 6,582 aged persons hosted in 17 centres. More significantly, health care service provision poses challenges in Tanzania because of the limited resources available to support health care systems. In reality, there is an increasing demands resulting from growth in communicable, non-communicable and other emerging diseases (Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey, 2010).
Similarly, under the natural law school of thought of human rights, the central idea in natural law is the fact that human rights are the rights people have by virtue of being humans (Dembour, 2006). These rights include social and economic rights. Social rights include rights to social provisions such as medical services whereas economic rights include the right to work, the right to own property, the right to self-determination and the right to a decent life (Legal and Human Right Report, 2012). Article 11 (1) of the current Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania
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(URT) underscores the appropriate provision of a person’s right to work, the right to self-education and social welfare in old age, sickness, disability or any other cases of incapacity. In this regard, the question of social protection for the old people is a human rights issue as stipulated in the Tanzania constitution (URT, 1977) and in various policies such as the Social Security Policy (2003) and the National Ageing policy (2003). In other words, despite shortcomings in the country’s protection of the aged particularly those outside the formal system, Tanzania generally recognises human rights as a fundamental and inalienable right for all and sundry, including the aged, and is enforceable by the existing law (URT, Constitution, 1977).
On the other hand, the protest school of human rights emphasises the question of empowerment. According to Dembour (2006), people live under conditions where their human rights are violated. In view of this reality, empowerment is needed and it is from this empowerment that the old people are usually excluded in contemporary Tanzania particularly if they belong to the informal sector. As such, their rights are being violated. Dembour (2006) argues further that those whose rights are violated must be qualified and educated for them to do something about their situation and to promote a transformation of the society or get rid of problems that keep people down. In this regard, empowerment means making people claim their human rights and understand why and how these rights are violated in addition to grasping how to change the situation for the better. The two schools of thought had been used in a complementary manner. Whereas the former advocates the question of human right as an inalienable right granted to humans by virtue of being human, the latter advocates the question of empowerment for those who are unaware of their rights and entitlements.
Older people throughout the world and Tanzania in particular face a variety of challenges that include discrimination, lack of access to free medical care, lack of social security protection, targeted violence, social exclusion, and limited ability to earn adequate income through work and parental care responsibilities especially grandchildren (HAI, 2009). This study therefore, intends to comprehend the policy implication of social protection for old people in Kawe Ward. This is because little is known on policy implication regarding social protection for the elderly in Kawe Ward. Older people are aware of the prevailing Aging policy; however, little is known on the implication of the prevailed Aging policy (2003). In this regard, policy implication will be comprehended by looking at the rights and entitlement of various services, which have been stipulated in the Aging policy (2003).. this study specifically seeks to describe the awareness on the entitlements and rights
Kivukoni Journal 106 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam among the old people in Kawe Ward within Kinondoni District and to explain the awareness among old people of the existence of the National Ageing policy (2003), which is responsible for the provisioning of social protection.
2. METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in Kawe Ward of Kinondoni District in Dar es Salaam region. Kawe Ward was selected for the following reasons. First, it is quite a large ward, featuring both low and high-density areas, representing residents of all classes. This composition facilitated the use of simple random sampling of the respondents. Second, the area has all features of the city that include high cost of living, since all basic needs and commodities have to be purchased. As such, they are highly involved in the informal kind of employment such as food vending, masonry, and casual labouring. In other words, the study area had mixed grill of the aged population. Third, this research did not intend to sample household randomly across the whole of Dar es Salaam, as it would be difficult to study the entire city. Instead, Kawe Ward was chosen as a representative research site. It is sufficiently wide to incorporate the poor, middle, and the rich older people. In addition, some non-governmental organisations (NGOs) dealing with older people operate in the area; therefore, these NGOs were of crucial importance in accessing information related to them. Help Age International is one such NGO, which took part in the current study. It was purposefully selected as it deals with old people internationally; second, the NGO is located in Kinondoni District, where the study was conducted. Therefore, purposive sampling was used in the selection of Hep Age International as an NGO. Generally, the heterogeneity nature of older people found in the area is another reason that made the study area an ideal choice for this particular research. In all, a sample of 200 older people was selected from three different streets - Ukwamani, Mzimuni, and Mbezi Beach Street. The resultant sample comprised 82 male and 118 female respondents. These respondents were selected using simple random sampling as it free from bias and each sample had an equal chance of being selected. Moreover, four social welfare officers, four local government leaders, representatives from Help Age International and the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW) were selected using purposive sampling as they are dealing with matters for old people nationally and internationally. Key informants were interviewed personally since the researcher wanted to have an in depth understanding of the topic under study.
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Data collection and data analysis The questionnaire, in-depth interviews, and documentary review were used to collect requisite data. Questionnaires were used because it is a quick and efficient way of obtaining large amount of information while in depth interviews were used to key informants so as to gain deep understanding of the topic under study. Documentary reviews were carried out so as to validate the collected information. A pilot study was carried out prior to the main data collection to test the validity and reliability of the research instruments. Both primary and secondary data were collected. The main source of data and information for this study was primary data collected at three different levels - the household, street, and municipal levels. In all, three data collection instruments were used to facilitate the primary data collection process, that is, structured questionnaires, focus group discussion, and in-depth interview guides. Structured questionnaires were used because the tool enables the researcher to collect information from primary source, which were old people within the study area.
Data obtained through questionnaire were cleaned and missing data were removed, other data were coded, summarised and fed into the computer using the SPSS software. Chi-squire test was carried out to establish the level of significance in the differences ascribed to the resulting responses meaning the difference between categorical variables in the sample whereas data from in-depth interviews were coded into themes in accordance with the specific objectives of the study. Eventually, the findings were presented using simple frequency tables coupled with narrative presentation.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 presents the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents within the study area. In this study, the total number of cases was 200 for each variable, although some data are missing for each of the variables. However, the aggregate results show a reasonably accurate description of the topic under study. There were more respondents in the 60- 65 age group than was the case in the remaining two age groups. The age groups in this study represented different categories of older people with diverse needs, challenges, and risks. Due to biological changes, which accompany the ageing process, a certain decline in physiological functions and abilities can lead to more dependency and vulnerability with the advancing age (Spitzer, Rwegoshora and Mabeyo, 2011).
Kivukoni Journal 108 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam In this study, the educational level of the respondents was investigated based on the assumption that there is a correlation between the educational level and economic status of an older person or household headed by the older person. This is in line with the findings reported by the Tanzania Human Development Report (2017) whereby education was considered as one of the major drivers of human development that plays a key role in building human capability as well as development of skills and technological capabilities in the workforce. It has been reported further ( World Social Situation Report, 2018) that, education as one of the social protection aids has an impact on the well – being of beneficiaries especially when good quality service and labour market opportunities are made available.
Findings in Table 1 revealed further that more female respondents (39%) than male (10%) had not been to school. Gender gap in terms of educational level had been noted in the study area, particularly among the older generations of residents. Whereas some (21.5%) relied on petty trading, a significant number (43.5%) were engaged in other activities such as casual labour and begging and some depending on remittances from relatives.
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Respondents Characteristics Gender Total Female (n) Male (n) Age groups 60 - 65 77 (39%) 44 (21.5%) 121 (60.5%) 66 – 71 13 (6.5%) 13 (6.5%) 26 (13%) 72+ 28 (14%) 25 (12.5%) 53 (26.5%) 118 (59.5%) 82 (40.5%) 200 (100%) Education Level Not gone to school 39 (19.5%) 10 (5%) 49 (24.5%) Primary level 68 (34%) 54 (27%) 122 (61%) Secondary level 11 (5.5%) 18 (9%) 28 (14.5%) 118 (59.5%) 82 (40.5) 200 (100%) Occupation Petty traders 28 (14%) 15 (7.5%) 43 (21.5%) Employed 19 (9.5%) 51 (25.5%) 70 (35%) Others 71 (35.5%) 16 (8%) 87 (43.5) 118 (59.5%) 82 (40.5%) 200 (100%)
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Marital status Married 60 (30%) 76 (38%) 136 (68%) Widow/er 58 (29%) 6 (3%) 64 (32%) 118 (59.5) 82 (40.5%) 200 (100%) Religion Christian 44 (22%) 29 (14.5%) 73 (36.5%) Muslim 74 (37%) 53 (25.5%) 127 (62.5%) 118 (59.5%) 82 (40.5%) 200 (100%) Source: Survey Data, 2015
For those aged 66 - 71 years, 11 percent were employed as security guards and 13 (6.5%) relied on other casual jobs for survival. For those aged 72 years and above, 17 (8.5%) relied on petty trading, 14 (7%) were engaged in other jobs, and 10 (5%) were formally employed. In this study, there were more Muslims irrespective of their age group (63%) who participated in the study than was the case with Christians (37%).
Old People’s Awareness of Rights and Entitlements This study assessed the link between the existing policies and social protection provisions for old people. The study also determined whether the National Aging Policy (2-003) responsive and sensitive to the provisioning of social protection to old people, engenders the fulfilment of obligations and realisation of the corresponding rights and entitlements by ensuring that they were also known to the old people, the targeted beneficiaries. To grasp the findings further in Table 2 the Chi 2(X ) test was performed to determine whether there was any significant difference in the reported frequencies concerning the old people’s awareness of their rights and entitlements using selected characteristics of the respondents.
Kivukoni Journal 110 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam Table 2: Old People’s Awareness of their Rights and Entitlements
Source: Survey Data, 2015
The results presented in Table 2 reveal that there was a highly significant difference in age group analysis only for the female gender. Despite their age difference, the female gender agreed they did not know their rights as well as their entitlements in various services provided in the society (Male p-value .082; Female p-value .010). However, there was no significant difference that emerged during the analysis of their occupation, education, marital status, and religious affiliation for both genders. In terms of gender differences, the findings show that older men (50%) were more knowledgeable than was the case with their female counterparts (25.6%). Despite residing in the urban setting, the elderly respondents in this study lacked ample
Kivukoni Journal 111 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Rose I. Mbwete knowledge generally of their rights and entitlement to various services.
Generally, data from the FGD revealed that rights and entitlements stipulated in the prevailed policies are not known by the elderly people in the study area. This is in line with the lack of awareness on the rights and entitlements due to lack of education. This was confirmed during FGD whereby, one male respondent from Mzimuni Street had this to say, I only know the right of getting free medical service for which in most cases I find no medicine in nearby health centres. However, I do not know any other right or entitlement (FGD/Old Man/Kawe ward: Survey Data, 2015).
Another female respondent from Ukwamani Street had this to say during the FGD:
We only hear about the rights and entitlements [for the aged] on radio and television; however, in the actual implementation we hardly see the tangible benefits. The leaders in this area do not educate us on our respective rights neither do they tell us anything about entitlement (FGD/Old Woman/Kawe ward: Survey Data, 2015).
A male youth, who took part in the FGD, said,
We have heard of old people’s rights and entitlements; however, the actual implementation remains rather abysmal. The government has to educate old people on their rights and entitlements for better results to be obtained. Older people need to be given due respect and their rights should be duly recognised for their needs to be met in our society (FGD/Male youth/Kawe ward: Survbey Data, 2015).
Essentially, the study findings show that old people were not fully aware of their rights and entitlements despite these being stipulated in various official policies. As such, there was a need for educational intervention and awareness raising campaigns that concurrently target old people as well as the general public on the issues of rights and entitlements as well as the corresponding legislations among old people. Similar findings were obtained by Spitzer and Mabeyo (2011) in their study which found that only 11 percent of the 400 respondents interviewed in Kineng’ene reported being aware of their rights and entitlement to various services whereas the overwhelming majority (89%) were completely unaware of the existing political instruments and how they affected their lives.
Kivukoni Journal 112 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam Old People Awareness of the Existing Aging Policy Out of 200 respondents, only 35.6 percent acknowledged being aware of at least one policy that targeted old people whereas the majority (64.4%) were in the dark. Variations between male and female gender were apparent. The Chi (X2) test was further performed to determine whether there was any significant difference in the reported frequencies concerning the old people’s awareness of the existing policies using a select of characteristics of the respondents.
Table 3: Old People’s Awareness of the Existing Aging Policy Using Selected Characteristics
Male Female Characteristics n Aware Not P-val- Aware Not P-value of Respondents of the Aware ue n of the Aware Ex- of the Ex- of the isting Existing isting Existing Policies Policies Policies Policies
% % % % Age group 60 -65 43 37.2 62.8 76 50 50 65 – 71 14 46.2 53.8 .724 14 14.4 84.6 .021 72+ 25 32.0 68.0 28 25 75 Education Not gone to school 10 20 80 39 28.2 71.8 Primary 54 38.9 61.1 .509 68 44.1 55.9 .156 Secondary 18 42.4 57.6 11 54.5 45.5 Occupation Petty traders 15 26.7 73.3 28 32.1 67.9 Employed 51 39.2 60.8 .672 19 47.4 52.6 .557 Others 16 37.5 62.5 71 40.8 59.2 Marital status Married 76 38.2 61.8 60 50 50 Widow 6 16.7 83.3 .281 58 29.3 70.7 .017 Religion Christian 29 37.9 62.1 44 40.9 59.1 Muslim 53 36.5 63.5 .741 74 39.8 60.2 .503 Source: Survey Data, 2015
Table 3 shows that there was a highly significant difference in the age group analysis for the female gender only. Despite their age difference, the female respondents
Kivukoni Journal 113 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Rose I. Mbwete admitted of not being aware of the existing National Aging Policy (2003), and how it functions in the contemporary Tanzania (Male p-value .724; Female p-value .021). A minor significant difference was also found on the variable of marital status whereby the majority of the old women - regardless of their marital status -admitted of not being aware of the existing policies and their effects (Male p-value .281; Female p-value . 017). These findings signify that there was a gender gap between male and female old people, with old men being more knowledgeable than old women in the study area are; hence, the former were more aware of the policies in place than was the case with their women counterparts. These findings were further supported by the information obtained from in-depth interviews with key informants.
For example, one Help Age International official said,
A lot of interventions have been initiated by the [Tanzania] government to assist old people in Tanzania. However, the problem is that many government officials, especially at the ward, village and street levels do not implement them properly due to lack of a law to enforce the existing policies in the contemporary society. In this regard, it becomes hard for them to fulfil their responsibilities in relation to the provisioning for old people in the respective area [Kinondoni District].
Policies are available, however, they are in books with little implementation on the ground (IDI/HelpAge International: Survey Data, 2015)
Similarly, another key informant from Kinondoni Municipality had this to say,
At the level of the municipality, we are all familiar with the existing policies related to old people’s provisions; however, the problem is scarcity of resources, which is beyond our capability to implement it (In-depth interview with Officer from Kinondoni Municipality: Survey Data, 2015).
These findings were further supported by the information obtained from in-depth interview with the representative of the Commissioner of Social Welfare Department of the MoHSW, who said:
The implementation of the National Ageing Policy (2003) involves the central government, local government authorities, voluntary agencies, families, and villages. As ageing is a crosscutting issue, it involves a number of stakeholders in its implementation. Starting with the central government, their main task is
Kivukoni Journal 114 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam to supervise and co-ordinate services provided to old people; enact laws that safeguards the welfare of old people; ensure old people’s participation in the community; encourage local government authorities and voluntary agencies to take responsibility of providing care and support to old people.
Second are local government authorities, which include respective councils, ward and village/street offices. Their task involves assessing old people’s needs in society; providing care and protection for old people in the community and institutions; ensuring the provision of basic needs for old people. Third, the central role has to be played by respective families in a community. Finally, voluntary agencies are also responsible for the providing social protection of old people.
Furthermore, the question of social protection of the old person starts from the family level, then to the street, ward, and council, regional and, subsequently, to the national level within the respective ministry. Every aspect has to function properly for the betterment of the old people’s welfare and social protection. At the ministerial level, the formulation of the Act, which would enforce policy directives, is in the process as well as the universal pension (In-depth interview with an official from the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare: Survey Data, 2015).
This lengthy statement touches on various issues including matters of policy, rights and entitlements for the old people, which were in the hands of the local governments, respective councils, regional and national authorities within the respective ministry.
The study findings show that elderly males were more familiar with at leasta single policy that exists in Tanzania’s society than their female counterparts, with the majority of the latter not knowing the existing policies and how they affected their social well-being. It was noted during the study that many of the interventions related to the old people have been initiated by the Tanzania government but lack of funds hindered their effective implementation. Moreover, awareness and knowledge on the existing policies was found to be rather insufficient among old people generally.
These apparent inadequacies call for the promotion of basic human rights and social protection for the old people to ensure that they do not feel marginalised, let alone feel abandoned when society has the obligation of fending for them. Similarly,
Kivukoni Journal 115 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Rose I. Mbwete the National Ageing Policy (2003) treats old people as custodians of customs and traditions, advisers and child carers. Thus, old people need to be acknowledged as a source of information, knowledge, and experience (National Ageing Policy, 2003). The policy underscores further the fact that, old people have to be recognised as an important resource in national development. thus, they need to be involved in decision-making matters, in addition to providing them with legal protection and allocating them with enough resources to improve social service delivery (ibid.).This thrust is in line with MKUKUTA (2005) and the demands of the Legal and Human Right (2012) report. Both strategies call for the provision of free medical services to old people. Theoretically, every Tanzanian citizen aged above 60 years is entitled to appropriate care and medication at all government-run health facilities in the country free-of-charge. In practice, however, several constraints such as poor administrative structures and lengthy procedures, bureaucratic hindrances, unavailability of proper medical services and medication, as well as reluctance of health care personnel and local government officials to deliver adequately medical services to old people make a mockery of this access to free medical services (Spitzer et al., 2009).
Although many policy documents exist for the provisioning of social protection to the old people, old people still constitute an impoverished, neglected, and even excluded lot despite their having played and continued to play a significant role in the socio-economic development of the country (Spitzer and Mabeyo, 2011). Due to the limited scope of formal social security schemes, Tanzania launched the National Social Protection Framework or NSPF (URT, 2008). This national social protection policy blueprint provides a broad framework for an intergraded, multi-sectoral programme of social formal protection, which builds on the existing family and community structures in addition to stressing the central role of the government in a comprehensive national system of social protection (ibid.). The NSPF has various linkages with other key policy documents that principally portray Tanzanian’s commitment to poverty reduction and the provision of basic facilities for the vulnerable social groups such as the aged citizens.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion This study noted that the majority of the old people in the study area were not
Kivukoni Journal 116 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam aware of their either entitlement or rights in relation to the prevailing National Aging Policy. The problem of lack of awareness on the rights and entitlements related to the prevailing National Ageing Policy (2003) was more pronounced among the female aged persons than was among their male counterparts. It was noted further that, with regard to the National Aging Policy, old men were aware of the policy and its effects as opposed to older women, who suffer disadvantaged with even the acquisition of valuable information. The study noted that, the National Ageing Policy (2003) was well known by key informants such as government officials at different levels, that is, at the municipal, ward and street levels; however, inadequate funding undermined the implementation of the much-needed interventions that could otherwise make a difference in the lives of the old people. It was further noted that, directives provided by the National Ageing Policy are not well-implemented due to lack of effective and proper legislation for enforcing them.
Recommendations
Based on the study findings, it is apparent that there is a need for educational interventions for the old people within the study area. Second, requisite basic knowledge would create awareness among male and female old people on their rights and entitlements related to the National Aging Policy. In addition, there is a need for the enactment of a law specifically targeting fostering proper implementation of directives and policies.
REFERENCES
Barrientos, A., and Hulme, D. (2010). Social protection for the poor and poorest: Concepts, policies and politics. United States: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers.
Bertrand, M. (2003). Public policy and extended families: Evidence from pension in South Africa. The World Bank Economic Review, 17 (1), 27.
Bossert, A. (1988). Traditional and modern forms of social security in Tanzania: An examination of the conditions of their development, Germany: University of Augsburg. Dembour, M.B. (2006). Who believes in human rights? Reflections on the European Convention. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Duflo, E. (2003). Grandmothers and granddaughters: Old-age pension and intra
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household allocation in South Africa. World Bank Economic Review HelpAge International (2010). Age and security: How Social pension can deliver effective aid to poor older people and their families. London: HelpAge Internatioal. HelpAge International (2009). Social protection policy: Response to older people’s needs in Zanzibar, Dar es Salaam: HelpAge International Tanzania. Hickey, S. And Bracking, S. (2005). ‘Exploring the Politics of Chronic Poverty’, Vol.33, Issue 6. Worl Development, World Bank Publication. Mboghoina, T. and Osberg, L. (2010). Social protection of the elderly in Tanzania: Current status and future possibilities, Special Paper 10/5, Dar es Salaam: REPOA. Mchovu, A, S, T. et al. (2002). Overview of Social Security in Tanzania. Journal of Social Development in Africa, 17 (2), National Bureau of Statistics, Dar es Salaam. Government Printers. Muchie, M. and Xing, L. (2006). Globalization, inequality and the commodification of life and well-being. London: Adonis and Abbey Publishers Ltd. Parker, L. E and A. Serrano, A. (2000). Social Funds: Assessing Effectiveness, World Bank Publication. United Nations (2018). Promoting Inclusion Through Social Protection: Report on the World Social Situation, United Nations Publication, New York. Spitzer, H., and Mabeyo, Z.M., (2011). In search of Protection. Older Peolpe and their Fight for Survival in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki and Nyota Publishers. Spitzer,H., Rwegoshora, H., and Mabeyo, Z.M. (2009). The (missing) social protection for older people in Tanzania. A comparative study in rural and urban areas. Dar es Salaam. Tanzania Human Development Report (2017): Social Policy in the Context of Economic Transformation; published by Economic and Social Research Foundation, UNDP and Ministry of Finance and Planning,
Kivukoni Journal 118 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Policy Implications for Old People’s Social Protection: A Case of Kawe Ward in Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam Tanzania. United Republic of Tanzania (2018). Tanzania Demographic Health Survey and United Republic of Tanzania and Malaria Indicator Survey, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: National Bureau of Statistics.
United Republic of Tanzania (1977). The constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Government Printers
United Republic of Tanzania (2003). National Old Age policy. Dar es Salaam: Government Printers United Republic of Tanzania (2012). Legal and human right report. Dar es Salaam: Government Printers. Willmore, L. (2007). Universal pension for developing countries, World Development, Elsevier, 35 (1).
Kivukoni Journal 119 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among The Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District Lucy Massoi1 and Parit Saruni 2
1Mzumbe University, Dar es Salaam Campus College, Tanzania [email protected]
2 The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Tanzania, Department of Social Studies, [email protected]
ABSTRACT
While global and national efforts are increasingly aiming at ending all forms of malnutrition by 2030, food insecurity levels are increasingly high among the pastoralist communities in the sub-Saharan Africa. This scenario is attributed to by the existing efforts and strategies, which are predominantly preoccupied with the narrative that, people are food secured when everyone has access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life at all the time. This perspective overlooks the presence of heterogeneous communities with different cultural beliefs about health, livelihoods, and sustainability of food supply. This article argues that, food security does not only concern with food availability but also traditional dietary preferences. This study used a qualitative case- oriented design and data were collected through key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Food production among the Maasai is increasingly inadequate, and traditional dietary practices among the Maasai pastoralists is increasingly changing as a result of agrarian transformation in the Kilosa District in Tanzania. This is where large chunks of land are transformed for agricultural activities as a way of increasing food availability in terms of the number of meals intake and the type of meals consumed. Conventional dietary meals such as cereals and green leaves are increasingly consumed with a decreasing number of meals consumed per day and the changing of the type of meals consumed. Therefore, the analysis of food and nutrition security should understand that, cultural food preferences are important because they are interconnected with beliefs about health, livelihoods and sustainability of food supply. This study suggests that policies that address food and nutrition insecurity need to take on board the close relationship between food, nutrition security, and culture. It is important for communities to embrace other alternatives for livelihood, including farming and government support in irrigation to improve food access and availability.
Key Words: Food insecurity, Pastoral Maasai, Changing dietary
Kivukoni Journal 120 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among The Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District 1. BACKGROUND
Over the past few decades, discussions on food insecurity in the academia and policy ‘think tanks’ worldwide have generated a number of viewpoints on the state of food security and insecurity. Dominating these arguments are issues relating to narrow conception of food security/ insecurity. Literature best summarizes the varieties of definitions of food security/insecurity in three dominant paradigms namely The Malthusian theory perspective, the economic theory perspective, and the political theory perspective (Holben and Marshall, 2017; Burchi and De Muro, 2016; Thomas et al., 2013; Rena, 2005; Vlassenroot et al., 2003). The Malthusian and neo-Malthusian conception [1970s] that views food insecurity from food availability perspective is different from economic conception that views food insecurity from food ability perspective. According to Devereux and Maxwell, (2001), food security is regarded as access by all people at all times to enough food for an active and healthy life (Reutlinger, 1986; Hindle, 1990; Capone, et al., 2014). These conceptions are predominantly preoccupied with the narrative that, people are food secured when everyone has access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life at all times. The political theory perspective [1990s] focuses on the larger “structures of inequality or power structures” (See Seddon and Adhikari, 2003 for more details), which explain why some people have easier access to food than others do. According to this perspective, food insecurity is not caused by lack of food production or market deregulations as previous perspectives assumed, but rather by political powerlessness emanating from lack of lobbying power within national and international institutions (Thomas et al, 2013). Thus, it is the wider political and institutional context that explains why those hit hardest by famine are those that are the most politically vulnerable (Vlassenroot et al., 2003). This therefore implies that, interventions to improve food security should focus on state reconstruction, good governance, and accountability.
Food security is necessary but not sufficient to achieve individual nutrition security (Hendriks, 2016). Similarly, individual diet diversity, defined as the number of different foods or food groups consumed over a given reference period, is strongly associated with the adequacy of preferred nutrient intakes, and it is often used as an indicator of diet quality and nutrition security, as is perceived in this study (Jones et al., 2013; Ruel, 2003). Household diet diversity, on the other hand, measures the consumption of different food groups by any member of a given household over a reference period. it is often used as an indicator of food security and household diet quality but it does not extend to approximate individual household members’
Kivukoni Journal 121 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Massoi, Lucy and Saruni, Parit nutrition security (Hoddinott and Yohannes, 2002). Therefore, food security is also a subjective element of food preferences (Diekmann et al., 2018). People can be food insecure because their local food preferences are no longer available as a result of the socio-economic and political processes and structures, whose effects are felt differently by different people. Traditional foods can be found in every culture, and the 120 plus ethnic groups found with different cultural preferences to food in Tanzania are no exception. Scholars also argue that, a close link exists between food security, dietary practices, and traditional food preferences of the communities (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2009; Colozza and Avendano, 2019; Galiè et al., 2019; Walch et al., 2018; Fieldhouse and Thompson, 2012; Ivers and Cullen, 2011). Therefore, food insecurity is also more common in populations ethnic minorities such as the pastoralists (Galiè et al., 2019; Coleman-Jensen et al., 2013), due to their distinctive and unique customs attached to livestock production; cattle in particular. In Maasai culture, cattle are highly valued (Rabinovich et al., 2019; Keane et al., 2016). The size of the herd indicates wealth and status in the community (Mwamfupe, 2015), and therefore accumulation of livestock rather than consumption is a common practice.
Food insecurity is therefore an intricate open-ended phenomenon, which includes a comprehension of key mechanisms that cause unequal food availability and unequal entitlements to food, people’s coping strategies, and a range of constraints and opportunities affecting the livelihood strategies of households and individuals. Therefore, a clear understanding of such a complex phenomenon calls for a blended framework that combines the three complex issues and not a one-size fits all theory. In this context, we argue that, neither the political theory views of food insecurity alone nor the neo-Malthusian or the economist views of food insecurity best suffice to analyze food (in) security among the Maasai in Kilosa. In some cases, food insecurity might relate to the issues of food preferences as De Haen (2011) and Russo et al (2008) argue in their definition of food security, because dominant traditional practices are vital in communities and they influence dietary practices. Therefore, in this article, both paradigms are adapted to analyze food insecurity. In order to understand food security or insecurity among the Maasai pastoralists, it is important first to understand their dietary practices. Even though there are several different working definitions of food security, all of these have evolved over time and space. this section argues that, as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations does: Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which
Kivukoni Journal 122 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among The Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2009).
This definition encompasses the four dimensions of food security namely, availability, access, stability, and utilization. This also suggests that, having food security, as a nation does not necessarily mean that all individuals living in that nation are food secure (Schmidhuber and Tubiello, 2007). This argument is supported by this article by arguing that even though Tanzania is food self-sufficient at the national level, pastoralists are food insecure due to dwindling access to traditional dietary needs and food preferences as a result of agrarian development policy efforts, strategies, and programs that are increasingly influencing cultural practices and dietary practices.
2. METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in Mabwegere Village, Kilosa District, Tanzania. This is an ethnographic study inspired research that explores changing dietary practices of the Maasai in the context of food security (Redding-Jones, 2005). Data for this article were collected between 2012 and 2014 in a study area located in Kilosa District - south-eastern Tanzania, Morogoro. Tanzania is located in the East of Africa’s great lakes north of Mozambique and south of Kenya. Kilosa District is located within latitudes 5°55’ and 7°53’ South and longitudes 36°30’ and 37°30 East; (URT, 2010a; 2012). The district was purposively selected because of being predominantly occupied by the Maasai community with strong cultural beliefs, which they still uphold to date. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) 2016-2017 population projections show that there are 492,879 people in Kilosa District (NBS, 2016). Rainfall in the district varies substantially from year to year and generally falls in two seasons, the short rains in November and December, and the long rains from mid-February through April (Benjaminsen et al., 2009). The major farming systems include maize-rice, agro-pastoralism, and pastoralism (Wassena et al., 2015). In Kilosa, Mabwegere village was purposively selected on the grounds that, is it predominantly an area where pastoralist Maasai are largely found, at the same time it is an area where dietary practices are increasingly changing in terms of number of meals intake per day and the type of food (KDC, 2010; Massoi, 2015). Pastoral Maasai have a unique cultural feature, which distinguishes them from other pastoralists (Misafi, 2014). The Maasai unique culture includes keeping large herds of cattle as food source, and dependence on vast land for flexible nomadism, as a source of pasture (Massoi, 2016; Mushi, 2013; Spencer, 2012; Kipuri, 2008).
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Purposive sampling techniques were used to select pastoral Maasai settlements and 30 respondents. In order to capture “the social meanings and ordinary activities of the informants in its naturally occurring settings” (Brewer, 2000), intellectual effort was made to make an elaborate and thick description (Geertz, 1973), participant observation, interviews, and focus group discussions methods to obtain primary data. This was aimed at facilitating a relationship, which would permit more personal and in-depth description from the informants. Key informants were purposively selected based on their knowledge on food systems and changing dietary patterns among the Maasai pastoralists, mainly old men and women aged 35 years and above. A total of 30 men and 25 women were interviewed. Other data collection methods employed included focus group discussion (FGD) whereby three focus groups discussion were conducted based on age and gender with men, women. Based on the Maasai pastoralists’ traditional system, women find it difficult to give their views in front of men. Thus, FGDs involved a group of women, men and youth particularly the morans aged between 20-25 years old. Categorisation of the participants in two groups each with a similar characteristic gave them freedom to express their views on charging dietary patterns among the pastoralists Maasai in Kilosa District. Participants for the FGDs ranged from 6 to 12 people. Secondary data were also used, for they offer, “an appropriate basic source of evidence” (Skocpol, 1984), particularly food patterns and changes (Arhem, 1989). Furthermore, domain and event-structure analysis were used to analyze ethnographic data from focus groups discussions and interviews.
3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Food as a diet and the Maasai pastoralists
From the observations, interviews, and FGDs, livestock, in particular cattle, goats, and sheep provide the main source of food in the form of milk, meat, and blood. A woman illustrates: ‘‘…In our tradition, a diet of milk, meat and blood is considered as the ideal kind of food. Our traditional foods used to distinguish us as Maasai from the waswahili who eat cultivated crops as their staple foods. However, increasingly, due to loss of our staple foods as a result of loss of cattle, loss of land, droughts and many forces, we are eating large quantity of food from cereals, like maize meal, chapatti and rice which we used to perceive as unhealthy and unworthy food. However, very strong and strict taboos are still attached to fish, pork, and chickens ’’.1
1 Interview with the Maasai elder at Mabwegere, November 10th, 2012
Kivukoni Journal 124 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among The Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District Traditional and changing dietary practices of the Maasai are discussed further in the forthcoming sub-sections.
Milk as staple food Milk plays a significant role within the traditional dietary practices of the Maasai. Milk is food to the soul and the body (consumption and body smearing). It is traditionally the main staple food. Drinking raw (or soured), drinking in tea, or turning it into butter as ghee or cheese and is especially important for young children although it is not the main food. Ghee is usually used for cooking and body smearing especially for the health of the skin. Fat is considered important for children, especially infants, who are given liquid fat from sheep to promote health and strength.2 Homewood et al (2009) explain that milk still forms by far the most important single contribution to dietary energy among the Maasai. ‘‘…Usually every Maasai regardless of age or sex category consumes fresh milk and we do not boil the milk because boiling takes away the nutrients. Children and younger children particularly uncircumcised boys drink more milk in order to get more nutrients for their growth. Uncircumcised boys mostly consume sour milk usually in the morning as breakfast before herding cattle. Yoghurt is consumed by people of all ages for; it is a meal for everyone including women.’’3
Increasingly, this is not the case. Traditional practice of milk consumption is changing. A woman explains: ‘‘...Milk production is increasingly becoming low when compared to the past due to limited number of cattle we are able to keep in our homesteads. As a result, the daily consumption of milk is becoming very low especially now when the cattle have moved far away for pastures and water. We are sometimes forced to make tea by mixing the little milk with water, lemongrass or sometimes tea leaves and sugar before we feed the needy like the children.’’4 This implies that, the availability and consumption of milk varies seasonally being heavily dependent on rainfall and of course, on the number of cattle owned in the households. However, milk is increasingly scarce and, in such situation, smaller quantities may be taken in the form of tea, and sometimes not taken at all, and relies on conventional foods for a meal such as legumes and cereals such as maize
2 FGD with an middle aged women at Mabwegere village January 16th, 2013
3 Interviews with woman in Mabwegere, November 2th, 2012
4 Interview with a woman in Mabwegere, 2th, 2012
Kivukoni Journal 125 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Massoi, Lucy and Saruni, Parit meal and rice but on rare occasion. Children’s needs are prioritized. According to Lawson et al. (2014), food security among the Maasai is reflected in lower dietary intake of carbohydrates-rich staple foods, fruits and vegetable. However, their nutritional status has remained the same despite numerous changes to the socio-ecological systems including livelihood diversification, sedentarisation, human population and growth and decreased access to vegetation heterogeneity (Galvin et al. 2015; Rufino et al., 2013). Recent and earlier studies (Little and Johnson, 1987; Galvin, 1992; Hadley and Crooks, 2012) have shown the benefit of milk to linear growth. Nonetheless, milk consumption may not offset highly prevalent food insecurity and exposure to illness (Rufino, 2013). Increasingly, milk consumption rate is decreasing: Nowadays, we no longer drink milk as before… for it is no longer available in large quantity … adults are forced to eat also vegetables like amaranth and beans for a meal. Children and young boys even have to take tea for breakfast because the number of cattle is not enough to provide enough milk for everyone use …although women need the milk for their body, they are forced to drink less and serve the children.5 Several women in Kilosa agreed this phenomenon. Nowadays milk is not in plenty as before … we drink much less milk… We eat potatoes, rice chapatti, and banana stew. We do not have any other way to do… when we do not have enough food for the whole family, only the children and the older people eat first, and we eat later if it remains.6
Maasai elders also confirmed that milk consumption arrangements have changed over time due to reduced herds. Milk and milk products were in the past, consumed at any time of the day by all age groups, although all the more so by young children.7 An elder noted, Milk is our food… our main meal. When we say we have food, it means milk, meat and blood is in plenty and we are able to drink and eat them all the time... You know, traditionally, Maasai do not drink water, not even soft drinks like soda or juice, for we never had those things. If you feel thirsty you drink milk, if you are hungry you drink milk. Only that increasingly milk is no longer plenty as before … 5 Interviews with woman in Mabwegere, November 12th, 2012
6 FGD with women in Ngaiti sub-village, November 10th, 2012
7 FGD with Maasai elders at Mabwegere, December 22th, 2012
Kivukoni Journal 126 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among The Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District cattle are no longer in large numbers as before…A household has more mouths that need to be fed, at the same time livestock numbers increase at a very slower pace and in an unreliable manner. We end up making tea for the children instead of milk, we eat more Ugali with less milk… we also drink water and soda what can we do…8
A study by Ally and Nlooto (2014) reported that according to the Maasai knowledge- holders, milk consumption patterns have changed only minimally overtime compared to blood consumption. Milk and milk products are consumed anytime of the day by all age groups, although these products were highly recommended for young children. However, there are four categories of milk products consumed among the Maasai (Kamaru, 2009) these include fresh milk known as kule nairouwa, sour milk (kule naisamis), yoghurt (kule naoto) and cow colostrum (isikitok). All these milk products are taken by all except cow colostrum, which is mostly drunk by children. The authors found that the cow colostrum is drunk when still thick and yellow in colour, as this was considered nutritious. It was mostly given to young children particularly boys. The cow colostrum is an important source of protein and vitamin A, especially for children. It was a common practice to add herbs to fresh milk for various reasons. These additions were generally considered nutritious and possessing medical functions; and it was widely believed that additions of herbs to milk helped children fight disease (Ally ad Nlooto, 2014). Among the Maasai, breastfeeding was the norm for children of up to two years of age. Young Maasai children were fed cream from cow’s milk, commonly known as ‘engorno’.
Meat as staple food Meat is a second staple food to Maasai, eaten raw, dried or cooked, although not every kind of meat is considered acceptable as indicated in the following quote.
We eat beef and mutton only. We do not eat chicken, pork and fish…it has been a taboo to eat and we are still afraid to try eating them even when a household is in hunger or dying of hunger. Most of us keep chickens, but we do not eat them, they are just for sale and income generation in times of need.9
By its nature, meat cannot be consumed as often as milk; however, it is one of the staple foods of the Maasai. It is mostly taken during special occasions such as circumcision and marriage ceremonies. Meat is also used to prepare soup, the
8 Interview with the elder at Mabwegere, November 12th, 2012 9 Interview with woman at Mabwegere, November 10th, 2012
Kivukoni Journal 127 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Massoi, Lucy and Saruni, Parit recipe varying according to the occasion.
On some occasions, specific herbs are used…when we make soup for a mother who has just delivered a baby, we use specific herbs as medicines and also as a stimulant in milk production for the baby… likewise, for the boys who are from circumcision, they also have their own herbs in use.10
Although meat is considered as one of the staple foods among the Maasai, only young and healthy cattle are slaughtered (depending on the number of cattle available). Cattle that are deemed too old or likely to be infected with diseases are regarded as not ideal for slaughtering. Similarly, it is not permitted to slaughter cattle that are involved in ploughing activities because they are regarded as human beings.
Increasingly, the traditional meat intake practices were found to be decreasing as a result of a decrease in the number of cattle available per household (livestock production systems and coping strategies are increasingly individualized as opposed to communal system of livestock production), frequent incidences of droughts and unpredictable seasonal variations of rainfall. This has compelled some pastoralists to shift gradually from being strictly reliant on meat into maize meals. An elderly woman explains: “Meat is no longer available as before. This situation is forcing us to sell them in the market and get money to buy beans, meat and for other food needs.”11
Other women lamented that meat is no longer easily available for their consumption as it used to be in the past, and instead it is being sold in the market, which is unaffordable for many, especially those with large families ranging from 8 to 15 members. Ally and Nlooto, (2014) found that among the Maasai, meat was usually consumed during special occasions such as circumcision and marriage ceremonies among others. Soup which was usually eaten with added herbs, was prepared whenever, a meat was available.
Blood as staple food Blood is another component of the Maasai diet and is tapped directly from the jugular vein, which is found at the throat of the cow [Picture 15]. It may be consumed direct, without mixing, mixed with milk, or even consumed in its clotted (jelly-like)
10 Interview with woman at Mabwegere, November 10th, 2012 11 Interview with woman at Mabwegere, November 10th, 2012
Kivukoni Journal 128 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among The Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District form.”12 It may also be an ingredient of soups mixed with bark for therapeutic purposes. Its consumption is reserved for special occasions and in recent times is waning. Women noted that blood may be consumed when an animal is to be slaughtered or when a household member loses blood, particularly after childbirth or circumcision, with the belief that the blood is helpful for health and healing.13 Blood was consumed more often in the past however; this respondent makes the following reservation, I remember when were very young, together with my brothers we drank blood. Every other day a cow was restrained and we will put a rope around his neck to make its jugular vein bulge out. My brother will shoot the vein with an arrow for blood, then an elder sister of mine will bring a wooden bottle known as a gourd and collect certain amount of blood for us to drink, then the cow will be left to continue walking normally.14
An elder noted the cultural importance of the traditional diet but also the increasingly changing dietary practice in relation to the traditional of consuming blood as food. Apart from meat and milk, we are famously principally living on blood - but increasingly our cattle are too weak to provide us with blood , due to shortage of pasture, water sources , we are forced to eat what most of Swahili people in this area eats: Maize meal and porridge made from cereals.
Again, another respondent had this to say in relation to changing food systems during the FGD: We have witnessed several changes in relation to our food systems…There are very less chances of one being able to drink blood in many Maasai households. Our cattle are not on good condition to have a vein opened and drain blood as it was before. Normally, one healthy animal can be drained up to five litters of blood and the animal remains unharmed. 15 The above findings suggest that, the Maasai have their own traditional food systems, which they have been unable to maintain, due to some of the discussed earlier. They depended on raw foods such as sour milk. If the cattle are no longer available, it means changing their dietary system, which may entail food insecurity. According
12 FGD with women at Mabwegere, November 10th, 2012 13 FGD with women at Mabwegere, November 10th, 2012 14 Interview with woman at Mabwegere November 10th, 2012 15 FGD with women at Kiduhi, November 12th, 2012
Kivukoni Journal 129 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Massoi, Lucy and Saruni, Parit to the Maasai elders, food security exists when ‘the whole community is able have access to their traditional staple foods whenever they feel the need of having them’ and ‘when grazing land and inputs required for livestock production are also in enough supply.’16 Women were of the opinion that food security depends on ‘the presence of enough milk for everyone at all times and when milk can be consumed in a variety of traditionally acceptable forms (fresh and fermented milk) used as a meal and a thirst quencher.’17 Women also felt that meat should be in sufficient supply for everyone to eat, both in dried and in cooked form and blood should be accessible from the cow whenever a need or an occasion required it. For this, sufficient land for grazing through different seasons and collection of water and firewood were necessary prerequisites.18This therefore reflects the Maasai dietary practices and the manner in which the traditional food preferences are increasingly compromised. Similar findings are reported by studies (e.g. Ally and Nlooto, 2014; Kamaru, 2009; Oiye et al, 2009; Nestel, 1989), which show that blood was an exceptionally good source of iron and calcium and contributes protein and vitamin A. Blood is consumed whenever an animal was slaughtered, or when a household member lost blood, principally in childbirth and during circumcision.
The above findings suggest that, the Maasai have their own traditional food systems, which they have been unable to maintain, due to some of the discussed earlier. They depended on raw foods such as sour milk. If the cattle are no longer available, it means changing their dietary system, which may entail food insecurity. According to the Maasai elders, food security exists when ‘the whole community is able have access to their traditional staple foods whenever they feel the need of having them’ and ‘when grazing land and inputs required for livestock production are also in enough supply.’19 Women were of the opinion that food security depends on ‘the presence of enough milk for everyone at all times and when milk can be consumed in a variety of traditionally acceptable forms (fresh and fermented milk) used as a meal and a thirst quencher.’20 Women also felt that meat should be in sufficient supply for everyone to eat, both in dried and in cooked form and blood should be accessible from the cow whenever a need or an occasion required it. For this, sufficient land for grazing through different seasons and collection of water and firewood were necessary prerequisites.21This therefore reflects the Maasai dietary
16 FGDs with Maasai elders in Kiduhi, Mabwegere, November 10th and 11th, 2012 17 FGDs with Maasai women in Kiduhi, and Mabwegere, November 10th and 12th, November, 2012 18 FGD with women at Kiduhi, November 12th, 2012 19 FGDs with Maasai elders in Kiduhi, Mabwegere, November 10th and 11th, 2012 20 FGDs with Maasai women in Kiduhi, and Mabwegere, November 10th and 12th, November, 2012 21 FGD with women at Kiduhi, November 12th, 2012
Kivukoni Journal 130 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among The Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District practices and the manner in which the traditional food preferences are increasingly compromised. Similar findings are reported by studies (e.g. Ally and Nlooto, 2014; Kamaru, 2009; Oiye et al, 2009; Nestel, 1989), which show that blood was an exceptionally good source of iron and calcium and contributes protein and vitamin A. Blood is consumed whenever an animal was slaughtered, or when a household member lost blood, principally in childbirth and during circumcision.
Picture: A young Maasai boy draining blood from the cattle
This observation supports the findings by Århem (1989), which revealed that, though milk, meat, and blood contribute to the Maasai diet; honey and honey mead are also traditional valued “foods,” occasionally consumed in high qualities. Århem reported that though vegetable foods were traditionally consumed and still considered as inferior food, it probably always served to supplement the ideal food in times of scarcity particularly among women and children. According to Oiye et al (2009), traditional staple of the Maasai consists of the cow milk and maize meal.
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Similar observation is made by Fenton et al. (2012) based on a study conducted in Ngorongoro, Nestel, which opined that enough food for the Maasai means enough milk...... “It is just to have a lot of cattle in order to get milk from them. Sometimes during rainy seasons, we depend on milk only and in dry season, we can buy potatoes and maize flour.” This implies first, the existence of food options other than their traditional food among the Maasai society means food insecurity. Second food security situation among the Maasai is highly depended on seasons, as plenty of milk is experience during rainy season and vice versa. The findings by Mayanjaet al (2015) and Rukundo et al (2016) affirm that the Maasai land is strongly seasonal, as are the types and the amount of food available as well as workloads for different age/sex classes.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This article set out to examine food patterns of the Kilosa pastoral Maasai and the way in which food insecurity is prevalent due to lack of food preferences. Food security according to the Maasai does not only refer to food availability but also to food preference. According to their own definitions, the Maasai are suffering from food insecurity due to a decline in cattle, which in turn relates to a decline in the available grazing land. The Maasai are forced to adjust their traditional diet to include new foods, which they perceive as having little benefit to them. This suggests that they are not necessarily starving. Food security in pastoral societies is subjective to preference. A diet of milk, meat and raw blood from domesticated livestock, cattle in particular is considered the ideal kind of food among the pastoral Maasai. This implies that, to pastoral Maasai, all other foods are unworthy and eating them may signify food insecurity.
However, as the researchers of this study noted earlier in this article, food security is not only limited to food availability but also extends to food preferences for a healthy and an active way of life. The fact that Maasai have made an adjustment in food consumption patterns from meat or milk to more cereals and vegetables may not be necessarily a bad thing from nutritional perspective. However, if certain foods are culturally unacceptable, people might go hungry rather than eat them, or conversely sustaining the supply of the new cereal based foods might be incompatible with current nomadic lifestyles and livelihoods. Furthermore, it is established that a diet high in carbohydrate and sugar (sodas being consumed instead of water) is detrimental to health, leading to an increased risk of modern
Kivukoni Journal 132 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Changing Dietary Practices: The New Food Insecurity among The Pastoralists in Mabwegere Village Kilosa District illnesses such as heart disease and stroke, and dental cavities.22 Perhaps this will in the future become new food insecurity in the pastoralists will have to deal with, because overconsumption of dietary energy leads to overweight and obesity.
This paper argues that cultural food preferences are important because they are intertwined with beliefs about health, livelihoods, and sustainability of food supply. Moreover, when a change is forced upon a community it strains individuals and households involved and hurt certain vulnerable people, in this case, the pastoral Maasai women who are by default food producers, distributors, and managers including maintainers of food security. Scholars, I believe, should avoid looking at this kind of changes as necessarily positive, they should avoid making the kind of mistakes that the concept (civilization) had and still has in many parts of Africa where the alienation of specific cultural aspect will be called civilization. In the same vein, the Maasai lacking access to cattle facilities and start eating other food stuffs such as Amaranths, beans, and pork [in discreet] should be considered food insecurity for this group of people.
Long-term interventions and multifaceted initiatives and policies that address food and nutrition insecurity need to also taken on board for close relationship between food, nutrition security and culture, so as to prevent food insecurity across cultures. These solutions should include connecting food- insecure communities with adequate and nutritious food by understanding the influence of cultural practices on the dietary practices of different communities, pastoralists in particular, while addressing the underlying causes of food insecurity. It is important for the community to embrace other alternatives for livelihood, including farming and government support in irrigation to improve food access and availability.
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Kivukoni Journal 139 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania Angela M. Jesse and Suzan Ongara
School of Spatial Planning and Social Sciences, Department of Economics and Social studies, Ardhi University, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
ABSTRACT
Engaging in premarital sexual relationship is found to have effect such as HIV/AIDS infection, STDs/STIs, early and unplanned pregnancies and stress to most youth worldwide. Despite the mentioned effects, most of the youth including university students are still engaging in premarital sexual relationships. This being the case, it was necessary to conduct a study on premarital sexual relationships and academic performance among university students in the study area. The aim was to find out why University students engage in premarital sexual relationship. And how engaging in premarital sexual relationship affect students’ academic performance in the study areas? The Social Exchange Theory (SET) was used to guide the study. In addition, a Cross-sectional research design was used in this study whereby both probability and non-probability sampling procedures were employed. The study found courtship, peer pressure, poverty, mass media and curiosity as the drivers for students’ engagement in premarital sexual relationship. The study concludes that, although there are positive impacts of engaging in premarital sexual relationship among university students, negative effects outweigh positive impacts; and these include stress, which results from fear of being cheated upon or losing a partner, poor performance, and unwanted pregnancies leading to abortion. The study recommends that, the youth specifically university students should be educated on the impact of engaging in premarital sexual relationships on academic performance. Moreover, different programs should be established within universities to expose first-year students to what may happen if they engage in premarital sexual relationship.
Key words: Premarital Sexual Relationship, Academic Performance, Students, Tanzania
1. INTRODUCTION
Most of the youth engage in premarital sexual relationships worldwide (Okigbo
Kivukoni Journal 140 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania and Speizer, 2015) thus, making it very common in many countries. Premarital sex is a voluntary sexual intercourse between unmarried individuals (Alexander et al., 2007; Adhikari and Adhikari, 2017). According to Abdissa et al., (2015), premarital sexual relationship is a situation where a female and a male are voluntarily engaging in an intimacy or family kind relationship before marriage. In this kind of relationship, couples are practicing sexual intercourse subjecting them to sexual consequences as similar to those facing married couples. Most young girls and boys engage in pre-marital sexual relationship for many reasons, which include economic, social issues and peer pressure (Chiao et al., 2012; Abdullahi and Umar, 2013; Stephen and Stephen, 2016). Another reason is technological influence including using of contraceptives which is perceived by many parents as a way of avoiding pregnancy. In addition, a study by Noroozi et al. (2014) found that, child-rearing practices, parents’ interactions, children’s economic support, beliefs and sexual awareness are the drivers of premarital sexual relationships. This shows that the process of raising a child may in one way or the other influence sexual behaviour. Literature shows that, life challenges within families and open mindedness of some teenagers due to advances in technology contribute to pre-marital sexual relationship (Bocar and Biong, 2016). As Momah (2007) argues, movies, televisions, magazines, and pornography of every kind are used to expose the youth to sexual issues at a young age.
Based on the above, engaging in premarital sexual relationship results into many effects including, early pregnancies which lead to discontinuation from school specifically for girls, getting infected with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), HIV/ AIDS and unnecessary abortions for girls (Bocar and Perez, 2014). According to Abdissa et al. (2017), HIV/AIDS is the third leading killer of young people worldwide while in Africa, it is the first killer of the youth aged 15 to 29 years old, which is the productive age group within a population. Despite the mentioned consequences, students specifically youth at higher learning institutions engage in premarital sexual relationships. Literature shows that 53.9 percent of sexually active respondents started sex after joining the University (Abdissa et al., 2017). This is because, joining university makes the youth be away from their parents/guardians and teachers’ supervision. It is a time where most of the youth are more independent and freer to decide what to do without being questioned (Abdullahi and Umar, 2013). However, engaging in sexual relationships needs commitment and concentration. It is a situation of dealing with another person’s emotions and feelings in a sense that, if an individual is destructed, he or she can lose focus on whatever he/she is doing. Moreover, university students are supposed to concentrate on studies
Kivukoni Journal 141 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Angela M. Jesse and Suzan Ongara and build their future career. Therefore, engaging in premarital sexual relationship can influence their academic performance both positively and negatively. In this paper, academic performance is considered as an academic achievement or the extent to which a student is aiming to attain a short or long - term educational goal. Therefore, engaging in premarital sexual relationship can affect the students’ process of attaining the intended goal because they may use most of their time solving problems in their relationships than concentrating in studies. However, the effect may depend on the capacity of the student to handle many issues at a time.
In view of the above, there was a need of conducting a study on premarital sexual relationships among university students and academic performance. Basically, the study aimed at answering the following questions: why do university students engage in premarital sexual relationship? And how does engaging in premarital sexual relationship affect students’ performance in the study area. Answers to these questions are expected to assist university student have better understanding on how engagement in premarital sexual relationship can affect academic performance and their future careers in general.
Theoretical framework This study was guided by the Social Exchange Theory (SET), which allows one to examine relational processes in marital and family relationships (Nakonezny and Denton, 2008). The paradigm of the SET seeks to explain the development and maintenance of marital relationships. For example, solidarity and power as well as decay of exchange relationships in terms of balancing between the rewards and the costs sexual partners obtain and incur respectively by selecting themselves into marital relationships (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959). The SET theory was found relevant for the study because it enables one to explore the effects (positive or negative) resulting from engaging in premarital sexual relationships and the manner in which this could be associated with the performance of university students. For example, negative effects could lead to poor performance while positive effects could lead to good performance of a student who is engaged into premarital sexual relationship. However, the SET was meant for married couples, it was nonetheless quite handy when it was used for unmarried people engaging in premarital sexual relationships. Moreover, people engaged in premarital sexual relationships perform marriage acts and they are definitely faced with the same benefits and challenges the married people face. Among the challenges are contracting sexually transmitted diseases/infections (STDs/STIs) and HIV/AIDS, suffering from stress and financial distresses that damage the thinking capacity. Therefore, this theory was used to find
Kivukoni Journal 142 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania out the rewards and challenges regarding correlation between premarital sexual relationship among university student and academic performance.
2. METHODOLOGY
Description of the study area The study was conducted at Ardhi University (ARU), which is a Public University in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. ARU was established on the 28th March 2007 though it had been offering trainings before this period. Formally, ARU was a constituent college of UDSM from 1996-2007, when it was known as University College of Lands and Architectural studies-UCLAS. Ardhi located next to the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM). up to 1956 ARdhi was a Surveying Training School offering land surveying technician certificate courses. In 1972, the school became Ardhi Institute. The Institute offered two-year diploma programs in the fields of Land Surveying and Land Management and Valuation. In the same year, a three-year Diploma program in Urban and Rural Planning was introduced. At the time of this study, ARU consisted of 4673 undergraduate students whereby 70percent were males and the rest were females. ARU was selected because the establishment of social science programs led to an abrupt increase in the number of female students. Therefore, it was worth undertaking this study to see how premarital sexual relationship affect students in their academic performance.
Research Design The study employed a cross-sectional research design. According to Orji (2016), the design is often used when a researcher intends to obtain responses from a relatively large number of respondents in a short period of time. This type of research design can be used across various disciplines such as (but are not limited to) business, psychology, social science, retail, medicine, education, religion, and government (Hemedi, 2015). Moreover, findings and outcomes resulting from cross-sectional studies can be analyzed to create new theories/studies or in-depth research.
Sampling procedure The study employed both probability and non-probability sampling procedures. The School of Spatial Planning and Social Sciences (SSPSS) was purposely selected among four Schools found at Ardhi University. SSPSS was used because of the presence of social sciences courses that increased the number of female students hence increased interaction between male and female students within Ardhi
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University and elsewhere. The selection of courses within SSPSS was based on the proportional number of male and female students in which Bachelor of Arts in Economics (BAE) and Bachelor of Arts in Community Development Studies (CDS) were selected. Purposive sampling procedure was used to select final year students from the selected courses because they had stayed longer at the university hence, they might have experienced or observed the pros and cons of engaging in premarital sexual relationships and academic performance. Stratified sampling procedure was used to separate female from male students from the selected courses. Thereafter, simple random sampling was employed to select 25 students from each stratum, which led to 100 respondents from the above- mentioned programs. The respondents were selected regardless of whether or not they in sexual relationship. The selected number of the respondents was based on the homogeneity of the data provided. Purposive Sampling procedure was used to select 11 key informants, which included academic and administrative staff within four schools found at Ardhi University.
Methods and tools for Data collection Questionnaire with open and close-ended questions was used to collect information from the respondents. In addition, a checklist was used to collect information from eleven (11) key informants who were lecturers and other administrative staff at Ardhi University. A tape recorder was used to record the interview with the key informant after getting their permission.
Data analysis Quantitative data, which were collected using questionnaire, were analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences) whereby descriptive statistics in other words, frequencies, and percentages were obtained. In addition, content analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data obtained from the key informants. The first step in analyzing the qualitative data was listening to the recorded information to be familiar with the information ready for transcription. The second step was data transcription whereby the researcher had to write all the reported information after listening to the recorded responses from key informants. The third step was the feedback session where the transcribed data were taken back to the key informants for them to confirm on whether what was transcribed was exactly what they reported. The next step was data coding, where different categories were identified. Categories with the same meaning were collected together and read to get meaningful information.
Kivukoni Journal 144 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania Reliability Prior to data collection, questionnaires and checklist were pre-tested whereby 10 copies were distributed to students who were not part of the sample. the data were then analyzed to be sure that the objectives of the study were covered by getting the right answers. Next, the identified gaps were addressed by readjusting and creating other questions to remove ambiguity.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Drivers of engaging in premarital sexual relationships on the drivers of engaging in premarital sexual relationship in the study area, the respondents were asked to mention what push students to engage in premarital sexual relationships. The findings of the identified drivers of engaging in premarital sexual relationship are as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Drivers of engaging in premarital sexual relationships
Results in Figure 1 show that courtship, peer pressure, poverty, mass media and curiosity in knowing what entails in sexual relationship were the drivers of engaging in premarital relationship among university students. Based on the results, 88 percent of the respondents cited courtship as a driver of premarital sexual relationship. Normally, courtship is a situation where a man or a woman desires to
Kivukoni Journal 145 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Angela M. Jesse and Suzan Ongara start a relationship with a person he/she loves. This is a situation where a person can learn the behaviour of another person and be sure that an individual is the right person to be with. Based on religion, a person is not obliged to engage in marital sexual relationship before marriage. But, this is not currently the case because most of people wed when they have already started marital sexual relationship. This has been supported by the key informant, who commented that,
Premarital sexual relationships create a room for courtship and also prepare couples for a better marriage in the future (Key informant 2, Ardhi University, May 2019)
The above quote justifies why some students/individuals engage in premarital sexual relationships before marriage. However, some literature has shown the effects of engaging in premarital sexual relationship among which is early pregnancies, diseases including STI/Ds, HIV/AIDS, frustrations, and death (Nooroz et al., 2014). Therefore, it is important for the youth especially university students to be educated on the effect of premarital sexual relationship in their university life to enable them concentrate on their studies and career pathways so as to achieve their intended goals.
Poverty was also mentioned as a driver of engaging into premarital relationship by respondents in the study area. When elaborating why university students engage into premarital relationship, one of the respondents had this to say,
Most of university students are engaging in premarital sexual relationships because of difficult condition in their families (Respondent 14, Ardhi University, May 2019).
One of the key informants added,
…Some students like to dress nicely, go to saloon regularly so as to look attractive. This makes them engage into pre-marital sexual relationship with men who are capable of taking care of them even if these men are married. These men are called “sponsors” as their nickname. (Key informant 3, Ardhi University, May 2019).
The above quotes show that, some of university students engage in premarital sexual relationships not because of love but because of material things. Engaging in sexual relationship because of finding someone to take care of individual needs is
Kivukoni Journal 146 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania dangerous because it may lead to contacting deadly d diseases and disappointments. This may happen because the so-called sponsor may take advantage of many young women who are desperate for money. It may also result to breakup of some marriage because most of sponsors are married men. So when their spouses find out that their husbands are having affairs, they may end up seeking for separation or divorce. The study conducted by Mapfumo (2016) on “unfaithfulness among married couples” cited diseases, stress, violence and divorce as the effects of unfaithfulness among married couples.
Other respondents pointed out that, some of the university students are engaged in premarital sexual relationship because of curiosity of knowing what prevails in the relationships as well as the influence from peers and the mass media. Nowadays, young people learn a lot from mass media for example you tube, and films and drama and in some television channels where everything is exposed. According to Bocar and Perez (2013), in the present world modern technology is responsible for some changes in human sexuality whereby continued exposure to some sexually related issues has led to indifferent attitudes among the young population due to liberalism. Generally, liberalism offers open-mindedness that makes young people including university students wanting to practice in their real life what they learn from the mass media. However, it is important for the educated youth such as university students to be analytical on any issues and predict the impact of whatever they are doing on their future life. Others are engaging in premarital sexual relationship out of the influence or pressure from friends (peers). Therefore, there is a need of educating the youth on the disadvantages of engaging in premarital sexual relationships and applying knowledge that they get from mass media in their real life. This should start in the family level. According to Norooz et al. (2014), it is necessary to educate and support families and also revise the neglected aspects on the effect of premarital sexual relationships.
Although there are many disadvantages of engaging into premarital relationship, some respondents proclaimed that, engaging into premarital relationship had positive result because it is part of the preparations for marriage. For example, one of the key informants reported,
Premarital sexual relationship is not always a bad thing since it prepares an individual for marriage. I was involved in such relationships for a reason of searching for my future partner and I succeeded since the only thing I had in mind regarding such relationship was the positive outcome of it (Key informant 2, Ardhi University, May 2019).
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The above quote shows that, some youth engage in premarital sexual relationship for the aim of searching for their future/life partners. However, this reason may not always be reciprocal, since it may happen that, when one is seeking for a life partner the other one may be doing the opposite, searching for a person to pass time or to have a fling or adventurous dating due to loneliness. This was also supported by a key informant, who said,
Loneliness can drive someone into engaging in premarital sexual relationships. This is because; human beings need someone to share their problems and happiness with. Therefore, by being connected to someone, the loneliness can be taken care of (Key informant 7, Ardhi University, May 2019).
The quote above shows that, an individual can engage in premarital sexual relationship because of loneliness instead of love. This may result to confusion and heartbreaks specifically when two people engage into a relationship with two different goals. According to the SET, confusion and heartbreak are negative rewards. Generally, negative rewards may result into high blood pressure, heart diseases, and failure in realising ones dreams specifically for students. Therefore, it is wise for university students to have ordinary friends who would understand their intentions and goals. Understanding someone’s intention can enable one avoid the possibility of getting married to a wrong person.
Premarital sexual relationship and students’ performance The information on premarital sexual relationship and students’ performance was obtained by finding out how engaging in premarital sexual relationship may affect academic performance for a university student. In this respect, the respondents had to answer yes and no questions and provide explanations of the answers they provided. The findings are as presented in Figure 2.
Kivukoni Journal 148 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania
Figure 2: Effects premarital sexual relationships in Academics performance
The respondents in this study cited poor attendance in class, poor academic performance, and poor academic motivation as negative effect of engaging in premarital sexual relationship among university students as shown in Figure 2. In elaborating the answer, one of the respondents reported the following,
I have a sister who had a boyfriend whom they were in the same course at the university; they rented a room and stayed together as a husband and wife but they were not married. According to my sister, the boyfriend cheated on her and she was frustrated. My sister was intelligent but she ended up getting a very low GPA (2.3) in the final year. Respondent 57, Ardhi University, May 2019).
In supporting the quote from the respondent, one of the key informants said,
Some of the students who in premarital sexual relationship tend to lose interest in studies and concentrate in relationships. Therefore, they spend most of their time thinking of their couples specifically when problems such as breaking up or cheating happen. During this period, one of the partners becomes heartbroken and confused so he/she ends up getting poor performance and/or become least motivated in academics (Key informant 3, Ardhi University, May 2019).
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The quotes above show the negative effect of engaging in premarital sexual relationship for university students. In such relationships, students tend to play the roles of married couples while they are not yet married. When one of them is not faithful, the other one is badly hurt. If not well handled, the affected student can possibly fail to meet his/her academic goals (better performance) which results in ruining their future life. In another study, Abdullahi and Umar (2013) revealed that pre-marital sex among the youth in the University has many effects and consequences include HIV/STIs, regrets, and unwanted pregnancies. Others include loss of self-respect, loss of family support, depression, and become victims of rituals among others.
Similarly, stress, conflicts, diseases, and early pregnancies were also cited by the respondents as some of the effects of premarital sexual relationship. All these have negative effect on the academic performance of university students who are in such relationship. In this regard, one of the key informants provided her experience concerning the matter as follows,
Well, I admit to have been engaged in such relationships when I was a student at the University. In my premarital sexual relationship, I faced two main challenges, which are fear and insecurity. Currently, I still see a number of students who are facing the same challenges. I always felt being insecure with my partner because, I usually thought in my absence he used to see someone else. I also feared that, if I do not fulfil his wishes, he might end up choosing someone else over me…” (Key informant 10, Ardhi University, 3rd May 2019)
Another key informant gave his account of his university life by saying,
When I was at the university, we lost one of our female classmates who happened to be my best friend’s partner. She secretly had an abortion without telling her partner: in the process, she lost a lot of blood and died” (Key informant 3, Ardhi University, May 2019).
The quotes above suggest that some university students in premarital sexual relationships are normally insecure and living in fear. Being insecure and living in fear can negatively affect student performance. According to Muhhammad et al. (2017), students who confront fatal and chronic fearful experiences often lose their learning capacities that lead to poor academic performance and low learning performance or failing grades. Additionally, Mittermeier (2009) argues that
Kivukoni Journal 150 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania adolescents who engage in premarital relationships and sexual activity are at the same risks as those of the married women.
The extract from key informant 3 reveals issues of abortions and death resulting from engaging in premarital sexual relationship. All these have an impact on the performance because, a student may be psychologically affected by the act of abortion and lose concentration on studies or die. .According to Mlyakado and Timoth (2014), students’ involvement in sexual relationship puts them into lots of relational and social problems, which adversely affect their social as well as academic lives. Thus, a student ends up failing his/her university exams requiring him/her to re-take the exams or at times even being discontinued from studies. A student may end up losing her life or fail to get pregnant in the future because of practicing unsafe abortion to maintain her status quo. According to Stephen and Stephen (2016), among the consequences of premarital sex are unwanted pregnancies, poor academic performance, regret, health, effect, and depression. Hence, it is important for the university students to know the implication of engaging in premarital sexual relationship to their life.
Measures of avoiding the effects of premarital sexual relationship The respondents were asked to state what should be done to avoid negative effects of engagement in premarital sexual relationship. Most of the respondents mentioned religious education and sexual education as ways of cubing the menace of premarital sexual relationship among university students. Religious education can be among the protective measure of avoiding the effects of premarital sexual relationship. This is because sex before marriage is against Gods’ commandment. Sex education on the other hand would educate the youth about abstinence before marriage and be faithful in their marriage life in future.
For the respondents who advocate religion, the safest way for them is to abstain from sex until you get married. This is a good way of evading problems resulting from engaging into premarital sexual relationship and being able to concentrate on studies and realise their goals. Other literature (Eze, 2014; Ghani and Abdullah, 2014) show that there are values and norms in different societies which forbid sexual relationship before marriage. As for the advocacy of sex education, we have seen that, sex education has advantages and disadvantages to a university student. Through sex education, a student can engage in relationship and be able to avoid contacting diseases including HIV/AIDS and STDs and unwanted pregnancies (Somers and Anagurthi, 2014). But sexual education has disadvantage specifically
Kivukoni Journal 151 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Angela M. Jesse and Suzan Ongara when one partner or both create stress, insecurity to the other as a result of cheating, abandonments and having different goals when engaging into a premarital relationship. This can definitely result into failure of meeting the intended objective of a university student.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions The study concludes that most of the university students are engaged in premarital sexual relationships because of courtship, poverty, and influence from peer groups, technology, and curiosity. However, engaging in premarital sexual relationships make university students insecure and living in fear of being cheated by their partners, getting unwanted pregnancies and being stressed by their partners on many other grounds. This results in poor academic performance because students tend to concentrate much on solving relationship issues instead of studying.
Recommendations The youth specifically university students should be educated on the impact of engaging in premarital sexual relationships on academic performance.
Different programs should be started within the universities on exposing first-year students on what may happen if they are engaged in premarital sexual relationship. The positive impacts should be mentioned with caution that “it is always difficult to understand what someone else is planning for you” in other words, you cannot read someone’s mind.
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Ardhi University specifically the School of Spatial Planning and Social Science for allowing this study to be conducted within the school. I would like to thank the final year students of Bachelor of Arts in Economics (BAE) and Bachelor of Arts in Community Development Studies (CDS) in the year 2018/2019 for their cooperation, which made this study possible. Most importantly, I would like to thank Suzan Ongara for dedicating her time to assist in data collection. I would not forget other academic and administrative staff for the support they provided to me in carrying out this study. God bless you all
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Abdullahi, M. and Umar, A. (2013). Consequences of Pre-Marital Sex among the Youth a Study of University of Maiduguri. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) 10(1), 10 – 17 [www.iosrjournals.org]
Adhikari, N and Adhikari, S. (2017. Attitude towards Premarital Sex among Higher Secondary Students in Pokhara Sub-Metropolitan City. Journal of Community Medicine and Health Education7 (5), 1- 6 [DOI: 10.4172/2161- 0711.1000564]
Alexander,M.,Garda, L., Kanade, S., Jejeebhoy, S. andGanatra, B. (2007). Correlates of Premarital Relationships Among Unmarried Youth in Pune District, Maharashtra, India. International Family Planning Perspectives 33(4), 150 – 159
Bocar, A. and Biong, C. (2016). Factors that Induce Premarital Sexual Intercourse Among Adolescents: Reasons that Lead to Teenage Pregnancy. Electronic Journal, 1-20 DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.2856855
Bocar, A.C. and Perez, N.C. (2014). Students’ Perception Towards Premarital Sex. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2440761 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.2440761] site visited on 26/7/2019
Eze, I.R. (2014). Adolescents’ Attitude Towards Premarital Sex. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 5(10), 491- 499
Ghani, S.A. and Abdullah, S. (2014). Moral Values and Coping Strategies among Female Adolescents Involved in Premarital Sex. 4th World Conference on Psychology, Counseling and Guidance[doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.756] site visited on 26/7/2019
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Hemedi, M. (2015). Cross-sectional studies. [https://www.gfmer.ch/SRH- Course-2015/research-methodology/pdf/Cross-sectional-studies- Hemed-2015.pdf] site visited on 22/4/2020
Mapfum, J. (2016). Unfaithfulness among married couples. Journal of Humanities And Social Science 21(5), 110-122www.iosrjournals.org
Mittermeier, C.L. (2009). Premarital Romantic Partnerships among Youth in India and Intimate Partner Violence: Filling the knowledge gaps. A Thesis submitted for the fulfillment of Master of Public health of the University of Pittsburgh. [https://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/20891/1/mittermeiercl_ etdPitt2014.pdf] site visited on 29/7/2019
Mlyakado, B.P and Timothy, N. (2014). Effects of Students’ Sexual Relationship on Academic Performance among Secondary School Students in Tanzania. Academic Research International 5(4), 278–286. [http://www.savap.org.pk/ journals/ARInt./Vol.5 (4)/2014(5.4-29).pdf] site visited on 27/7/2019
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Kivukoni Journal 154 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Premarital Sexual Relationships and Academic Performance among University Students: A Case of Ardhi University, Tanzania Somers, C. L.and Anagurthi, C. (2014). Parents’ attitudes about adolescents’ premarital sexual activity: The role of inter-parent consistency / inconsistency in sexual outcomes. Health and Educational Journal, 73(5), 545–553. doi: 10.1177/0017896913506702
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Thibaut, J. W.and Kelley, H. H. (1959).The social psychology of groups. New York: John Wiley.
Kivukoni Journal 155 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Teaching and Learning Environment for Science Subjects in Secondary Schools in Mkuranga District, Tanzania Bertha Losioki
Department of Education, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar es Salaam
ABSTRACT
The learning environment in schools is vital to students’ success and students’ academic achievement. Inequalities in learning environments in schools result in inequalities of learning outcome, in both participation and pass rates especially in science and mathematics subjects. The study assessed teaching and learning environment for science subjects in secondary schools. The study adopted a cross - sectional design and both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used. Probability sampling technique, simple random and purposive sampling were used to select the respondents. The total sample size was 227 respondents. Structured questionnaire, in depth interview, non-participant observation, and documentary review methods were used to collect data. Quantitative data were analysed through SPSS while content analysis was used for qualitative data. The study findings show that physical facilities were adequate except for classrooms, library, and ICT facilities. Sanitation facilities were available and adequate. The number of Science teachers was inadequate and performance in Mathematics was poor. There was a tendency for students not to opt for science subjects. The study concluded that there were inadequacies in teaching and learning environment that affect learner’s academic achievement. The government and Non-State actors should collaborate to equip schools with basic and modern facilities and address the shortage of Science teachers for better teaching and learning outcomes. Heads of School and District educational authority should ensure effective implementation of the strategies targeted to increase learners’ positive attitude towards mathematics and science subjects.
Keywords: Learning environment, academic achievement, secondary school, Tanzania
1. INTRODUCTION
The learning environment in schools is vital to student success and students’ academic achievement. Inequalities in learning environments in schools also result in inequalities of learning outcome, in both participation and pass rates especially in
Kivukoni Journal 156 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Teaching and Learning Environment for Science Subjects in Secondary Schools in Mkuranga District, Tanzania science and mathematics subjects (The World Bank, 2019). Learning environment involves human resource (pupils and teachers), mental circumstances (mutual relations), and the surrounding environment (school premises, their arrangement, and methodology in the provision of teaching and learning. It is an organized set of physical, social, and informative conditions in which pupils form and implement knowledge, skills, and attitudes to their surroundings (Anderson, 2017).
There is a direct link between the physical environments in which learners are taught/ where teaching occurs and student learning outcomes. A suitable learning environment allows students to feel comfortable and confident as learners. It also improves readiness to learn resulting in few dropouts. Hence, students can work hard and have high achievement levels. In addition, a poor learning environment affects students and the learning process in many ways, such as low student achievement, poor behaviour, student anxiety, and depression (Mutlu and Yildirim, 2019). It also contributes to students’ irregular attendance and dropping out of school, teachers’ absenteeism, and the teacher and student inability to engage in teaching and learning processes. Inadequate School Water, Sanitation and hygiene (SWASH) facilities as part of learning environment also contribute to dropout and poor school attendance among girls (World Bank, 2019; MoEST, 2016a).
The UN Committee on the Right of the child shows that the quality of the learning environment, teaching and learning process, materials, and learning outputs are important for good performance among students. In addition, sustainable learning environment allows educators and learners to integrate learning principles into their daily practices and facilitate capacity building and competency development (Human Right Watch, 2017; UNESCO, 2017). Moreover, learners’ academic achievement is connected with the learning needs of the child within the learning environment. It also depends on the child’s circumstances and situations including the quality of schools, teachers, and other factors such as learning materials, support for learning, and the physical surroundings (McGiboney, 2016). According to Tian and Sun (2018, p. 3), academic achievement refers to students’ learning outcome of school curriculum. It is a crucial indicator of education quality. In this study, academic achievement refers to students’ performance in academic subjects as measured by achievement tests and examinations.
Tanzania is committed to making efforts and mobilising resources in the development of post- primary education training. Thus, Secondary Education Development Programme (SEDP) targeted to improve teaching and learning in secondary schools
Kivukoni Journal 157 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Bertha Losioki
(URT 2010). According to MoEST (2016b), SEDP implementation led to an increase of 22percent of teachers in secondary schools. In addition, pupil teacher ratio improved to 17:1. The standard pupil/latrine ratio is 1:20 and 1:25 for girls and boys respectively. Likewise, the Education Sector Plan targeted to ensure availability of sufficient schools, classrooms and teachers (URT, 2018). However, only nine percent of the population aged 15 years and above completed upper secondary education. In addition, about one million of the youth who enter the labour market have low levels of education and skills (The World Bank, 2019; URT, 2010).
According to URT (2017), the enrolment in secondary school (Form I-IV) in Mkuranga District in the year 2016-2017 was 11,047. NECTA (2018) shows further that majority of students who sat for Mathematics examinations in secondary schools failed in that subject, which is compulsory. Examinations results show that less than ten percent of students passed in Mathematics subject. In addition, only a few students opted and sat for Physics and Chemistry National examinations. Performance in Mathematics and science subjects in the National Examinations is a serious problem in secondary schools in Mkuranga District in Pwani Region.
Therefore, this study was required to see how teaching and learning environment could be improved and academic achievement and education quality could be boosted. In this regard, the study assessed the learning environment of science subjects in secondary schools in Mkuranga District Tanzania. The specific objectives of the study were first to examine teaching and learning of science subjects in secondary schools. Secondly, to assess physical facilities for teaching and learning; and thirdly to examine the availability human resource for teaching and learning of science subjects (teachers and supporting staff, students, parents and community members). The study assumes that learning environment affects learners’ achievement in secondary schools in Mkuranga District.
The study responds to UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) specifically goal number four which focuses on quality education for all, and the United Nations initiative which sets a target for all countries to offer free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education to all children by 2030 (UNESCO, 2017). This study is therefore important as it helps the Government of Tanzania through the Ministry of education of Science and Technology to be more responsive in improving learning environment in secondary schools. The study contributes to the implementation of Tanzania’s Education and Training policy 2014 that aims at increasing access to primary and secondary education, and improving the quality of education (URT, 2014).
Kivukoni Journal 158 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Teaching and Learning Environment for Science Subjects in Secondary Schools in Mkuranga District, Tanzania The study also contributes to the understanding of teaching and learning environment for science subjects in the study area and other similar settings through exploration of physical facilities and human resource. The outputs of this study therefore, would help in improving learning environment and students’ performance in secondary schools. The study also contributes in the making of rational policies and decisions in relation to the learning environment in secondary schools.
Guided by Bronfenbrenner ecological theory, the study focuses on the individual (learner), the process (teaching and learning), and the environment (school environment). The study explains learning environment and the structures with which learners had direct relationships and interactions. The interaction within and across the structures influences teaching and learning process, and students’ experience. The structures involve the classrooms as the immediate environment in which learners operate (micro system) and the connection between the learners’ home and school (meso system). It also involves an environment in which the learners are directly involved but external to their experience (exo system) such as school community and societal values and practices (Darling, 2007). As Bronfenbrenner argues, individual characteristics, the learning process, and the environment can predict academic performance. In addition, adequate learning resources promote positive learning outcomes. In addition, children problems are both more prevalent and more severe in poor quality environments (Darling, 2007).Therefore, the theory help to understand students’ learning environment and to establish quality-learning environment.
2. METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted at Kimanzichana and Mkuranga Wards. The population in Mkuranga District is 222,921 where males were 108,024 and females were 114,897. The population in Kimanzichana Ward is 17,846 where 8,301 were males and 9,545 were females (URT, 2012). In addition, the average household size is 4.5. The population in Mkuranga ward is 25,847 where 12,256 were males and 13,591 were females. The household size is 4.4 (URT, 2012).
The study adopted a cross sectional design, which allows to identify and to pick respondents from different socio demographic across the life span (Privitera and Alhgrim-Dezz 2018).The study used both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Questionnaire, non-participant observation, in depth interview and documentary review methods were used to collect primary and secondary data for triangulation
Kivukoni Journal 159 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Bertha Losioki purposes. The study targeted secondary school students and teachers. Other informants were Heads of school, Educational Officials, and parents. Participation of both male and female respondents was observed. Teachers and students were involved in the study because they are key participants in teaching and learning process. Teachers play a key role in facilitating learning in accordance to the curriculum. Heads of school and educational Officials were involved in the study as they are responsible for ensuring that teaching and learning process is conducted effectively and efficiently. Parents were also involved as stakeholders in the education sector.
The total sample size for this study was 227 respondents. The schools involved in the study were selected purposively based on their location and accessibility. The study used probability sampling technique and simple random sampling to select students, teachers, and parents. The probability sampling technique reduces bias and every participant has equal chance of participating in the study (Privitera and Alhgrim-Dezz, 2018). Heads of school and Educational Officials were selected though purposeful sampling.
The study used non-parametric data and both qualitative and quantitative data were used in order to ensure validity of the study. Quantitative data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Qualitative data were analysed through content analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the results. Quantitative data were presented and interpreted using cross tabulation, frequency tables, pie, and bar charts. Qualitative data were coded according to key themes and study objectives. Qualitative data provided description and understanding of teaching and learning environment in secondary schools.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Socio Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents are presented based on age, sex, education level, marital status, and occupation as indicated in Table 1. The results revealed that more than a half (66.1%) of the respondents were aged between 15 and 24 years. Also less than twenty percent of the respondents aged between 25 and 39 and between 40 - 59 years respectively. Regarding sex, participation of male and female respondents was nearly equal (49.3 and 50.7 percent respectively). More than a half (69.6 %) of the respondents were single while less than a half (30%) were married. In addition, were few (0.4 %) of the respondents were divorced/separated
Kivukoni Journal 160 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Teaching and Learning Environment for Science Subjects in Secondary Schools in Mkuranga District, Tanzania The results show that more than a half (69.2%) of the respondents had secondary school education while less than twenty percent (16.7%) had university degree. In addition, 7.9, and 6.2 percent of the respondents) r had primary school and diploma education respectively. The level of education implies that the respondents were aware with the teaching and environment in the study area. As for the occupation of the respondents, the results show that, 66.1 percent were students, 18.5 percent were teachers, 11 and 4.4 percent were parents and heads of school and Educational Officials respectively.
Table1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents (n= 227)
Demographic Characteristics N % Age 15 – 24 150 66.1 25 – 39 34 14.9 40 – 59 43 19 Sex Male 112 49.3 Female 115 50.7 Education level Primary School 18 7.9 Secondary Education 157 69.2 Diploma Education 14 6.2 University 38 16.7 Marital Status Single 158 69.6 Married 68 30 Divorced /Separated 1 0.4 Occupation Students 150 66.1 Teachers 42 18.5 Heads of Schools and 10 4.4 Educational Officials Parents 25 11.0
Teaching and Learning Environment
Teaching and Learning in Schools The study intended to find out whether there were subjects, which were not taught. The results show that 71 percent of the subjects were taught according to school timetable. However, the finding show that there were science subjects that
Kivukoni Journal 161 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Bertha Losioki were not taught as reported by 29 percent of the respondents. This suggests that the number of Science teachers is inadequate in the study area. Figure: 1 shows the results.
Figure 1: Classroom Teaching
These results suggest further that inadequate number of Science teachers contribute to poor performance and the tendency for students not opting for science subjects. Based on NECTA results for the year 2018 and 2019, few students opted for science subjects in secondary schools in Mkuranga. In addition, examination performance for Mathematics subject was worse for most students (NECTA, 2018; NECTA, 2019). Similar results are reported in a study conducted in where students were reported to perform poorly in Mathematics (Ramadhani, 2012). These results show therefore, that teachers play crucial role in students’ achievement.
The study also explored the reasons for some subjects not being taught. Various reasons were given as presented in Figure 2
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Figure 2: Reasons given for not taught Subjects
The results show that more than a half (57%) of the respondents cited inadequacy of teachers for physics and chemistry subjects as a reason. The findings also show that, 29 percent of the respondents reported that Physics teachers were few in their schools. This has implication in teaching and learning process as it affects effective implementation of the curriculum hence poor performance among students. It is important to have sufficient number of teachers for school to implement the curriculum and thus improve the overall quality of education (UNESCO, 2016). In addition, less than five percent (2%) of teachers were reported being absent from school due to either social problems or sickness. Furthermore, other studies (e.g. Ngussa and Mbuti 2017) cited teachers’ teaching strategy as a reason for poor performance among students.
Physical Facilities
Classrooms Facilities The respondents were required to rank the facilities in three categories, namely Adequate, Inadequate, and not applicable. The study results show classrooms were reported to be inadequate (54.2%). in some schools, chairs and tables were put in open spaces within the school compound and tests were taken outside the classrooms. This suggests that there is a challenge during administering of tests and examinations. Table 2 presents the results.
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Table: 2 Classrooms Facilities (n=192)
The study findings show further that, 51percent of the respondents cited chairs and tables as being adequate. Likewise, 87.5 percent of the respondents cited desks as being adequate in the sampled schools. However, 3.1 percent cited computers and projectors as being inadequate. Other scholars cited physical characteristics of learning environment as affecting students cognitively, emotionally, and behaviour wise. The effect of physical learning environment can vary among learners and the learning activities. Moreover, most students do not feel comfortable in the classrooms that are not suitable for learning. Physical aspects in a classroom involve all physical objects present in the classroom such as blackboard, furniture, lightning, projector, and computers (Malik and Rizvi, 2018).
Library Facility The findings show that 45 percent of the respondents reported that, there was no library in their school. It was also found through physical visit of the school premises that books were kept in special rooms. These results suggest that learners do not have a place for further reading or for obtaining references materials for various assignments. Figure 3 provides the details.
A study conducted in Morogoro Municipality also showed that, 20.3 percent of schools had no school library (Bernard and Dulle, 2014). Thus, based on other studies, the situation seems to be worse in Mkuranga, Pwani compared to Morogoro. School libraries are important, as they are a source of different information resources. They also improve teacher effectiveness (Bhatt, 2013; Semali, 2014).
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Figure 3: Library Facilities
Availability of Books The findings show that textbooks for teachers and students were not adequate as reported by 58.8 percent of the respondents. This suggests that teachers and learners experience challenges during teaching and learning process. Table 3 provides the details as reported by teachers and students.
Table 3: Books Availability in School Library (n=192)
Number of Books n % Very few (0 -10) 10 5.2 Enough to fill one shelf (11 -25) 19 10 Enough to fill book case (26 -100) 30 15.6 Enough to fill two book cases (101 -200) 113 58.8 Enough to fill three or more book case s (200+) 20 10.4 Total 192 100.0
The study results are in line with the results of other studies for example, the textbook survey conducted in Lindi, Morogoro, and Dodoma regions showed that the number of textbooks, which were used in secondary schools was small (Barret, Mtana, Osaki and Rubagumya, 2014). Furthermore, most Form 1 teachers relied on one or two textbooks. In addition, the survey showed that for most students in the sample schools, books were not available or only available when shared with several other students. The situation was worse in Lindi region compared to other regions where students did not have textbooks at all (Barret, et.al 2014). Elsewhere,
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Dangara (2016) found that the quality and quantity of educational resources contributes to effectiveness and efficient in teaching and learning process.
Sanitation Facilities The findings show that more than a half (74%) of the respondents reported that water supply facilities, and 87.5 percent reported that pits and waste collection were good. Table 4 presents the results.
Table 4: SWASH Facilities Ranking by Teachers and Students (n=192)
RANKING Type of facility Good Fair Not Applicable Water Supply facilities 142(74) 58 (26) 0(0) Latrine facilities 108 (56.2) 84 (43.8) 0 (0) Hand washing facilities 101 (52.6) 89 (46.4) 2 (1.0) Pits and other waste collection 168 (87.5) 24 (12.5) 0 (0)
In addition, 56.2 and 52.6 percent of the respondents reported that latrine and hand washing facilities respectively were good. These results suggest that school water, sanitation and hygiene (SWASH) facilities were available and adequate. Availability of sanitation facilities improves the learning environment, attendance, and achievement. Sanitation is one of the reasons for school dropout in developing countries (UNESCO, 2016). Other studies also found that the overall implementation of sanitation campaign in schools was effective. In addition, access to adequate SWASH facilities contribute to improved health and education of children (Antwi- Agyei et al., 2017).
Human Resource
Teachers and Students The results obtained through interview with heads of school and Educational Officials showed that, the number of teachers is inadequate in science subjects. Similar results were reported by 29 percent of teachers and students as shown in Figure1. However, URT (2017) shows that there were 498 qualified teachers in government secondary schools while the number was 234 in private secondary schools in Mkuranga District. In addition, the overall PTR (Pupil Teacher Ratio)
Kivukoni Journal 166 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Assessment of Teaching and Learning Environment for Science Subjects in Secondary Schools in Mkuranga District, Tanzania was 14.1. Hence, inadequacy of teacher suggests a need for careful attention on teachers’ availability since student – teacher interaction helps students to have self- confidence, self-esteem, and self-assurance in dealing with Mathematics or science subjects. Teachers can also encourage their students to take the responsibility of their own learning (Sigh et al. 2019).
Parents and Community Members
Parents and community members are among the human resource in the school system (Dangara, 2016). The study findings show that parents used to visit the schools and had discussions with heads of the school regarding educational related issues of their children. For example, a female parent aged 45 years had this to say:
“My child who is in Form four had not been to school for two weeks now. She told me that, she is going to visit her Aunt in the nearby village during weekend but she never come back… I noted later that she did not even go to her Aunt …” (April 2018).
The finding suggests that there were dropout cases among students especially among girls. Hence, parents should provide feedback to school on the observed changes in their children’s behaviour, skills, and knowledge. Parents also have the responsibility of attending parent-teacher meetings or participate in school committees or boards to discuss school issues including school performance in test and examinations, school resources, infrastructure and finances. A male parent aged 49 years had this to say,
“We are involved in various school activities… I did not manage to attend all but I attended parent meetings and discussions with Class teachers…” (April 2018).
Moreover, other scholars (e.g. Neaum, 2016; Nyamubi, 2019) found that parental involvement in their children education have positive impacts on children’s development. They (parents) provide stable and secure environment, parent - child discussion and guidance. In addition, parent’s encouragement, material, and moral support to their children enhance students’ performance.
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion The results of this study show that physical facilities were adequate in the sampled schools except for classrooms, library, and ICT facilities. Moreover, sanitation facilities were available and adequate. The findings show that the number of Science teachers was inadequate and performance in Mathematics was poor. Moreover, there was a tendency for students not to opt for science subjects. This was attributed to deficiencies in teaching and learning environment in secondary schools.
Recommendations The study recommends for the improvement of teaching and learning environment. The government and Non-State actors should collaborate to equip schools with basic and modern facilities and to address the shortage of Science teachers for better teaching and learning outcomes. Heads of School and District educational authorities should ensure effective implementation of school strategies in order to increase learners’ positive attitude towards science subjects in general and Mathematics in particular.
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Variables as Determinants of Persistence in EFL Learning. SAGE Journals. https:// doi.org/10.1177/2158244019898805
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Kivukoni Journal 171 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania Jocelyne Mushi and Jeremia Makindara
Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, School of Agricultural Economics and Business Studies, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P. O. Box 3007, Morogoro, Tanzania. E-mail:[email protected], [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study assessed the structure and conduct of maize market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre (EUC), in Kongwa District in Tanzania. A total of 202 respondents were randomly selected, whereby 120 were smallholder farmers, 42 were traders, and 40 were transporters. Gini coefficient and descriptive statistic were used to characterize the existing markets. The results show that there was high concentration in the market with low degree of competitiveness whereby 67 percent of sales shares were found to be in the hands of few marketers. The results show further that 9 per cent of the traders were large scale, about 36 percent were medium scale, and 55 percent were small scale. This shows that the market was dominated by small-scale traders who came from different areas in the country. In addition, the market was characterised by information asymmetry and arbitrage between market actors, whereby there was no transparency on marketing information among them such that the middlemen were claimed to be distorting market price. Therefore, it is recommended that the Local Government Authority should ensure openness in maize trade in the market, provide market guidelines and by laws and establish market information system which will ensure that all stakeholders have access to agricultural marketing information, prices, and technology so as to benefit from maize trade.
Key words: Structure and conduct of maize markets, smallholder farmers, Kibaigwa EUC
1. INTRODUCTION
Markets play fundamental role in managing risk associated with demand and supply shocks by facilitating adjustment in export flows and storage over time (Barrett and Mutambatsere, 2005). Markets also facilitate physical productive activities through
Kivukoni Journal 172 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania commercial exchanges across places and between market actors. Through terms of trade and investments made by merchants, agricultural markets are the conduits of the extraction of resources from agriculture to industry and vice versa (Jan and Harris-White, 2012).
However, agricultural markets are the types of markets with special characteristics that are different from other markets. This is mainly due to different factors affecting the supply of agricultural produce (such as transport condition, government policies, and factor prices) and lack of bargaining power among small-scale producers (who are the main producers in Tanzania) in this sector. Agricultural markets can be characterised based on structure, conduct, or performance of the market such as exchange functions and behaviour (power system) of the market players.
Agricultural market is a competitive arena with many buyers and sellers competing in the same market. Accordingly, maize market, which is dominated, by large group of small scale producers while large and medium scale producers holding a small share of the produced maize. According to Eskola (2005), local markets are characterised by small or local farmers who are traders; regional markets are characterised by small, medium, and large traders, while national and export markets are dominated by large traders. Similarly, maize markets are characterised by large number of small-scale under-capitalised traders and few large trading enterprises with national and international operations (Meridian Institute, 2010). However, the number of medium traders at district level is higher than that of large traders in a given market, but lower than that of small traders (WFP, 2016). maize market in Tanzania is widely dispersed commercially. Moreover, maize trading is not dominated by one group whereby traders and businesses of many different sizes participate in the marketing and processing nodes of the maize value chain (Mahdi and Zorya, 2009; Msuya and Isinika, 2011; Food; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2015). However, recently, few medium scale processors have also entered the trade and built storage facilities in the production areas (Mkonda and He, 2016).
On other hand, market conduct includes behaviour that market actors follow and the manner in which they adjust to the changing market conditions. This includes price setting behaviour and buying and selling practices (Tirole, 1988; USAID, 2008; Haruna et al., 2012). Exchange function as a process of buying and selling agricultural produce is facilitated by different market actors. WFP (2016) describes how this function is performed by cereal markets agencies in Kasulu District whereby local farmers or collectors sell the produce informally to the neighbouring households
Kivukoni Journal 173 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Jocelyne Mushi and Jeremia Makindara and local small traders in the local markets. In addition, small traders purchase from producers and sell the produce directly to consumers, while medium traders purchase maize from collectors, smallholder farmers and traders, and sell the produce to small traders or consumers at retail and wholesale units. In addition, large traders purchase maize stocks after harvest from transporters and local producers; store them and later sell them during lean season when the prices are high. Moreover, according to Mahdi (2012), maize traders are classified into two groups namely, small itinerant traders who buy maize directly from farmers and medium to large maize traders who buy maize from markets and village based traders. In addition, local traders collect the produce from farmers and send it to the collection points and market centres ready for large-scale buyers who transport the produce to the district, region, and international markets (Mwakaje, 2010; FAO, 2015, Swai et al., 2019).
Agricultural markets are also characterised with different power system of firms and various agencies that have powers and perform different marketing activities. The most crucial of these institutions are middlemen such as brokers, speculative, and processors who are involved in purchasing and selling of the produce and move from producers to consumers. Agricultural markets are dominated by middlemen with substantial market power (Mitchell, 2011) while marketing processes are much dominated by personal relationship (Mwakaje, 2010, Swai et al., 2019). However, middlemen normally behave opportunistically against small-scale farmers during marketing processes. This includes the use of power to change prices of the produce for profit maximization leaving farmers with little gains.
Kibaigwa maize market is one of grain trading centre in Tanzania which was started in 1995 (Lazaro and Birch-Thomsen, 2013). The name Kibaigwa originates from first the person who settled in the area by the name of Lembaigwa from the Wamasai origin. the establishment of the maize trade was the beginning of the growth of Kibaigwa as Emerging Urban Centre (EUC). The major traders in Kibaigwa trading centre were farmers from the neighbouring villages and traders or buyers from as far as Arusha and Dar es Salaam (Lazaro and Birch-Thomsen, 2013).
This study therefore aimed to characterise the existing agricultural (maize) markets in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District in Tanzania. The findings from this study will help government, agricultural development partners, and policy makers to formulate policies that will enable small-scale farmers and traders to participate fully in the market and gain profitably from their market share.
Kivukoni Journal 174 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania 2. METHODOLOGY
Description of the Study Area The study was conducted in Kibaigwa Ward in Kongwa District, Dodoma Region. Administratively, Kongwa District has three divisions, 22 wards and 82 villages (Dodoma Region profile, 2014). Kibaigwa is one of the 22 administrative wards in Kongwa District. Kibaigwa Ward is located at 6°6’ South of Equator and 36°38’ East of Greenwich with an elevation of 1184m asl. Kibaigwa emerging urban centre is located along the Morogoro to Dodoma main road, about 160 km from Morogoro town and 100 km from Dodoma town. Ndurugumi village is located at a distance of 5 km from Kibaigwa centre while Kinangali village is located at a distance of 3km from Kibaigwa centre. The total area of Kibaigwa is about 45km2, whereby Kibaigwa centre has 10km2, Kinangali 15km,2 and Ndurugumi has a total area of 20km2.
The economy of Kibaigwa depends much on agricultural and business activities. People living in Kibaigwa centre, and those from the nearby villages of Ndurugumi and Kinangali village are engaged in farming activities involving production of crops such as maize, groundnuts, and sunflower, as well as engaging in small businesses. The presence of Kibaigwa cereal market attracts migrants, mainly farmers and businessmen from other rural and urban areas within Kongwa District and even outside Dodoma Region. Moreover, the physical location of Kibaigwa provides an opportunity for farmers and traders to have access to agricultural markets and transportation services. Therefore, agricultural produce are transported from the rural hinterlands to Kibaigwa centre then to the district, national, and international markets, while agricultural inputs are transported from urban areas of Morogoro and Dar es Salaam to Kibaigwa centre.
The selection of Kibaigwa farmers was based on the information that some of them are also acting as buyers of maize from other farmers in the nearby villages, who do not have time to spend in Kibaigwa market. Kibaigwa Ward was purposively selected because of its intense commercial activities and the existing linkages with other urban centres, as well as rural communities due to the presence of international cereal market. Kinangali and Ndurugumi villages were selected because of the existing linkages with Kibaigwa Centre. Therefore, the study area offers a suitable rural-urban setting for an in-depth study of the inter-linkages between the town centre and its surrounding hinterlands.
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Study Design and Approach a cross-sectional research design was used in this study, whereby the data were collected at a single point in time. The design used survey techniques during data collection since it is inexpensive and not time consuming. Cross-sectional studies also provide a clear snapshot of the outcome and characteristics associated with the outcome at a specific point of time, and draw inferences from the existing differences between groups (Bethlehem, 1999). However, the study used both qualitative and quantitative research approach.
Sampling Procedures The purposive sampling method was used to select Kibaigwa Ward and all its constituents of Kibaigwa Centre, Kinangali, and Ndurugumi. farmers were selected randomly from these villages,. However, traders and transporters were randomly selected from trading spots in Kibaigwa market. The targeted sample size was 350 for farmers. However, the actual sample used was 120 who were selected randomly from the population of 24 761. The 350 was obtained by taking 80 percent of agricultural producing households (FAO, 2015) and based on the fact that only 35 percent produce surplus for sale (FAO, 2015). Then snowballing technique was used to obtain 40 transporters out of 100 and 42 traders out of 300. Therefore, the final sample size used was 202 respondents.
Data Collection and Analysis The combination of qualitative and quantitative tools was used in this study due to the dynamic nature of the processes involved in rural-urban interactions. Moreover, qualitative research approach was highly deployed. These tools include in-depth interviews with key informants, and survey method and both structured and unstructured questionnaire.
Moreover, descriptive statistic was used to characterize the market and to present arguments pertaining to market characteristics. This involved the use of frequency, cross-tabulation, and percentages. The analysis was used for the structure and conduct of maize market only. These characteristics include main market players available in the maize market, the number of sellers and traders, exchanging functions such as buying and selling practices, and mechanisms used in the marketing of the produce.
Kivukoni Journal 176 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania Furthermore, Gini coefficient was used to measure the concentration ratio of marketers (traders) in Kibaigwa maize market. Gini coefficient is a measure of statistical dispersion, which is used as measure of inequality of income or shares distribution and concentration in the market. The ratio values ranging from 0 to 1, whereby when a ratio is 0, the market is perfect competitive (equal income/sales share distribution) and if it is1, the market is perfect monopoly (unequal income/ sales share distribution). The model is expressed in equation 1.
Gini coefficient = (1)
th Whereby: Xi = Cumulative percentage of traders in i class of trader, Yi = Percentage of shares in ith class of trader, K = Number of traders
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of the Respondents Farmers: Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents such as age, sex, and level of education play an important role in making decision on production and marketing processes. For the case of farmers, the results show that 70 percent of the respondents from Kibaigwa centre, 63 percent from Ndurugumi village and 63 percent in Kinangali village were young and aged between 18 and 39 years old (Table 1). This means that within the study area, farming activities were mainly handled by young household members. However, the findings revealed further that about 25 percent of farmers at Kibaigwa centre, 30 percent at Ndurugumi village, and 33 percent at Kinangali village were aged between 40 and 59 years old (Table 1). This shows that these villages have more productive young aged farmers, who should then be supported with modern agricultural production and marketing technologies for improved productivity. This is because young farmers are more dynamic and risk takers, hence they can adopt innovations easily (Alhassan et al., 2012).
Moreover, the results show that out of the 60 farmers 57 percent were males and 43 percent were females at Kibaigwa centre. In Ndurugumi village, out of 30
Kivukoni Journal 177 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Jocelyne Mushi and Jeremia Makindara farmers 37 percent were males and 63 percent were females while in Kinangali out of 30 farmers 39 percent were males and 70 percent were females (Table 1). This implies that farming at Kibaigwa centre was carried out by male-headed households while in Ndurugumi and Kinangali villages it was practiced mainly by female-headed households.
Table 1: Socio economic characteristics of the respondents
On education level, the results revealed that most of the farmers (65% in Kibaigwa centre, 70% in Ndurugumi village, and 63% in Kinangali village) had educational qualification of only up to primary level, whereby about 13 percent at Ndurugumi and Kinangali villages and 17 percent in Kibaigwa centre had no formal education (Table 1). These results are almost similar to those reported in a study by Daniel (2013) who found that majority (73%) of the respondents had attained primary education, 11 percent had no formal education, and only 2 percent had college education old (Table 1). This implies that farming activities are mainly carried out by farmers with primary education and a few with no any education at all. These
Kivukoni Journal 178 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania findings are consistent with those reported by URT (2004) which revealed that a large number of farmers who had attained primary education or less were involved in agricultural production in Tanzania.
Traders and Transporters The findings show that most, that is, 95 and 100 percent of the interviewed traders’ and transporters respectively were aged between 18 – 39 years (Table 1). This implies that trading activities and transportation of maize was dominated by younger traders and transporters who are more active and strong. Similar findings are reported by Mgeni and Temu (2010) who found that 95 percent of marketing activities was performed by economically active group.
As for gender of the respondents, the results show that majority, that is, 69 and 100 percent of traders and maize transporters respectively were males old (Table 1). This implies that, maize trading and transportation was dominated by men. This is because at the household level men are more involved in marketing activities than is the case with women.
For the case of education of the respondents, most 60 percent of traders and 58 percent of transporters had completed Form Four education (Table 1). This implies that trading and transportation activities in Kibaigwa are dominated by people who attained ordinary level of secondary education, and who are considered to be better in communication than are people with primary level of education. This is an advantage to them since Kibaigwa market is an international market and language especially English is important in business communication. Similar findings are reported by Agwu and Ibeabuchi (2011) who found that majority (54%) of traders in Abia State, Nigeria, had attended secondary school.
Volume of maize marketed at and transported into Kibaigwa market As presented in Figure 1, the volume (in tonnes) of maize bought and sold by different market players such as producers and traders in the last five years varies between 100,000 to 800,000 metric tonnes. The results show further that the trend of volume of maize bought and sold increased from 2012 to 2014, then started to decrease from 2014 to 2016. The increase or decrease in volume of the maize traded in the market depends on the production level. A farmer or producer with high production level has enough surplus maize to sell. The higher the production the higher the maize supplied to the market. This increasing and decreasing trend
Kivukoni Journal 179 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Jocelyne Mushi and Jeremia Makindara in maize produced could be due to a change in climate condition in different areas.
Figure 1: Estimated volume of maize traded in five years in Kibaigwa market
Source: Kibaigwa market management (2017)
The interview with traders and transporters revealed that most (52%) of the traders were capable of buying and 50 percent were capable of selling maize at a maximum of 50 tonnes daily or weekly (Table 2). As for transport activity, about 75 percent of transporters transported maize with a maximum of 50 tonnes per trip. In other studies, for example WABS Consulting Ltd. (2008) found that, intermediary traders in Ghana bought 15 – 20 tonnes of maize from villages and transported it to larger traders in larger towns or cities. This shows that maize transportation depends on the maize that has been bought by different traders and the selling capacity of producers. The larger the volume of maize traded the higher the volume of maize transported from the villages to the market and from the market to other regions. In addition, transportation of maize is also influenced by maize and inputs prices, availability, and consistency of supply and weather condition. For example, if the price of inputs is cheaper and accessible in line with good weather condition, farmers will be able to use more inputs so as increase production, harvest, and hence increase the supply.
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Table 2: Volume of maize traded and transported per week
Number of Market Players in Kibaigwa Market
Traders and transporters Kibaigwa cereal market was characterised by different sizes of market actors who are involved in trade and transportation activities. Based on the provided information from market management, there were about 100 maize transporters and more than 300 maize traders, who trade maize in the market and transport maize from different surrounding villages to the market and to different areas within Dodoma Region, within the country and even outside the country. However, out of the 300 traders, there were about 50 large traders, 100 middle traders, and 150 small traders in the market. This classification was based on ACT (2007) and Match Maker Associates (MMA) Ltd (2010) studies which claim that an average trader can deal with about 300 to 600 metric tonnes per annum. Therefore, for this study, traders dealing with a stock of above 600 metric tonnes are large while those trading below 30 are low. The medium traders are the ones trading between 301 to 599 metric tonnes of maize per annum.
Sellers (producers/farmers) Almost all small-scale farmers in all the villages were expected to selling agricultural produces at Kibaigwa cereal market. The results show that out of the 60 respondents 78 percent of the respondents from Kibaigwa centre were sellers of the produce at Kibaigwa market, while out of 30 respondents, 53 percent from Ndurugumi village, and 60 percent from Kinangali village were the sellers of produce at Kibaigwa market (Table 3). This means that in all the villages, the majority of farmers sold their produce at the market. These findings concur with the findings reported by Magesa et al. (2014b) who found that majority of farmers in Hai district sold their agricultural produce including maize at the markets. However, few farmers (18% in Ndurugumi and 37% in Kinangali villages) were not selling maize at the market. Kivukoni Journal 181 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Jocelyne Mushi and Jeremia Makindara
The Findings are in line with the findings reported in a study by FAO (2014), who found that few smallholder maize growers (28%) in Meru and Bungoma were pure subsistence farmers who did not sell maize in the market. This is due to different factors including non-tariff barriers such as market price, low yield, ownership of transportation tools, distance to the market place and transaction costs. This observation is in line with observation of Maziku et al. (2015), who found that, education level of household head, family size, market price and experience, ownership of motorbike or ox-cart and the number of livestock had a positive and significant effect on smallholder farmers’ decisions to enter in the maize market in Momba and Mbozi Districts. In addition, Urassa (2015) found that maize farmers who sold maize in Rukwa region had higher productivity and yield than those who did not sell.
Table 3: Produce sellers at Kibaigwa market
Main Market Players (Buyers and Sellers) at Kibaigwa Cereal Market
Traders Kibaigwa market was characterised by small, medium, and large-scale traders (ACT 2010; MMA 2010), who buy and sell maize in the market and in other areas. The findings show that out of 42 interviewed traders, 9 percent were large scale traders, 36 percent were medium scale traders, and 55 percent were small-scale traders (Fig. 2). This implies that the market was more dominated by small-scale traders than medium and large-scale traders were. Small-scale traders were characterised by small initial capital (starting from 500 000 TShs.) while large and medium scale traders had more capital (from 10 000 000 TShs.). The difference in the amount of starting capital differentiate small, medium, and large scale traders in terms of volume of maize traded in and outside the market. Traders with big capital have bigger capacity of buying large volumes of maize and selling them in different regions in the country than is the case with small trader. The situation is similar
Kivukoni Journal 182 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania to the one in Burkina Faso, where large-scale traders have set up storage facilities that can handle from 500 to 25 000 tonnes. large-scale traders can negotiate and process the provision of contracts with millers and key institutional buyers such as the World Food Programme (WFP), the Army, and schools. These traders do also sell large quantities to wholesalers, retailers, and small-scale traders. (Kaminski et al., 2013)
Figure 2: Scale of traders existed in Kibaigwa market
In addition, out of 42 sampled traders in Kibaigwa market, 19percent were found to be local collectors, 40 percent were retailers, and 41 percent were wholesalers (Fig. 3). This means that in the market the trading activities were dominated by wholesalers followed by retailers. This can be supported by the study of Wondim et al., (2019) who found that wholesalers dominate activities along the value chain, have the power of purchasing large quantity, and decide on market issues than unorganized smallholder farmers in Dembecha District, West Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia.
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Figure 3: Type of traders existed in Kibaigwa market
Wholesalers buy and sell maize to other traders and large processors. Retailers buy and sell maize at retail price and in small quantities to consumers. While local traders at Kibaigwa buy maize from different villages around Kibaigwa EUC and sell the produce to the market. However, it was reported that the majority of buyers (traders) were from other regions within and outside the country. The situation is similar with that reported about Burkina Faso, where retailers sell a few tonnes a month and most of them are supplied by wholesalers despite the fact that they can buy maize at the farm gate (Kaminski et al., 2013).
Farmers (sellers) Information from interviewed village chairpersons and market leaders show that the cereal market at Kibaigwa Ward was characterised by small, middle, and large- scale farmers (sellers) from within and outside Kibaigwa EUC. It was noted further that most of the maize sold by farmers at the market were cultivated outside Kibaigwa EUC such as Kiteto in Manyara region. These findings are in line with the findings in a study by Gabagambi (2013) who found that much (75%) of the maize delivered at Kibaigwa market is from Kiteto District. This is because some Kibaigwa farmers have accessed large and fertile land in Kiteto villages, which are bordering Kibaigwa and produce maize, which are also sold in Kibaigwa market.
This implies that the market was dominated by middle and large-scale farmers who were the most beneficiaries of the Kibaigwa cereal market than are small- scale farmers. This is because small-scale farmers had low incomes and cannot afford the costs of cultivating maize outside the region. In addition, other farmers were cultivating maize outside the EUC because of searching for fertile land for
Kivukoni Journal 184 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania increasing their production level who later were also selling at Kibaigwa market.
Concentration Ratio of Maize Traders in Kibaigwa Market
The results show that the Gini coefficient of maize traders in Kibaigwa market is 0.6935. Since the ratio approached one, this implies that Kibaigwa market is characterised by low level of competitiveness, as the market concentration was high. The findings are similar to those in a study by Beadgie (In Press) who found that the market structure of maize markets of Farta Woreda, South Gondar Zone in Ethiopia were non-competitive. Moreover, according to Bakare (2012), the high inequality level of income lies between 0.50 and 0.70 while relative equitable distribution of income lies between 0.20 and 0.35. Similar to this study, the Gini coefficient obtained of 0.6935 (69%) which is lying between 0.50 (50%) and 0.70 (70%), implies that the market was also characterised by unequal distribution of sales share among marketers. This indicates that the concentration of sales share (67%) is in the hands of few market players (21% of the marketers) (Table 4).
Table 4: Sales distribution and inequality coefficients of marketers in Kibaigwa market
Therefore Gini coefficient = 1- XY (2) = 1 – 0.3065 = 0.6935
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Selling Practices
The results revealed that in all the villages, maize was the main cultivated and traded crop followed by sunflower. The findings show further that, 93 percent of the respondents in Kibaigwa centre, 87 percent in Ndurugumi, and 67 percent in Kinangali village sold the maize (Table 5). Farmers who sold sunflower were 67 percent in Kibaigwa centre, 60 percent in Ndurugumi, and 57 percent in Kinangali village. In all the villages, few farmers sold pigeon peas since most of them did not cultivate pigeon peas in that year. It was reported that, subsistence production is practised by some of the farmers who produce maize just enough for food without having surplus for selling. It was also noted that, selling of crops depends on the amount of agricultural produce harvested whereby during bumper harvest (depending on weather condition), farmers would have enough surplus of their produce to sell. However, farmers do sell after having stocked their food reserves (SAGCOT, 2015).
Table 5: Agricultural produce sold by respondent
Mechanisms Used in Marketing Process
The results revealed that about 20 percent of the respondents in Kibaigwa centre, 7 percent in Ndurugumi village, and 13 percent in Kinangali village (Fig. 4) sold maize
Kivukoni Journal 186 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania directly to neighbours at home. Moreover, the findings show that 53 percent of the farmers in Kibaigwa centre, 63 percent in Ndurugumi, and 50 percent in Kinangali village sold their maize directly to middlemen (Fig. 4). The findings are in line with those reported by Mdoe and Mwagike (2015) who found that, the majority (58%) of smallholder farmers in Kilolo District sold their agricultural produce directly to middlemen.
However, it was noted that there was a problem with the middlemen during marketing activities. This is supported by farmers’ claims that: “During the process of selling produce at the market we have no direct contact with buyers, normally at the market middlemen buy produce on behalf of buyers with low price compared to the real market price.”
Therefore, it seems that the presence of middlemen between buyers and sellers lead to opportunistic behaviour whereby middlemen at Kibaigwa market pay farmers lower than the real market price. However, to avoid this problem, some farmers decide to sell their produce at home.
Figure 4: Mechanism used to sell maize
Farmer’s Accession with the Existing Marketing System
The results reveal that out of 60 respondents, that is, 73 percent agreed with the marketing system in Kibaigwa centre. While out of 30 respondents, that is, 73 percent in Ndurugumi, and 67 percent in Kinangali village agreed with the
Kivukoni Journal 187 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Jocelyne Mushi and Jeremia Makindara present market system (Table 6). Specifically at the Kibaigwa market, farmers did not assented with the management system due to various reasons including lack of direct communication between farmers (sellers) and buyers in the market (there are middlemen who buy from farmers and sell to buyers).
Table 6: Respondents’ assension with the existing marketing system
There is weighing problem as well; and there was no feedback provided on the collected revenue and expenditure. There were also high rate of levies and prices written on the notice boards at the market, which were different from the real market prices. This situation is similar with that reported by Maziku et al. (2015) who found that maize farmers and traders were not happy with the existence of many non-tariff barriers that affect their profits in maize production and marketing.
Therefore, this shows that the Kibaigwa market was also characterised by arbitrage and asymmetry of information between market actors. The asymmetry of information exists in the market as traders (middlemen) and market leaders have more information concerning the market system (such as price and revenue collected) than is the case with the farmers. While arbitrage of information emerges due to the behaviour of the middlemen who take advantage of price difference by distorting the market price as most of them are buying on behalf of larger traders and millers (FAO, 2015; Maziku et al., 2015)
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion This paper aimed to characterise the existing maize markets in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District in Tanzania. The expected outcome of the paper was a generation of useful information to policy makers and other players in maize marketing system to ensure fairness and equitable returns between small-scale farmers, transporters, middlemen, and traders who are the main participants in the
Kivukoni Journal 188 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 The Structure and Conduct of Maize Market in Kibaigwa Emerging Urban Centre, Kongwa District, Tanzania market. The findings revealed that, Kibaigwa market was characterised by higher domination of small-scale traders who came from different areas in the country, high market concentration, and unequal distribution of sales share between players. This leads to low degree of competitiveness among the actors. In addition, the findings show that the market is characterised by information asymmetry, arbitrage between market actors, whereby there was lack of transparency on marketing information among sellers/farmers and that the middlemen were reported to be distorting market price. Moreover, during the marketing process, farmers had no direct contact with the buyers but the middlemen who act opportunistically leaving farmers aside.
Recommendations
Therefore, this paper recommends that, the Local Government Authority (LGA) at the Kibaigwa Township should increase openness in maize transaction including announcing the prevailing prices regularly. This would ensure that farmers from the production villages are benefiting from the trade. Further, the LGA should formulate strategies and by-laws or guidelines on marketing activities, which would allow small-scale farmers to be able to contact buyers and negotiate prices ahead of the transactions. This would help farmers to sell the produce to the right buyers and at the right market price. In addition, the LGA should design an information system, which will provide marketing information to all players involved in the maize trade at Kibaigwa market. This would make the market more competitive and sustainable.
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Kivukoni Journal 192 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania Ngowi E. Edwın.
Institute of Development Studies, University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the state of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in connection to agricultural development in rural areas of Tanzania. Over the last two decades, Tanzania has emerged as the most preferred destination for outsourcing of ICTs services, while rural development forms an important government agenda However, agricultural sector of the economy is lagging behind in utilizing ICTs services. The main reasons for this are poor ICTs infrastructure in rural areas, and poor ICTs awareness among agency officials working in rural areas. Hence, he paper explores the lessons learned from applying an “institutional lens” to the ICTs deployment to address agricultural challenges in Tanzanian rural settings. The paper examines the thinking about the ICTs tools initiatives that addresses the institutional challenges facing Tanzanian agriculture. Using literature review, this paper examines and discusses the rapid strides, which the country has registered in the ICTs field. These strides remain incomplete unless ICTs is fully utilized for efficient and productive agriculture. Likewise, the adoption of ICTs services in agriculture depends on the main functionaries involved in Tanzanian agriculture. The following functionaries are considered; farmers, industries providing inputs to agriculture, industries dealing with agricultural output, government, NGOs, and telecentres working for the benefit of farmers and agricultural research points. Therefore, this calls for “institutional efforts” to provide ICTs-based services for sustainable agricultural development. This is because at theoretical level, New Institutional Economics (NIE) postulates that information is asymmetrically distributed and market transactions for gathering information come at a cost. Consequently, institutions have to be formed to reduce costs. The paper attempts to understand critically how ICTs help to overcome the structural, social, economic, and cultural barrier, in delivering agricultural information and knowledge to farmers in rural areas.
Keywords: information and communication technologies (ICTs), agriculture development, agricultural-based ICTs services, new institutional economics (NIE)
Kivukoni Journal 193 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania 1. INTRODUCTION
Tanzania’s main economic pillar is embedded in the agricultural sector, which supports over 33 million people and contributes 60percent of the country’s GDP, 61 percent of the export earnings, and provides 84 percent of rural employment (Chongela, 2015; World Bank, 2019). The Tanzania Development Vision has set a target of achieving a level of general standards of living typical of medium-income countries by the year 2025. For the agricultural sector to contribute fully towards sustainable development target, it should grow annually by 7 percent, implying more than doubling the current annual growth rate of 3.3 percent. Agricultural research has a major role to play in increasing productivity and profitability of the sector through development of scientific knowledge to generate improved technologies for the production systems. Agricultural extension in Tanzania complements this effort by transferring technologies developed by the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) to the end-users. Farmers in Tanzania operate in widely distributed rural locations, which deprive them of the benefits of timely and useful information from research centres and services organizations. This is because of the inadequate dissemination and adoption of agricultural technology. Hence, information technology has a definite role to play in making the Tanzanian farmer more prosperous. This is because information technologies play a significant role in enhancing rural development in developing countries. Rural development forms an important agenda of the government of Tanzania. However, the application of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) in the rural development sector, specifically in agricultural development, has been relatively slow. The main reasons for this include poor ICTs infrastructure in rural areas, poor ICTs awareness among agency officials working in rural areas and local language issues. Therefore, the paper explores the lessons learned from applying an “institutional lens” to the ICTs deployment to address agricultural challenges in rural settings of Tanzania. Furthermore, the paper examines the thinking about the ICTs tools initiatives that addresses the institutional challenges facing Tanzanian agriculture for agricultural development.
It is well documented that ICTs are crucial in facilitating communication and access to information for agricultural and rural development (Ngowi and Mwakalobo, 2017). Since agriculture is the national priority sector, it is one of the potentially beneficial areas for the application of ICTs for economic transformation. According to Ngowi et al., (2015), development of networks and the use of low-cost ICTs
Kivukoni Journal 194 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ngowi, E. Edwın. enhance timely access to accurate and reliable information. Therefore, there is a call for investment of part of the country’s limited resources for ICT development.
According to Lwoga (2010), there is no single area in agriculture where ICTs has no role to play. In the light of globalization and the impact of World Trade Organization (WTO) on agriculture and agro-based industries, the use of information technologies based services in this field has become imperative (Mojisola and Mbibi, 2007). The immense scale and diversity of Tanzanian agriculture provides the ultimate challenge to the potential of information technology. The rapid strides, which the country has registered in the information technology field remains incomplete unless it is utilized to ensure more efficient and productive Tanzanian agriculture.
Since ICTs has revolutionized the world and has formed an integral part of all sectors, e-commerce has a tremendous potential in agribusiness. Information of the required quality has the potential of improving efficiency in agriculture. The current and future challenges faced in providing ICT-based learning desperately call for the reengineering of education, to move out of the formal structure of teaching and learning towards building a more practical and realistic approach for agricultural development.
Using literature review, this paper examines and discusses why it is important to examine the latest developments in information technologies that facilitate its effective penetration into rural areas and the types of systems required in this post- WTO environment. This is because the state of rural people, specifically in Tanzania, is characterized by their cultural, social, and economic diversity. They consist of sparse human populations whose key occupations are farming, pastoralism, and fishing. Conversely, a rural non-farm economy exists and alternates with the agricultural season, and includes various activities such as trading, manufacturing, and agro-processing. , considering the limited opportunities women have due to gender bias in the formal employment sector and other cultural barriers to property ownership, the farm economy is a crucial source of employment for rural women in Tanzania (International Fund for Agricultural Development, 2010). This is supported by the New Institutional Economics (NIE), which postulates that information is asymmetrically distributed and market transactions for gathering information come at a cost. Consequently, institutions have to be formed to reduce costs and improve productivity. This is because the field of economics has been paying increasing attention to institutional issues. As a result, it has developed
Kivukoni Journal 195 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania strong concepts and analytical tools that are particularly relevant to the problems of agricultural change in Tanzania.
This paper therefore, presents the efforts of consolidating lessons learned from applying an “institutional lens” to ICTs deployment to address agricultural challenges in the rural settings of Tanzania. It presents thinking about the institutional challenges facing Tanzanian agriculture and identifies the ICTs tools of agricultural development analysis that can be used to address them. The combination of theoretical aspects on core themes, supported by literature reviews from a wide range of literatures, makes an important contribution to the existing literature. Through an accessible synthesis of new institutional economics theory and literature, the paper develops a better understanding of Tanzanian agriculture and of how to improve agriculture through utilization of ICTs tools. Therefore, this paper recognizes the importance of ICTs as tools of socio-economic development (Lwoga, 2010, World Bank, 2019). However, the role of ICTs in fostering sustainable agricultural development and addressing the needs of the people in rural areas of developing countries have become the subject of a heated debate. This could be due to study differences, flaws, or sampling variations. As such, this paper employed “systematic review approach” on the relationship between ICTs and sustainable agricultural development in rural areas of Tanzania applying an “institutional lens.” This meant a theorization of how far and for what purposes ICTs have been used in various aspects of agricultural development in the rural settings. The New Institutional Economics (NIE) formed the theoretical background of the paper.
2. METHODOLOGY
Many publications are produced each year, often with conflicting findings possibly resulting from study differences, flaws, or chance, (sampling variation).These trends create uncertainty on what the overall picture is, or which results are the most reliable and should be used as the basis for practice and policy decisions. This analysis employed a “systematic review approach.” This approach aimed at addressing these problems by identifying, critically evaluating and integrating the findings of all relevant, high-quality individual studies in addressing one fundamental research objective. In its endeavour to understand the subject matter, the analysis established the extent to which the existing research has progressed towards clarifying the problem, identifying relations, contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the literature. In addition, the analysis formulated a general overarching conceptualization that guided, commented on, and evaluated the analysis. Moreover, the analysis developed
Kivukoni Journal 196 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ngowi, E. Edwın. a general conceptual analytical framework upon which the understanding of the role of ICTs in agricultural development, and its apposite solution and implications for practice and policy proposed in this paper were anchored. This was followed by a thorough clarification of whether and the extent to which the planned systematic review had already been done. Since the analysis aimed at conducting a search that was exhaustive and therefore representative of all studies on the subject under study the search terms were identified and carefully broken down from the main research question to help find as many potentially relevant articles as possible for inclusion.
3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Theoretical Perspective: “New Institutional Economics and ICTs for Agricultural Development” It is useful to begin by presenting the conceptualization and consideration of ICTs in this paper. The main selection criteria were, on one hand, the prospects of using these technologies in the agricultural sector and, on the other hand, the potential for generating greater value and making the activity more sustainable. ICTs include a variety of electronic components ranging from computers, telecommunications equipment, multimedia equipment, measurement instruments, and electronic consumer goods (television sets and radios). They also include services (telecommunications, computing, software, maintenance, data processing and storage, webpage design, remote sensing among many others) that develop generic or specific applications for different economic sectors.
In the case of agriculture, the most widely used ICTs are those that allow basic communication: radio, television and, now, cell phones (whose use has exploded in recent years). However, there are also important areas of ICTs application in production and marketing: this is particularly the case for technologies associated with precision agriculture, information, and traceability systems. Given the importance of these technologies and their recent applications in agriculture, for example, in early warning systems, remote diagnosis of pests and diseases, application of an “institutional lens” becomes a paramount theoretical perspective. As such, new institutional economics (NIE) has been opted for, because they strongly influence current development theory and policy. It is an expansion of a neoclassical economic theory and its merits stems from the fact that it has identified efficient institutions to be the prerequisite for development. Therefore, NIE attempts to
Kivukoni Journal 197 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania incorporate a theory of institutions into economics. It is a deliberate attempt of making neoclassical economic theory more realistic (see for example, Hazell, 2005).
Neoclassical economic theory assumes that information flows freely between actors in competitive markets = as a result, institutions do not matter. In contrast, NIE postulate that information is distributed asymmetrically (asymmetrical information) and that market transactions come at a cost (i.e. the cost of gathering information, or transaction costs). Consequently, institutions have to be formed to reduce these costs. NIE retains the neoclassical assumptions that individuals seek to maximize their utility from scarce resources subject to budget constraints and that collective outcomes rest on the choice made by rational individuals (i.e. methodological individualism). However, it discards the concept of instrumental rationality, which implies that the choices made by each individual are foreseeable. With all information readily available to everyone (perfect information), uncertainty should not be expected in human actions. Institutions become unnecessary and efficient markets characterize economics.
The necessity for a modification of neoclassical theory arose from the fact that the so-called social dilemmas could not be explained by it. Social dilemmas are situations in which the choices made by rational individuals yield outcomes that are socially irrational. This is obvious in the case of public goods such as rural telecentres that are open to all, free of charge and thus not usually supplied by the market, but also applies to the case of asymmetrical or imperfect information (i.e. information to farmers is not fully available to everyone. Imperfect information might cause moral hazards in other words, the danger that one of two parties (rural ICTs service provider and farmer) in a contract knowingly alters their behaviour in order to maximize utility at the expense of the other party. Another aspect is adverse selection (e.g. imperfect information supplied to farmers), and/or principal- agent dilemmas (i.e. the problem of how “principal” (ICTs service provider) can motivate an “agent” (farmers) to act for the benefit of increasing productivity. In this context therefore, a widely accepted objective for agricultural development in Tanzania is the achievement of sustainable intensification (Reardon, 1998) through the adoption of new technologies.
The final prominent case where NIE is used is in the analysis of financial services for the ICTs adoption among poor farmers for agricultural development. The banking sector usually does not offer financial services to the informal sector because information is asymmetrically distributed between the potential borrower
Kivukoni Journal 198 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ngowi, E. Edwın. and the lender. The lender does not have sufficient information on the borrower, whom he does not know personally, and who does not usually keep ICTs based written accounts or business plans and who cannot offer physical collateral. Thus, the lender cannot calculate the risk of default. As a result, credit to the informal sector is rationed since lenders are reluctant to give out credit. In this respect, the “agricultural skeptic” view holds that, there is overdependence on rain-fed agriculture with minimal application of ICTs, which, because of its inherent limited productive potential, is unable to support an increasing rural population. Thus, diversification out of agriculture is needed, as are investments to create non- agricultural employment and income opportunities (see, for example, Ashley and Maxwell, 2001; Ellis, 2005).
ICTs and the Agricultural Development
The theoretical and methodological approach adopted in this paper (which are mutually complementary) analyse technological development focusing on the agricultural development. According to this approach, which is useful in various lines of the new institutional economics (NIE), knowledge and innovation are generated through collaborative interactions among farmers, technology, and institutions. Such interactions can therefore speed the development of agricultural systems. Given their crosscutting nature and their impact on communications and data management, ICTs have a direct effect not only on interactions between farmers and their environment, but also on the forms of production and learning within the production chains. These technologies, then, have the capacity of transforming directly the manner in which agricultural systems evolve.
With this theoretical framework, the paper seeks to analyze some of the questions that arise concerning multiple dimensions of agricultural development that are affected by the new ICTs paradigm. As theWorld Bank (2019) argues, the development of ICTs-based technologies in agriculture is a result of a simultaneous evolution of multiple technological systems exchanging information and knowledge within a common institutional and regulatory framework. Lwoga (2010) analyze recent trends in ICTs access and use in rural areas of Tanzania in the light of the spatial transformations that have also been promoted by the digital revolution. Chapman et al. (2005) provide a detailed description of ICTs applications in agriculture, based on progress on the supply side, that is, in the development of generic ICTs and their adaptation to agricultural tasks. Therefore, at the global level, there is a plethora of ICTs applications to agriculture, and other platforms and communities of practice
Kivukoni Journal 199 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania facilitate the exchange of information and experiences amongst farmers, policy makers, agricultural and development experts, and international organizations (Chapman et al., 2005; Lwoga, 2010, World Bank, 2019). They raise awareness on how ICTs can contribute too many aspects of agricultural development.
With modern ICTs, extension services provide tailor-made advice for each farmer to help them select the most profitable route of creating optimal conditions for plant growth. This is because due to population growth and the shrinking of natural resources, the increase in food productivity has been through higher and more efficient use of inputs, such as quality seeds, fertilizers, and water. The availability of timely and adequate information on these critical inputs is essential for sustainable high productivity and food security. This depends on the judicious use of natural resources, such as soil, water, livestock, plant genetics, forestry, climate, rainfall, and topography. Development in the enabling technologies such as ICTs, geographical information system technology (GIST), and global positioning system technology (GPST) facilitate informatics led agricultural development, which is a step towards enhancing the quality of life of the farming community.
Agriculture has undergone many changes in the 20th century, including introduction of new farming machinery, intensive fertilizers and agro-chemical management, plant breeding, high-yielding varieties of seeds, and genetics manipulations. The growing demand for food grains, vegetables, fruits, milk, poultry and newer challenges to agriculture, ICT, bio-technology and environment technology are viewed as the drivers of globalization in the scenario of liberalization, privatization, and a tighter Intellectual Property Rights regime (Chauhan and Kar, 2019). Moreover, the global environment arising out of WTO poses challenges requiring Tanzanian agriculture to be competitive, sustainable, viable, and equitable. In addition, until harvest, agriculture is a state subject, while it becomes a commodity of global trade afterwards. Hence, it is important that, agriculture be given its due recognition.
Tanzania is vast and has a variety of landforms, climate, geology, physiography, and vegetation. It has great regional diversity, which accounts for its uneven economic and agricultural development. Tanzania is becoming an information society with emphasis on information technology. The fusion of various technologies aided by information technology ushers in the desired inputs for sustainable agricultural and rural development. Hence, these technologies have many potential applications spanning the use of agriculture in all occupations from the farmer to the cooperative and professional bodies, from farm machinery vendors, fertilizer and chemical
Kivukoni Journal 200 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ngowi, E. Edwın. companies, insurance, and commodities to agronomists, consultants, and farm advisors.
Since farming is also a business, the farmer takes several decisions to maximize returns through meeting information and commercial needs. Technology dissemination is crucial for getting across the benefits of any technology to farmers. This is because traditional methods are not cost effective. Therefore, a central repository for storing information in local languages is required.
ICTs and the Farmers
The basic information generated by various agencies must be analysed and presented to the farmer with respect to location of specific crops, forecasts of pests, diseases, and impacts of weather on crops, to name a few. The analysis of market-related information, namely the impact of cropping patterns and the effects of exports/imports on prices must also be done.
The differences between farming practices in developed and developing countries are reflected in the developed and underdeveloped areas within the same country. In addition, the ground realities often do not reflect the results of research, due to the awareness gap, which can be filled by technological revolution of information in stimulating agricultural development. This can provide smallholder farmers with the flexibility they need to change crop choices, develop products for small markets, and market directly to distantly located consumers. Organizations of small producers can strategically plan for low-cost inputs, better storage facilities, improved transportation links, and collective negotiations with buyers for better remuneration in order to benefit the farmers directly.
In the context of agriculture, the potential of information technology can be assessed under two heads:
[ As a direct tool for contribution to agricultural productivity; [ As an indirect tool for empowering farmers to take decisions that have a positive impact on agriculture, known as agricultural extension services.
The precision farming extensively uses information technology to make a direct contribution to agricultural productivity. The technique of remote sensing using satellite technologies, geographical information systems, and agronomy and soil sciences, are used to increase agricultural output, which are more suitable for
Kivukoni Journal 201 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania corporate farming. However, the indirect benefits of information technology in empowering Tanzanian farmers require timely and reliable sources of information inputs for taking decisions. The changing environment faced by Tanzanian farmers makes information not merely useful, but necessary so that they can remain competitive.
The emerging scenario of a deregulated agricultural system has made the deployment of information technology necessary as a strategic tool for the benefit of rural Tanzania. These facilitate a proper understanding of the implications of the WTO on Tanzanian agriculture, without any ambiguity. The mandatory changes in government policies on tariffs, imports, annual phasing of the same and the impact on various subsidy schemes, would be of great concern to people. Since the removal of restrictions on Tanzanian agricultural markets, the macroeconomic situation related to foreign exchange, and inflation to name a few, has a significant impact on Tanzanian agriculture.
Decision Support Systems for the Farmers
The Tanzanian farmers are cautious and usually tend to avoid taking risks. The provisions of WTO stipulating reductions in exports subsidies on farm products will make Tanzanian experts more competitive. The data on the cost of cultivation, efficient agricultural practices, and availability of inputs will help to assess the strengths of indigenous products vis-à-vis imports. Availability of information of the adverse effects of WTO regulations on any specific agricultural product will help farmers take corrective measures. In the emerging scenario, competitive advantage should be fully exploited to improve export potential. Opportunities for specialization may lead to better export potential. Similarly, forecasts on threats in terms of information related to cheaper imports and the macroeconomic conditions of other countries are required. It is possible to lift geographical barriers by helping farmers come together online and facilitating the disposal of their produce at attractive prices. Online bidding can be introduced for various agricultural commodities. However, this will require complicated information technology systems, which should be supported by proper infrastructure and post-harvest technologies, and storage to name a few. Therefore, it is necessary to bring Tanzanian farmers together for value additions to their agricultural output and to get them better returns from their produce. The opportunities for setting up such units, procedures related to exports, the quality
Kivukoni Journal 202 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ngowi, E. Edwın. norms to be adopted, packaging, and the like must also be made available. As such, it is necessary to promote monitoring cells in all major institutions related to agriculture and allied activities to maintain data, provide periodic analytical reports, and raise advance alerts.
Remote Sensing in Agriculture
The basic principle involved in remote sensing is that different objects reflect different amounts of energy in different wavelength ranges, based on different properties. A sensor is used to record such reflected energies from the surface of different objects. This recorded energy is then transmitted to the users, processed to form an image, and then analysed to gather information about the target. In the context of frequent droughts and given the fact that weather forecasts are often wide off the mark, the use of remote sensing becomes imperative. The success of farm operations, from sowing to harvesting, depends upon correct forecasts. Moreover, it is also helpful in gathering vital information on pests, water, and other natural resources depletion to name a few, which can help planners and researchers effectively and strategically counter these effects. In addition, it is possible to study continuously all kinds of renewable and non-renewable resources such as water resources, forest cover, land use/land cover patterns, coastal resources, geology, and geomorphology to name a few. Satellite remote sensing has great potential and is an efficient technology for the inventory and monitoring of natural resources. However, remote sensing is not without constraints, some of which include
[ Non-availability of uniform spectral data, [ Data gaps due to clouds cover, [ High cost and time consuming, and [ Low correlation yield for certain crops, such as groundnuts.
Expert Systems in Agriculture
Expert systems are currently considered the most commercially successful product of artificial intelligence research. The problems confronting farmers are complex; these include yield losses, soil erosion, diminishing market prices because of international competition, increasing chemical pesticide costs and pest resistance, and economic barriers hindering the adoption of farming strategies. Hence, farmers
Kivukoni Journal 203 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania need to become expert managers of all aspects of their farming operations. Expert systems are used to aid the following,
[ Single-point decisions, such as the design of an irrigation system, the selection of the most suitable crop variety;
[ Sequence of tactical decisions throughout the production cycle, plant protection and nutritional decisions;
[ As a stand-alone advisory system for a specific case; and [ As a delivery system for extension information. Some of the agricultural expert systems in Tanzania and abroad include
[ Farm advisory systems to support agri-business management; [ Rice-crop doctors to diagnose pests and diseases for the rice crop and suggest preventive measures;
[ Computer assisted agriculture, a system developed for farmers, agricultural officers and researchers with the facility of interacting in the local language;
[ Expert systems for cotton, coffee and maize crop management for cotton, coffee, and maize growers; and
[ A variety of systems for forecasting the needs of farming, cost-benefit analysis, water quality monitoring and crop rotation planning systems.
Constraints and Remedies for Effective Dissemination of ICTs- Information in Agriculture Some major constraints, which are delaying the spread of the e-revolution in agriculture in rural Tanzania, include the following.
[ Haphazard development, namely the duplication of efforts due to limited subjects: this can be overcome through a coordinating agency with advisory powers such as user interface, standards for setting up telecentres alongside community radios in rural areas.
[ Non-availability of user-friendly technologies: this can be overcome by providing touch screen monitors and intuitive graphics-based presentations.
[ Difficulty in providing advice in local languages through computers;
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[ The government’s map restriction policies, which hinder optimal utilization of data generated through remote sensing;
[ Uncertain and poor quality power supply in rural Tanzania, which can be overcome by providing solar power packs for uninterrupted power supply (UPS) in telecentres and community radio. Despite the many facilities available, connectivity in rural areas requires improvement.
The face of Tanzanian agriculture can be transformed by a well conceive deployment of information technologies. The key players involved in this process including industries, the government, educational institutions, and research centres are required to develop immediately the necessary information technologies based on agricultural services. In the light of globalization, it is necessary for the industry related to agriculture to review their current infrastructure on information technologies with respect to marketing function and undertake measures to strengthen the same. No single institution or organization can succeed in e-powering farmers in rural Tanzania. At the same time, scattered and half-hearted attempts cannot be successful in meeting the objective. Industries with major stakes in the villages should come together to provide the initial impetus.
The success of any information technologies based service to rural Tanzania hinges on evolving a proper revenue model for the dissemination points. The telecentres alongside community radios can draw revenue from the industry by providing and disseminating the required services. Once these dissemination points prove to be economically viable, the revolution of information technologies in rural Tanzania will not require crusaders. However, it must be kept in mind that the challenges and rewards in the field are reciprocal and the greatest challenge is to keep pace with the ever changing and evolving technologies.
Future of Extensions in Agriculture
In view of the emerging competition in the fertilizer industry resulting from an increase in fertilizer consumption and crop productivity, the thrust areas of fertilizer promotion must be properly defined and tackled in order to get the desired results and improve the socio-economic conditions of farmers. Information is an important resource in agriculture. Farmers need information to improve their farming and extensions to provide them relevant and timely information. The main function of
Kivukoni Journal 205 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania the extension is the transfer of information. These services can overcome obstacles in technology transfer and pave the way for agricultural development. Applications of communication technology in the transfer of agricultural information have two implications:
[ The results provide the basis for adjusting strategies. [ Successful cases can become a model for replication. Fertilizer marketing without promotion and extension is merely a selling activity. In a competitive market, service to the consumer/customer is most important. Availability of fertilizers has improved; and farmers today have the option of selecting from various brands available in the market. Hence, extension education has become a dynamic concept in the fertilizer industry. Therefore, the current strategy of extension education is to keep farmers not only within the fold of balanced fertilizer use, but also to care for the maintenance of soil productivity. Extension services can guide farmers to have a proper mix of traditional and innovative farming practices.
Structural and functional changes in agricultural extension are important in meeting the needs and challenges of the new millennium. Globalization and liberalization era has made people re-think of the role of public extension in developing countries. Extension workers/farmers can acquire knowledge as and when they have time and want to do so. For instance, a farmer may visit an extension officer for pest control. He/she can identify the type of insect by consulting a database through photographs, consult the local entomologist, and select suitable pesticides as a measure of pest control. The quality of extension material and process can be supplemented from time to time by multimedia, computer simulation, and the like. Moreover, these extension systems can also make earnest efforts of organizing farmers’ groups and motivating and directing them so that they can demand appropriate and better extension services on a cost-sharing basis. The empowerment of small and marginal farmers through the cost effective intensive use of electronic communication technologies is one of the most important possibilities.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The paper concludes that there are numerous, well established barriers against improving information exchange. Knowledge capture, high cost of information access, and infrastructure constraints affect the equitable distribution of information
Kivukoni Journal 206 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ngowi, E. Edwın. in rural areas. However, technological advances in ICTs have reduced the cost and increased the quantity and speed of information transfer dramatically. That is to say, technologically, it is possible to develop suitable systems to carter for information needs of the Tanzanian rural farmers. User-friendly systems, particularly in local language, can generate interest in farmers. It is possible to create dedicated networks or harness the power of the internet to make these services available to farmers in all parts of the country. However, the task of creating application packages and databases to cater for the entire spectrum of Tanzanian agriculture is a giant task. Specialized Tanzanian institutions cater for various aspects of agriculture and can play a crucial role in designing the necessary applications, databases, and services. Efforts should be made to promote a coordinating agency, which would have an advisory role and evolve a standard interface for users. This will call for urgent measures of introducing state-of-the-art technologies, such as remote sensing, geographical information systems, bioengineering, satellite technology, and the like, to monitor effectively agricultural performance. This will not only help in planning, advising and monitoring the status of the crops, but also in responding quickly to crop stress conditions and natural calamities. However, while developing these systems it must be borne in mind that the population, which is targeted, is not comfortable with the use of computers, and a major challenge is the dissemination of information to the rural farmers. The need for a concerted effort of building knowledge partnerships and of engaging the private sector and technology drivers in the pursuit of rural development goals is paramount if ICTs are to have a role in future strategies. Finally, this paper presents the efforts of consolidating lessons learned from applying an “institutional lens” to ICTs deployment in addressing agricultural challenges in rural settings of Tanzania. It presents thinking about the ICTs tools, initiatives of addressing institutional challenges facing Tanzanian agriculture for agricultural development. The combination of theoretical aspects on core themes, supported by literature reviews from a wide range of literatures, makes an important contribution to the existing literature. Through accessible synthesis of new institutional economics theory and literature, the paper develops a better understanding of Tanzanian agriculture and of how to improve it through utilizing ICTs tools. Thus, the focus of this paper is on the potential for more strategic application of ICTs in addressing the challenges facing agricultural development in rural areas. In particular, the paper looks at how far ICTs offer solutions to long-standing agricultural development problems and whether they can make a
Kivukoni Journal 207 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania significant contribution to enhancing the existing and the ongoing initiatives. This is because the agricultural sector faces major challenges in enhancing production in a situation of dwindling natural resources, which are necessary for production. The growing demand for agricultural products, however, offers opportunities for producers to sustain and improve their livelihoods. ICTs play an important role in addressing these challenges and uplifting the livelihoods of the rural poor. ICTs offer an opportunity of introducing new activities, new services, and applications to rural areas and or to enhancing the existing agricultural services. ICTs play a significant role in combating rural poverty and fostering sustainable rural development through creating information rich societies and supporting livelihoods. If ICTs are appropriately deployed and streamlined to realize the differential needs of urban and rural people, they can become a powerful tool of economic, social, and political empowerment. There is a substantial body of literature on the potential role of ICTs in agricultural development and the fundamentals of these debates are well rehearsed. Current debates on the potential role of ICTs tend to be constrained by an inherent mutual lack of understanding between the technology drivers and development agencies that find it difficult to establish a common ground, especially when the technology and its implications for society are changing so rapidly. This apparent impasse raises some particular problems for development research. ICTs applications in rural Tanzania remain largely uninformed by recent developments in the literature, and conversely many development agencies have failed to effectively mainstream strategies to harness the potential of ICTs.
REFERENCES
Ashley, C., and Maxwell, S. (2001). Rethinking rural development. Development Policy Review 19 (4): 395–425. Chauhan, A. Kar, A. K. (2019). Design science and innovation rural technology development and delivery. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-6435-8_7 Chongela, J. (2015). Contribution of agriculture sector to the Tanzanian economy. American Journal of Research Communication, 3(7): 57-70. Ellis, F. (2005). Small farms, livelihood diversification and rural–urban transitions: Strategic issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. In The future of small farms: Proceedings of a research workshop, Wye, U.K., June 26–29th 2005. Washington, D.C.:
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International Food Policy Research Institute. http://www.ifpri.org/events/ seminars/2005/smallfarms/sfproc.asp. Hazell, P. B. R. (2005). The role of agriculture and small farms in economic development. Paper presented at the Conference on the Future of Small Farms, Wye, U.K., June. International Fund for Agricultural Development (2010). Rural poverty report 2011. Rome, Italy. Lwoga, T. E. (2010). Bridging the agricultural knowledge and information divide: The case of selected telecenters and rural radio in Tanzania. The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries, 43(6), 1-14. Mojisola, A. A., Mbibi J. (2007). Knowledge awareness and attitude of farming communities towards the use of ICTs for rural development: A survey of villages in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of Communications, 5 (1): 99. Ngowi, E. E., and Mwakalobo, A. S. (2017). Rural-ICT service providers and agro- pastoralists interface: implications of the processes for sustainable agro- pastoral livelihoods in rural Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 29(9). http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd29/9/ngwo29172.html Ngowi, E. E., Mwakalobo, A. S. and Mwamfupe, D. G. (2015). Making ICTs work for agro-pastoral Livelihood: Using the telecentre as learning tool for agro- pastoralists communities in Tanzania. Journal of Sustainable Development 8(2): 89-98. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v8n2p89 Reardon, T. (1998). African agriculture: Productivity and sustainability issues. In International agricultural development, ed. C. K. Eicher and J. Staatz. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. World Bank (2019). “Transforming agriculture” Realizing the potential of agriculture for inclusive growth and poverty reduction. Issue 13. Washington: World Bank.
Kivukoni Journal 209 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies Vivian C. Kapilima
Department of Social Studies, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy, Dar Salaam
ABSTRACT
In Tanzania, prior studies have concentrated much on the nature of education policies in terms of their contents and challenges in their implementation, the learning environment, and performance of the students. However, not much has been done on the manner education policies are formulated and the manner and the extent by which stakeholders are involved in the entire process. Therefore, this paper offers a comparative analysis of the application of the participatory approach in the formulation of Tanzania’s Education and Training Policy (ETP) of 1995 and 2014 so as to provide an insight of their differences in terms of the manner and extent to which stakeholders were involved in their formulation. The paper is based on qualitative data collected in the cities of Dar es Salaam and Dodoma, Tanzania. Generally, the data were collected using in-depth face-to-face interviews with key informants, a focus group discussion, and documentary review. The findings show that, both the 1995 and 2014 ETPs used the “representation” participatory approach. In addition, stakeholders’ involvement was higher in the formulation of 2014 ETP compared to that of 1995. Nonetheless, the informative and consultative approaches of stakeholders’ participation were effectively applied in the formulation of the 2014 ETP to the 1995 ETP. The findings show further that grassroots participation was only moderate in the 2014 ETP. It is hereby concluded that the extent of stakeholders’ participation was higher in the formulation of the 2014 ETP compared to that of 1995. Therefore, it is recommended that, there is a need of expanding and improving participation mechanisms in order to widen and deepen the level of stakeholders’ representation in the formulation of forthcoming education policies.
Key words: Tanzania Education and Training Policy; participatory approach; comparative policy analysis
Kivukoni Journal 210 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies 1. INTRODUCTION
Modern discourses on public policy formulation emphasize much on participatory approaches in public policy formulation. Generally, the participatory policy approach is an effective way of finding the optimal solution to a complicated policy problem. Moreover, participatory policy formulation ensures policy legitimacy; and this has positive implications in policy implementation (Veit and Wolfire, 1998, p. 155). Advocacy of a participatory approach to public policy formulation in Africa always faces a challenge in terms of the extent of stakeholders’ involvement in the policy process. The process is characteristically opaque with few opportunities created for public participation (Khan, 2016, p. 101). Normally, stakeholders who are involved in the process are not well known, and even if they are known the contribution of the minority and powerless stakeholders are often unacknowledged. Moreover, their perceptions regarding the policy formulation process often remain unknown. These anomalies, among others, seem to have prevailed even during the formulation of Tanzania’s education policies.
In most cases, the policy formulation process in Tanzania is informed by the traditional/classical approaches that dominate many spheres of policy formulation (Sotarauta, 2015, p. 109). These approaches do not favour the idea of power sharing among different policy stakeholders, since it is only the powerful and prominent stakeholders who form the hub of policymaking process. Hence, policies, which are crafted under these approaches, have been viewed by some stakeholders as elite-state based policies, rather than multi-actors-based policies, although their objectives are targeted at the public. For instance, the existing literature on policy clearly establishes that the Tanzania’s Education for Self-Reliance document (1967) was merely an outcome of them presidential reflections on the 1960’s education situation (Buchert, 1997, p.34; Burton, 2020). Therefore, it can be argued that, the policy formulation process was not in favour of a participatory approach that advocates for the wide inclusion of citizens in the decision – process (Lewis, 2020, p. 116). Likewise, the idea of “majority building”, that of stakeholders participation in policy construction was absolutely not considered in the design of Tanzania Education System for the 21 Century document (1993) (Buchert, 1997). Besides this policy paper, there was another document called the “Social Sector Strategy” (1995) which emphasized the interaction amongst government, international aid agencies, and households in the financing of the social sector. Similarly, the process of constructing the document was not in favour of the core tenets of participatory
Kivukoni Journal 211 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Vivian C. Kapilima policy formulation. Consequently, the document was considered as a product of only a few top officials in Tanzania and the World Bank (Buchert, 1997, p. 53-54).
For decades, the concept of participation in setting development priorities has received global attention; as it has been a part of philosophical discussions and world-views since the time of Plato (C.427- C.347B.C), and gained momentum in the 1960s (Carpentier, 2011, p. 165). However, despite such attention, the formulation of education policies in Tanzania has been dominated by a group of political and bureaucratic elite who have varied interests coupled with feelings of controlling the decision making process. Therefore, effective stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of education policies has so far been ignored (PMO - RALG1, 2007). On the other hand, many existing studies concentrate much on the nature of education policies in terms of their contents, implementation challenges, education conditions, and students’ performance, and not on the manner policies are formulated and the manner and the extent to which stakeholders are involved in the entire process. in this respect, the paper offers a comparative analysis of the application of the participatory approach in the formulation of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education and Training Policies (ETPs). This was with a view of enriching our understanding on the differences in terms of the manner and the extent to which stakeholders were involved in the formulation of both two policies, and the kind of participatory approaches that were applied. The analysis focused on education policy formulation, because as compared to other sectors, the landscape of education sector in Tanzania has for a long time experienced a great deal of policy dynamism as a result of both internal and external socio-economic, political, and technological challenges.
Theoretical framework
The assessment of the manner and extent to which stakeholders participated in the formulation of 1995 and 2014 ETPs was guided by pluralist theoretical perspective of public policy process, championed by scholars such as James Madison, Alexis de Tocqueville, and Dahl Robert (Howes et al., 2004, p.4; Blockland, 2016, p.25). Pluralist theory is well acknowledged as one of the most dominant theoretical lenses, which appear to favour the adoption of a participatory approach in formulating public policy. In the education policymaking, pluralist model is especially helpful in emphasizing the inclusion of diverse participants and interests, and the importance of willingness to work on conflict resolution. It emphasizes on the distribution of
1 Prime Minister’s Office – Regional and Local Government.
Kivukoni Journal 212 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies powers, among different stakeholders during the formulation of education policies. In the current study, pluralism theory was also useful in providing answers to our research questions, such as what are the types of stakeholders involved in formulating education policies in Tanzania? To what extent these stakeholders were involved in the process of policy formulation. Moreover, what were the participatory modalities adopted in formulating education policies in Tanzania?
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The nature and objectives of the study compelled the use of exploratory, descriptive, and comparative qualitative research designs. The designs were informed by philosophical underpinnings of social constructionism that conceive reality as a result of social construction (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p.13) and therefore, the research designs were helpful in understanding the social context associated with the adoption of participatory approaches in formulating education policies in Tanzania. The target population constituted education stakeholders at different administrative levels of government including the central, regional, and District Education Officers; Headmasters; classroom teachers; academics; and stakeholders outside the public education system, such as national and international Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), religious organizations, and Community Based Organizations (CBOs). Among the criteria, which were used to screen potential participants in the study include: awareness of the 1995 and 2014 Tanzania’s education policies, holders of education based occupations in government and non-government administrative education agencies, and education provision institutions.
The formulation processes of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs were chosen to be empirical case studies. The aim was to compare the application of participatory approach in the formulation of both policies, as a means of enhancing understanding of the two different aspects namely, the extent of stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of each policy and the type of participatory approach, which was applied. Purposive sampling technique was used to recruit key informants who could articulate their perceptual experiences on the formulation processes of the education policies. The sample size was determined by qualitative method of saturation whereby the researcher established a stopping rule, and continued to sample until the rule was satisfied. In other words, until the additional research informants could not provide any new information on the issue under investigation (Daniel, 2011, p. 247). Thus, 20 research participants were interviewed through in –depth face-to-face individual
Kivukoni Journal 213 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Vivian C. Kapilima interviews. According to Creswell and colleagues (2007, p. 126-8) such a sample size is adequate for giving well-grounded empirical findings. Therefore, interviews involved participants from government and non-government institutions. Due to study limitations and the fact that with in-depth interviews, the point of saturation was well reached, we decided to conduct one (1) focus group discussion composed of four quality education officials from, the government and three representatives of education based civil society organizations in Dar es Salaam city. Such focus group discussion was instrumental in gaining diverse views of participants, as well as confirming information collected through in –depth face-to-face individual interviews. Moreover, research participants were asked to give out their opinions on the extent they participated in the formulation of the policy, whether high, moderate, or low. The collected data were transcribed and analyzed by using qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The extent of stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs First, the study found that, the participatory approach, which was employed in the formulation of the 2014 ETP was mainly based on “representation,” where a particular group of key stakeholders was invited to provide views on behalf of its members. This representation approach of stakeholders views is essentially pluralist (Rechtschaffen, and Gauna, 2002, p. 125). It involved two categories of stakeholders, the local and international stakeholders. The local stakeholders were the education officials from the central and local government levels, managers, and owners of private education institutions; heads of schools, colleges, and universities; students’ representative from higher learning institutions ; and civil society education based organizations. The second type of education stakeholders is the International Development Partners (IDPs) which were represented by the organizations Campaign for Female Education (CAMFED) and Plan International, which addressed gender issues and advocated for the education rights of female students. With respect to the 1995 ETP, it appears that, the applied participatory policy formulation approach was not equally representative of all key stakeholders as the policy was originally crafted by a few government officials from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEVT), Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE), and the National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA). Others include the then Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MSTHE),
Kivukoni Journal 214 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies few academicians, and education based international aid agencies. For example, it was revealed that the involvement of a key actor such as Local Government was limited to giving comments on a paper, which they did not take part in its formulation.. Nonetheless, the policy-making task force did not reach below the level of headmasters neither did it include the wider public. (Buchert, 1997, p. 50)
In order to assess the extent of stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs, key informants from the education sector were asked to provide their opinions on the extent of involvement of stakeholders in the above- mentioned ETPs based on the following categories; “low, moderate, and high”. The reasons for each of the categories were also probed. In addition, the interviewees were asked to provide their general perception on the nature of policy formulation regarding the manner in which stakeholders (including themselves) were involved in the policy formulation process. Observations generally show that, responses differed according to the kind of the stakeholder interviewed, the stage of policy formulation, and the level of participation whereby some were involved directly in policy designing and writing, while others were involved indirectly as opinion givers. The subsequent section presents different views of government officials on the extent of stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation process of both two policies, starting with ETP (2014).
Government officials view on the extent of stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs According to the interviewed government officials, the formulation of the 2014 ETP was participatory in nature whereby various stakeholders were involved. One official in the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Vocational Training (MoEVT) informed the researcher that,
“stakeholders were highly involved in the 2014 ETP formulation because initially, a stakeholders’ analysis was conducted to identify all potential stakeholders2 in the education sector. Thereafter, survey methods of data collection were designed and the task force which was commissioned by the then Ministry of Education and Culture, collected views and opinions from stakeholders of all levels in education sector in all the county’s regions”.
2 See section 4.1 for the types of stakeholders involved in the formulation of 2014 ETP. However, due to several limitations faced during data collection process, some stakeholders were not included in the classi- fication list. We expect future studies may expand the list by uncovering other kinds of stakeholders who participated in the policy making process.
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Besides that, he said, “there was a national dialogue held to discuss the findings of the policy assessment. Matters discussed in the national dialogue led to the formulation of the first policy draft, which was also shared by different stakeholders.” The informant also confirmed that, “views and opinions of stakeholders were collected during all stages of policy formulation, and that, different participatory techniques and modalities such as meetings, deliberative conferences, and dialogues were effectively used to accomplish the task.”
In comparing the extent and the level of stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs one of the interviewed government officials revealed that, the later had a higher stakeholder involvement than the former. The failure of the 1995 ETP to produce its intended outcomes is attributed to minimal involvement of education stakeholders hence, exclusion of their inputs into the process. Consequently, there were difficulties in its implementation. Therefore, this created a need for formulating the 2014 ETP, which was informed by diverse views of stakeholders.” The assumption is that, consulting and engaging many stakeholders in policymaking process that allows governments to tap into wider sources of information, perspectives, and potential solutions, and improves the quality of the policy decisions reached (Michels and De Graaf, 2010, p. 482). In addition, it strengthens the civic capacity in policy implementation process.
Other reasons for the difference in stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of 1995 and 2014 ETPs were historical in nature. Moreover, the 1995 ETP was the first policy document in the history of education policy formulation in Tanzania. In this regard, one official from the Ministry of Education said, “during the formulation of the 1995 ETP, the notion of ‘participatory policy formulation’ and the importance of including a wider spectrum of stakeholders in the policy formulation process were quite new. Therefore, the 1995 ETP was only crafted by a few experts as opposed to the manner in which the 2014 ETP was formulated. In addition in 1990s, Tanzania was least influenced by the forces of globalization; and the level of democratization and the use of information communication technology (ICT) were low (Vanhanen, 2002, p.139; Haacker, 2010, p.22) thus, translating into low stakeholders’ involvement in the 1995 ETP as opposed to the 2014 where globalization had almost reached its highest level. Moreover, through availability of ICT, it was possible for key stakeholders to be informed on the formulation of the 2014 ETP thus enabling them to participate directly or indirectly. In addition, ICT linked actors in the production and circulation of the policy draft to the public.
Kivukoni Journal 216 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies Participatory approaches/levels of stakeholders’ participation in formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs In comparing the levels of stakeholders’ participation in the formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs, the interviewed government officials identified three approaches or levels of participation in policy making process, as proposed by Brodie et al. (2009, p. 17); these are informative, consultative, and empowerment. Subsequently, government officials were asked to indicate the level of participation of stakeholders and the reasons for the identified level of participation. Accordingly, most stakeholders were involved, to some extent, at the “informative level of policy formulation participation” during the making of the 1995 ETP. Specifically, they were asked to inform the policy review task force (the Makweta Appointed Presidential Commission of Education System-1981) on what were the pressing education challenges in the past 19 years, and propose recommendations for the next 20 years. In this regard, participation levels, such as stakeholders’ consultative and empowerment, were not considered. The reasons behind the exclusion of these participation levels were, among others, low level of democratic movements, coupled with low application of science and technology in the national policy formulation and implementation processes.
Indeed, contrary to the 1995 ETP, the formulation of 2014 ETP considered the application of informative and consultative levels of participation. However, the government did embrace the traditional approach of being the final decision maker hence, inhibiting the empowerment process. Thus, implying that, non-government stakeholders were not given the opportunity to be in the team of making the final decisions. The informative level of participation is considered to be done at the initial stage of policymaking, where stakeholders’ analysis is conducted and survey methods are designed for collecting views and opinions from all potential stakeholders. It also provides participants with additional information to assist in the decision-making process (McCracken and Narayan, 1998, p. 312).
Despite stakeholders being involved at the consultative level of participation, their responses differed according to how they were involved. The interviewed education stakeholders acknowledged to have been consulted by the government in obtaining feedback on the suggested policy alternatives, which consequently, were included in the first policy draft. This acknowledgement, notwithstanding, we found that, other stakeholders from the academia and lower levels of government were unsatisfied with the level of consultation in designing the ETP (2014). One of them had this to say,
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“The nature of stakeholders’ participation was not fair because I was consulted when the policy document had already been crafted. Therefore, how could we input our views given the document had already been crafted, and was nearly being launched? I am of the view that, it would have been better if all categories of stakeholders were to be engaged at all levels of participation during the formulation of the policy.”
This informant’s view is important; however, its implementation will be successful if stakeholders’ representative participatory approach were applied at all stages of formulation, in addition to the availability and appropriate utilization of resources.
In the formulation of the 1995 ETP, only the informative approach of participation was applied whereby to some extent the involvement of lower level of non- government education stakeholders was realized. One of the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) and MoEVT officials said, “During the formulation of the 2014 ETP, both the informative and consultative approaches of stakeholders’ participation were applied.”
Several studies (e.g. Buchert et al., 1997, p. 50) observed lack of stakeholders’ involvement, below the level of headmasters during the formulation of the 1995 ETP. This being the case, the consultative approach/level of participation was applicable only to government officials, international aid agencies, and few academicians from the University of Dar es Salaam. As observed above, the above-mentioned groups of stakeholders were the final decision makers in the formulation of the 1995 ETP. Therefore, the difference on the level of stakeholders’ participation in the formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs is that, the informative approach was highly applied in the formulation of the later than was the case for the former. Likewise, the consultative level of participation was broader in terms of involvement of government and non-government stakeholders, during the formulation process of the current policy, than was the case in the previous policy. However, the two policies did not apply the empowerment approach; therefore, the majority of stakeholders had no power over the decisions affecting their lives (Perez et al., 2009).
Furthermore, based on the consultative participation approach all interviewed education stakeholders, had a positive opinion on the government’s initiative to consult them during the formulation process of the 2014 ETP. For example, an interviewee from one of the prominent local civil society from education advocacy organizations said, “there were several meetings organized by the government to collect views and opinions from various education stakeholders, and that there
Kivukoni Journal 218 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies were at least twelve Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) that were consulted during the policy formulation process.” According to the informant, “the consultation was done by the government through stakeholders’ invitation where education stakeholders were invited in groups to provide their viewpoints on behalf of their fellow members.”
In addition, the government circulated the second policy draft to key education stakeholders. However, the interviewees from the education based CBOs and those from the lower levels of government cited short notifications for meetings coupled with tight timeframe, as limitation of making a comprehensive review of the policy draft and providing comments. With respect to the empowerment level of participation, one of the interviewees said, “the government had the final decision on what should be in the final policy. Hence, some of our inputs, including recommendations, were not incorporated in the new education policy (2014)”.
It was observed further that, in the formulation of both the 1995 and 2014 ETPs, education stakeholders participated directly as opinion givers, through meetings, conferences, and face-to-face interviews. Others participated indirectly by giving their opinions through media, telephone interviews, and e-mails. In addition, some education stakeholders were key participants and participated directly in designing and conducting in county and cross-country policy surveys. Others were engaged in policy writing. One of the key questions wanted interviewees in the education based CBOs (Community Based Organizations) to identify stakeholders who were mostly involved in the formulation of the 2014 the ETP. In responding, one of the interviewees had this to say, “It is the government officials and giant and prominent education based NGOs in Dar es Salaam that were identified and given the opportunity of participating in the policy process. Therefore, the policy making process did not involve lower levels of society and NGOs that are not famous.” Similar observation was made in the formulation of 1995 ETP (Buchert, 1997, p. 50). Hence, it is believed that many views and opinions from many categories of stakeholders were not collected.
Based on the foregoing observations, it can be argued that, there was a high level of involvement of stakeholders in the formulation of the 2014 ETP compared to the formulation of 1995. However, the majority of informants (fifteen out of twenty), and who are outside the government sector, especially those from the community and s civil society based-organizations at lower levels of society reported to have been moderately involved in the ETP (2014) formulation-process, whereas the
Kivukoni Journal 219 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Vivian C. Kapilima rest (five), admitted that their level of involvement was high. The former category of interviewees cited many factors in backing up their position. One of the interviewees said,
“Stakeholders were not much involved, meaning that many views and opinions were not collected because of resource constraints. Therefore, many stakeholders participated at the stage when situational analysis and the direction of policy formulation had been conducted. At this stage, they were to respond to the already identified policy issues.” (Field data).
Although it is well recognized that inadequate resources circumscribes the quality of public policy formulation, literatures still acknowledge the preponderance of multi- stakeholders platforms at the stage of problem analysis, which involves problem search/identification and disaggregation of elements of the problem (Porche, 2017, p. 201). The involvement of a wide spectrum of stakeholders at the stage of problem identification is equally important, as is the case with the subsequent stages of policy formulation. The state as a premier actor of initiating policy-making process should set conducive environment of broadening participation of grass root stakeholders to support the process of problem identification. This practice builds consensus on the nature of problem, possible solutions, policymaking design, and policy formulation. In addition, it creates a sense of ownership of the policy (Denhardt and Denhardt, 2015; Migchelbrink et al, 2019, p. 4) as well as increasing the level of commitment of stakeholders to the implementation of policy measures.
The involvement of parents, teachers, and students in the policy formulation process The manner and extent to which parents, teachers, and students (especially in primary and secondary schools) were involved in the formulation of both the 1995 and 2014 ETPs remains a big question. This is due to among others, lack of a sampling frame that this study could use to identify and interview such key informants. It seems that the government did not document well the policy formulation process in terms of the kind of stakeholders who were consulted during the process. Therefore, data and information regarding the involvement of parents, teachers, and students in the policy formulation process are based on the information given by government and non-government education officials who participated directly in the formulation of the above policy. Generally, it was revealed that, parents, teachers, and primary and secondary school students were overall not involved
Kivukoni Journal 220 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies in the formulation of the 1995 ETP, as they were either forgotten or less involved in formulation of the 2014 ETP. For example, despite that primary and secondary schools structures have school committees or parent boards it is not clear how the opinions from these organs were collected.
One of the interviewed stakeholders in the faith-based institutions argued,
“There is a doubt if parents were well involved in the formulation of the 2014 ETP because it is difficult to know the platforms they used to raise up their voices. Moreover, their structures are unstable and unpredictable; hence, it is difficult to get independent policy views from them as key education stakeholders. On top of that, despite their position being recognized in the schools’ committee and boards, we are not sure, if schools have the tendency to organize meetings with parents, and if parents have been active in attending and participating in those meetings. Generally, there is a probability parents were not well involved in the policy formulation process.”
In responding to the question of parents’ participation, one of the education officials, in one of the Dar es Salaam municipalities, expressed doubts onthe manner in which parents were involved in the formulation process, despite their representation in the schools’ committees and boards. Their views and opinions should have been collected and included in the policy formulation process. According to the respondent, “there is a doubt in the effectiveness of parents’ participation in policy development, because it is not clear how the policy making task force classified parents. There are three kinds of parents. One category of parents is highly educated, well informed, and knowledgeable about education issues and policy, another category has a moderate awareness of these issues, while the last group of parents is completely unaware of the education matters and policy issues. Therefore, it is doubtful whether the architects of the 2014 ETP considered the above categories when collecting views and opinions from stakeholders”.
Other key informants argued that parents and students have been the forgotten stakeholders in the development of Tanzanian education policies. One of the reasons could be that policy makers consider this category of people as less conversant with policy issues hence they are assumed unable to provide constructive inputs. Furthermore, it was argued that, probably students are not involved in the formulation process of education policy because of the perception that they could raise demands that cannot easily be fulfilled by the government. Moreover, one of
Kivukoni Journal 221 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Vivian C. Kapilima the academicians from the University of Dar es Salaam commented, “education challenges had not been addressed effectively heretofore, and students at all levels were the victims” implying that the government had a lot to do in finding remedies.
The questioning of the involvement of schoolteachers in the policy formulation processes was also important. Schoolteachers below the level of headmasters were or not even given the opportunity of participating in the formulation of the 1995 ETP (Buchert, 1997, p. 50). This observation is similar to those gathered from the formulation of 2014 ETP. In fact we are aware that, Tanzania Teachers’ Union (TTU) represented the views of teachers in the construction of the current policy. However, it is not clear how the union reached the lower levels to collect views, even from teachers. This concern was expressed by one of the government officials who participated, nearly at all stages of the policy formulation process. The interviewee was of the view that, “school teachers were not involved in the formulation of the 2014 ETP because no meetings were organized to collect views and opinions from these stakeholders, though they were supposed to be considered in the policy process”
Study findings show that schoolteachers are a forgotten group of education stakeholders, or deliberately omitted from ETP formulation on pretext that their major roles are teaching and curriculum development and review. Therefore, it is assumed that they may not be in a good position to produce constructive views that may positively influence education policy. Moreover, one of the educationists working at TTU argued that, “school teachers were not included in the education policy formulation process and that in most cases only headmasters/headmistresses were invited by the government either to contribute their views or to review a particular education policy, plan, or program.” In this way, much views and opinions from the schoolteachers below the level of headmasters remained uncollected, but which could otherwise be used to guide rigorous analysis of education challenges and problems at the primary and secondary school levels. That being a case, stakeholders’ invitations to participate in policymaking dialogues need to be more open and inclusive.
4.4 Stakeholders who were not fully involved in the policy formulation process As alluded to in the previous section, the study faced several limitations during data collection process. These include lack of sampling frame, which could be used to identify, and access individuals who participated directly in the formulation of 1995
Kivukoni Journal 222 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies and 2014 ETPs; and unwillingness of some research informants to provide data. Hence, it was not possible to identify all stakeholders who were not involved in the formulation of 1995 and 2014 ETPs. However, the fact that research is an endless process of acquiring knowledge (Reid et al., 2013, p. 84), thus, future studies may expand the list by uncovering other kinds of stakeholders who did not participate in the formulation process of such policies. Therefore, the present study was able to identify the following groups, namely, people with disabilities, agriculturalists, and the mass media.
Unlike parents, who lacked well stable structures and platforms for raising their voices and wishes, people with disabilities have well recognized platforms, such as the Tanzania Federation of Disabled People’s Organizations, where they advocate for their rights and other demands (Opini and Onditi, 2016, p. 69). Nonetheless, a key disabled informant said, “People with disabilities and their federation were not adequately involved in airing their viewpoints and opinions during the construction process of the two education policies.” One of the key questions tasked one of the top education officials to comment on the extent of stakeholders’ involvement in the 2014 ETP formulation process, the official replied, “the problem we noted is that, some views of some stakeholders, such as people with disabilities, were not included in the policy document”.
Therefore, the official’s response is a clear testimony to the fact that this key group of education stakeholders was barely consulted during the policy formulation process. One of the government’s education experts, who participated in nearly at all the stages of policy formulation, made the following comment, “we were not able to consult individual agriculturalists to get their views on the policy to be crafted. But the ministry had the objective of creating the education system which will produce agricultural educationists who will empower famers by equipping them with knowledge and skills.” With respect to mass media, we realized that, interviewees did not mention them as among the key education stakeholders, who were to be consulted during policy formulation process. Instead, the role played by the media, which is equally acknowledged by the government officials, is that of disseminating the policy document and creating platform for policy discussion and launching.
Stakeholders’ views on the stages they were involved during the policy formulation process First, what was noted from the interviewed education stakeholders and previous
Kivukoni Journal 223 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Vivian C. Kapilima findings of Buchert (1997, p. 46), is that, there was pressure from outside the government for reviewing the 1995 ETP education conditions. Hence, there was a need of having the 2014 ETP. Nevertheless, it was the government, which later initiated and engineered the entire process. It was claimed by one of the academicians who participated directly in the crafting of the 2014 ETP that, “it was not the government’s priority to come up with the ETP, but rather, the pressure from the other stakeholders, especially the Non - Governmental Organizations (NGOs) that is why the process took a long time”.
It was revealed that, during the formulation of the 1995 ETP and the 2014 ETP, many stakeholders outside government were involved in the initial stages of the formulation process. With respect to the formulation of the latter, it was particularly during the problem identification stage when, the country and cross country policy surveys were conducted, to identify the gaps and challenges in the 1995 ETP, coupled with the recommendations, which were to be incorporated in the formulation of the 2014 ETP. Despite acknowledging government’s efforts of involving stakeholders in the 2014 ETP initial formulation stage, still some of the stakeholders seem to be unsatisfied with the process. For example, stakeholders from the academia claimed that, “the government came to us while it had already done a situational analysis. Therefore, certain issues had already been identified and the direction of the policy was known.”
With regard to the foregoing observations, some academicians argue that, in order to increase the odds of success in tackling any public problem, it is essential for all key stakeholders to be engaged in the initial stages of policy formulation, the process called ‘problem framing.’ This h starts with the construction of a concise problem statement, outlining key details, proposed solutions, and the guidelines for stakeholder participation in the problem definitions, activities, and solutions (Pontius and Mclntosh, 2020). Thus, if the government were to consider the involvement of all key stakeholders in such a process it could enable an open and interactive dialogue which is an important antecedent of understanding the problem, and arriving at fairness in policy decision – making process (Kim and Mauborgne, 1995; Simon, 2017, p.1).
Based on these discussions, it is apparent that, some of the stakeholders were not involved in the initial stages of policy formulation , that is, problem identification and setting of the agenda, rather they were involved in the subsequent stages after the policy draft had been crafted thus, they were only consulted for their views
Kivukoni Journal 224 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies on the draft. This modality of work was assumed as inappropriate by one of the academicians. According to this stakeholder, “all kinds of stakeholders, regardless of their levels and status, are important, and were supposed to be included at all stages of policy formulation, and not after the drafting of the policy or during the policy launching ceremony”. The informant’s response is a clear testimony to the fact that majority of stakeholders were barely consulted during the initial stages of policy formulation – problem definition and agenda setting. As Mattson (2003, p. 247) argues, if key stakeholders are not involved in problem definition and reform adoption, they may not know what problem a particular reform is attempting to address. Moreover, if they lack an appreciation of a problem, it should not be surprising if they lack commitment to the proposed solutions. Despite these important views, however, it should be noted that problems of inadequate resources that is, financial and labour force, cum logistics, among others, might circumscribe multiple involvements of stakeholders at the preliminary stages of policy formulation. Therefore, in this circumstance the policy making task force will be compelled to design the policy making process in accordance with the available budget resources.
On the other hand, non-government education stakeholders and several interviewees from the CBOs showed satisfaction on the techniques and modalities that were employed with regard to stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of the 2014 ETP. However, according to one of them, information and communication technology was not utilized effectively, may be because of maintaining confidentiality of government documents. This view is supported by Todress (1991) who argues that, confidentiality is one of the key issues that should be continually considered in policymaking process. Policymaking actors are expected not only to help develop policies but also to enforce the regulations that govern them. Such regulations may include maintaining secrecy and confidentiality on the category of confidential government information, which embraces a variety of classes of documents whose disclosure, while though may not be harmful to the policy decision-making process or the integrity of the state; they could injure a variety of individuals or sectional interests, including certain government interests (Robertson, 1978, p. 6).
Reasons for the moderate level of stakeholders’ involvement in the formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs As alluded to in section 3.0, research participants were asked to give out their opinions on the manner and extent to which stakeholders were involved in the
Kivukoni Journal 225 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Vivian C. Kapilima formulation of the 1995 ETP and the current ETP (2014), and the reasons behind their responses. The findings on this particular theme have already been presented in the previous sections. However, just to recap, the findings revealed that, majority of informants outside the government, especially those from the community and some civil society based-organizations at the lower levels of society claimed to have been moderately involved in the ETP (2014) formulation-process. One of the reasons for such level of participation was shared by one of the interviewees from one of the prominent local education advocacy CSOs, who participated in the policy process. According to the interviewee, “the process was heavily dominated by stakeholders from the government, when vis-a-vis stakeholders from the non- government sector. This suggests that many recommendations from the government education stakeholders were more likely to have been incorporated in the policy document relative to those from the non-government sector.”
Other reasons that were provided for the moderate level of involvement in the policy process were partial involvement (at one stage only) and differences in values and interests (what the government wanted and what the other stakeholders wanted hence, some views mostly from the non-government stakeholders were not taken). Others include limited period given to review and provide comments on the drafted policy, and the selective nature of who should be involved, in other words, the giants and the very prominent individuals and CBOs were involved. Furthermore, one of the education officials in one of the Dar es Salaam municipalities was of the opinion that, it was possible to have only one individual in the department normally the head of the institution invited. However, such an individual may not necessary collecting views of from his/her colleagues to enrich the consultative process. Therefore, it is believed that many views and opinions from the lower levels of stakeholders were not taken on board to inform the 2014 policy document. One of the reasons for non-incorporation of recommendations from some stakeholders into the policy document, according to one top government official was, “the large part of the views and opinions provided by the stakeholders during the formulation of the 2014 ETP were in the form of strategies and not policy options. Hence they were reserved for the implementation strategy.”
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions Based on the study findings the paper concludes that the formulation of the 2014 ETP was more participatory compared to the formulation of the 1995 ETP. In
Kivukoni Journal 226 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies addition, the 2014 ETP employed a ‘representation approach’ cum methodology. The paper concludes further that the grassroots were involved at a minimum level, although this was relatively better in the formulation of the 2014 ETP. Moreover, the formulations of the 1995 and the 2014 ETPs were biased towards government officials, prominent individuals, and influential CBOs who played a major role in the formulation of the 1995 and 2014 ETPs. Lastly, the paper concludes that the 1995 and 2014 ETPs were more influenced by the government officials who had the final decision on what should be included in the final versions of the policies.
Recommendations Based on the study findings and conclusions the paper recommends that, the government should ensure that a broad spectrum of education stakeholders should be involved in the review or formulation of future education and training policies. In addition, enough time should be provided to allow effective participation of all stakeholders. Doing so would create a sense of policy ownership. In addition, stakeholders need to be educated on public policy related issues and key concepts, to enable them provide constructive inputs in the policy making process.
REFERENCES
Berger, P., and Luckmann, T. (1967). The Social construction of Reality. A treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. USA: Penguin Books. Buchert, L. (1997). Education policy formulation in Tanzania: Coordination between the Government and International Aid Agencies. A report from the IWGE. International Institute for Educational Planning. UNESCO: PARIS. Blockland, H. (2016). Pluralism, Democracy and Political Knowledge: Robert A. Dahl and his Critics on Modern Politics. USA: Routledge. Burton, E. (2020). Engineering Socialism: The Faculty of Engineering at the University of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) in the 1970’s and 1980s. In: Matasci D., Jeronimo M., Dores H. (eds.) Education and Development in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa. Global Histories of Education. Palgrave Macmillan. Cham Brodie, E., Cowling, E., Paine, A., Jochum, V., and Warburton, D. (2009). Understanding participation: A literature review. Institute for volunteering research: Involve and NCVO.
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Kivukoni Journal 228 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Participatory Approach in Public Policy Formulation: A comparative analysis of Tanzania’s 1995 and 2014 Education policies Porche, D. (2017). Health Policy. Application for Nurses and Other Health care Professionals. Burlington, USA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. PMO-RALG (Prime Minister’s Office – Regional and Local Government) (2007). Historical perspective on participatory planning in Tanzania. Perez, D., Lefevre, P., Romeo, M., Sanchez, L., De Vos, P., and Van Der Stuyft, P., (2009). Argumenting Frameworks for appraising the practices of community – based health interventions. Health Policy Plan. 24, 335- 341. Pontius, J., and Mclntosh, A. (2020). Problem Framing. In: Critical Skills for Environmental Professionals. Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment. Springer, Cham. Rechtschaffen, C., and Gauna, E. (2002). Environmental justice: Law, Policy and Regulations. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. Reid, A., Hart, E., and Peters, M. (Eds.). (2013). A companion to research in Education. New York: Springer Science and Business Media. Robertson, G. (1978). Confidentiality in Government. An essay delivered at the Donald Gow Memorial Lecture, School of Public Administration, Queen’s University, on 19 November. Published by Archival, Number 6 (Summer 1978). Simon, J. (2017). Stakeholders Analysis and Wicked Problems. In: Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy and Governance. Springer International Publishing AG. DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5-2710-1 Sotarauta, M. (2015). Leadership and the City: Power, strategy and networks in the making of knowledge cities. New York: Routledge. Todres, E. (1991).The Ethical Dimension of Public Service. Canadian PublicAdministration/ Volume 34, Issue 1. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-7121.1991.tb01429.x Vanhanen, T. (2002). Prospects of Democracy. A study of 172 countries. London: Routledge. Veit, P., and Wolfire, D. (1998). Participatory policy-making and the role of local non-governmental organizations. Journal of Africa’s Valuable Resources: A Reader in Natural Resource Management. WRI Washington, DC.
Kivukoni Journal 229 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality Ambiliasia Peniel Mosha,
Department of Social Studies, The Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial Academy: P.O. Box 9193, Dar es Salaam,: Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper examines Basic Voter Education in relation to voter turnout in Tanzanian due to persistent low voter turnout in Tanzanian General Elections. A total of 96 Students from exit Ordinary and Advanced level classes from 15 selected public and private secondary schools in Kinondoni Municipality were involved in 12 Focus Group Discussions while 8 purposeful selected teachers from Civics and General Studies were consulted through in- depth interviews. The findings revealed that basic voters’ education provided through civic education is a key to the success of any democracy especially on facilitating voters’ turnout. However, this is poorly provided in Tanzania and the government bears the blame for failing to oversee its provision in content formation, class time allocation, final examinations, grading, teachers’ incompetency and textbooks censorship. In addition, parents’ failure to encourage their children to focus on the subjects and students’ negligence of the subjects are also causes for poor performance of the Civics and General Studies offered in Tanzania secondary schools. It is thus concluded that basic voters’ education is essential and should not be seen as a substitute of traditional voters’ education, but rather as its complement. Therefore, it is recommended that curriculum review and professional teaching should be mandatory.
Key words: Voters, Voters education, Basic Voters Education, Voters Turn Out
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Low voter turnout in political elections worldwide is a common trend. The United States of America (USA) for instance has the lowest voter turnout among the developed countries (Cizmar 2016) whereas in the 2016 voter turnout from the states ranged from 42 to 74 percent. According to Young (n.d), the persistence of low voter turnout in Africa is caused by newness of democracy at national
Kivukoni Journal 230 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality level, election irregularities at district level, individual attitude, political affiliation and literacy. the available statistics show that the trend of voters turn out in Tanzanian elections has been unpredictable whereby in the 1965 general elections voter turnout was 77.08percent, in 1970 it was 72.25 percent in 1975 it was 81.71 percent, in 1980 it was 86 percent, and in 1985 was about 75 percent. In the first multiparty elections for example in 1995, the turnout was 76.67 percent, in 2000, it was 84.43 percent, in 2005, it was 72.41 percent, and in 2010 General elections, the turnout dropped to 42.83 percent (African Election Database 2010). In the 2015 elections, 23,254,485 voters were registered but only 15, 193,862 turned out (Muhanga 2018) despite advancement in mass media through ICT (Information Communication Technology). According to The Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee (TEMCO), reasons include loss of voters’ registration identity cards, inaccurate management of PNVR, purchase of voter registration cards by candidates and poor voters’ education among others (TEMCO 2011). This research focuses on voters’ education in finding out the causes for persistent low voter’s turnout in the Tanzania political elections. This is because the government has made deliberate efforts in investing in voters’ education raising questions as to the effectiveness of such efforts.
Voter Turn Out is the percentage of people who actually vote in an election from those who registered and it is among the key factors that legitimizes a political system. On the other hand, voters education (herein refers to as Traditional Voter Education) according to Ace project (2018), is the informally and occasionally provided education tied to the electoral cycle. This education is provided to support the electoral process, and designed to ensure that ‘voters’ are ready, willing and able to participate in electoral process. The education is solely provided by the electoral authority (NEC) or occasionally subcontracted to private companies and Civil Society Organizations. The education is a forum of describing the dissemination of information, materials, and programs designed to inform voters about the specifics and mechanics of the voting process for a particular election. The same is also provided via lectures, workshops/seminars, music, dance, drama, rallies, networking with stakeholders, media, face to face interactions, and printed materials such as brochures, posters fliers, banners, and commercial advertising among others.
Owing to the shortcoming of the traditional voters’ education, that is its short term , informal nature and its ‘improper conception and the institutions with the mandate of delivering it, the paper focuses on Basic Voters Education (BVE). According to the Ace Project (ibid), BVE is concerned with motivating voters and
Kivukoni Journal 231 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ambiliasia Peniel Mosha, preparing them to participate fully in the elections. It is a continuous, systematic, and formalized with carefully selected topics that show citizens’ rights, democracy, human rights issues, why each vote counts, and other related concepts. In this paper, BVE is introduced as essential education provided to the citizens on their rights and responsibilities in participating in the governing of their country through conscious and informed participation in the elections generally and in voting in particular. This education is provided deliberately through formal institutionalized elementary education system and secondary education level by the state with designed programs and content according to age (Ace project 2018). Moreover, though not taken as an independent factor for rising turnout in Tanzania, this research posits that if complemented with the current voters education, turnout might rise.
Being informed by classical conditioning theory, this study pre-supposes learning as a relatively permanent change in the behaviour of an individual. As described by Ian Pavlov (1849-1936), learning is presented in Stimulus-Response paradigm and its major assumption is that reflexive responses will be elicited naturally without learning when there is a stimulus. Figure 1 summarizes the theory.
Figure 1: Classical Conditioning Theory
Source: www.study.com (n.d)
In the first scenario of his experiments Pavlov discovered that the dog salivated with presence of food hence, he concluded that the food (Stimulus (S)) elicits
Kivukoni Journal 232 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality Salivating (Response (R)). Here he showed that, conditioning is facilitated by an involuntary/reflex or inner behaviour caused by an environmental event and there is no learning because unconditional stimulus (UCS) automatically produces unconditional response (UCR). In relation to our topic, when citizens are provided with traditional voters education (unconditioned stimulus) they may or may not go to vote (unconditional response depending on the environment situation (UCS =UCR). In the second scenario when the bell is presented alone is not recognized by the dog and so it does not salivate (unconditional response) but when the sound of a bell is introduced accompanied by the food, the dog associates the two, learn, become oriented, and salivate. Here the Neutral stimulus (the bell) accompanied by the food (unconditional stimulus) produces unconditioned response (NS+UCS=UCR). In this paper, when BVE (represented by the Bell) is accompanied by traditional voters education (represented by food) will elicit citizens participation in the elections because they (citizens) have become oriented (NS+UCS=UCR).
In the third and fourth scenarios, after conditioning has taken place Basic voters’ education will elicit citizens’ participation in the elections, in other words, a desired response (NS=CR). However, it has to be noted that basic voters’ education is a necessary but not sufficient factor for eliciting voter turnout. It has tobe complemented by traditional voters’ education for the voting exercise to take place effectively. Here, after the BVE has been acclimatized or institutionalized to students/voters/citizens the question of voting becomes a conditioned involuntary response. It is only through a formal education system where students/voters/ citizens become conditioned. Now lets us examine a few empirical studies that have addressed the topic.
According to Article 21, of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, ‘everyone has the right to take part in elections’ but, the Traditional voters education has failed to define a voter by confining to adults of voting legal age neglecting children. This is the source of low turnout among the many factors (Duer, 2016). When children are regarded as voters, their rights to voters’ education will also be guaranteed; that is, it will be provided in formal education system where content and teaching methods can differ according to age and students’ understanding level (Ace project, 2008). Also NEA (2018) and Print and Lange (2012) support the idea that informed voting begins in the classroom, whereby basic voters education is interdisciplinary and permeates all curricula from the elementary grade through higher levels before one enters the voting community.
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Basic voters’ education can be provided in three models (McAllister, 2011). The first, is where civic education gets integrated into the mainstream curriculum of the school system, which is mostly the case in the United States of America (USA). Secondly, civic education could be made to cut across subjects with no separate civic programs; a good example is Britain where particular emphasis is put on history. Lastly, by combining the above as is done in France. Of the three models, BVE mostly uses the USA model whereby voters’ education is incorporated in mainstream curriculum in all levels of schools system.
There has been significant improvement in turnout in countries that have invested in formal education as a means of imparting civic knowledge, voters’ education inclusive. in 2010 for instance, Florida enacted a law requiring middle school students to pass highly in civics exam (Delander, 2014) and voter turnout increased significantly especially among young voters. This has for instance resulted to higher turnout of voters aged between 18-24 from 17.6 percent in 2014 to 29.7 percent in 2018 with the credits being given to the efforts prioritising formal civic education, though other factors are also indispensable (Man 2019).
Furthermore, in Finland political efficacy attained through formal education system with the right pedagogy and prolonged engagement in open environment has significantly raised young voters’ turnout than when voting is taken as a civic duty (Inkinen and Saari 2019). In addition, a study by Campbel (2008) covering 28 countries has established that formal education with proper teaching methodology can predict the intended voting among secondary school youths. However, though ideal, in practice it is not so. Research done by Duer (ibid) in the USA for instance, established that, civic education is ‘the most underrated crisis in American Education System’ despite the deliberate measures taken by some of the states in instilling it in the middle and high school levels. Thus, the USA is cited as among the countries with the lowest turnout and civic competency with few exceptions in some states such as Florida; the slump being caused by negligence in the formal civic education since 1960s (Man, 2019). Islam and Crego (2016) call this ‘Citizen Deficit Disorder’.
A study by Adeyinyi et al. (2015) in Nigeria found civic education as unstable, disorganized, provided under duplicate curriculum, lacks adequate human resource, facilitates recitation and rote learning, geared towards acquisition of certificates only, and not focused on honest and patriotism. The study recommends for having the curriculum designed according to age and teachers’ training (Jekayinfa et al. 2011)
Kivukoni Journal 234 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality In Tanzania, the history of civic and voter education is elaborated by the National Strategy for Civic Education (2011) whereby civic education has undergone several metrological and pedagogical changes, in terms of names and content as it evolved. During the colonial era, civic education was limited in scope and purpose. In a single party era, it was provided mainly by Nyerere who ‘turned the country into a big civic class’ through his speeches while in schools it was named Civics which was compulsory from Primary to University. In the Ujamaa (Socialist) era, it was named ‘Siasa’ (Political Education) which provided education on socialism focusing on equality and cooperation; and during the transitional period to multiparty system, civic education is said to have been left in the hands of uncoordinated non-state actors who focused on different contents. In this regard, it is said to have suffered from technical and pedagogical shortfalls (Lutatenekwa, 2007. Outside the school system, there were a myriad of avenues providing civic and voters’ education such as adult education program, media, Kivukoni College, workers education, and cultural activities. After multiparty, nomenclatures the focus changed to such terms as ‘Maarifa ya Jamii’ (Community Education) for Primary Schools level, Civics for Ordinary Secondary School level, General Studies for Advanced school level and Development Studies for Diploma and University levels. However, pedagogical challenges persisted.
Tanzania’s National Electoral Commission (NEC) is mandated with the provision of voter education in the country since 2004 following the amendment of the election Act of 1985 (EISA 2010). Nonetheless, Tanzania continues to experience democratic deficiencies, ignorant citizens concerning their rights and responsibilities, and poor and uncoordinated provision of voter and civic education. Hence, the formulation of the National Strategy for Civic Education (NASCET ) and the establishment of the National Commission for Civic Education in Tanzania (NACCET). NACCET’s responsibilities include working with the government and other stakeholders to review the civic education curriculum, train civic education teachers, prepare curricula, mobilize resources for civic education and coordinate civic education provision in Tanzania (URT 2011).
The assessment of the development of this strategy however realizes that little emphasis is placed on schools as one of the medium through which civic education including voter’s education could be provided. In the 2010 elections for instance, development partners under the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) established the Election Fund Support Project (ESP) which supported all elections activities through development partners to the tune of Tanzanian
Kivukoni Journal 235 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ambiliasia Peniel Mosha, shillings 7,415,633,070/=. With this support, Chama Cha Demokrasia Na Maendeleo (CHADEMA) for instance, conducted 900 election campaign meeting, mass media were also involved whereby more than 60 radio programs were aired, more than 150 local and national newspapers circulated different information on elections, and more than 50 TV programs on election news were aired while schools were disregarded. Paradoxically, high voter turnout was expected but the reverse was the case where the turnout dropped to 42.83 percent (TEMCO, 2011)
A study by Komba (2013) on Citizens Views on Appropriate Civic Education Curricular under Multiparty Democracy in Mainland Tanzania highlighted the need for civic education among the citizens. This includes the need of having civic education body in consultation with key stakeholders such as the Tanzania Institute of Education for providing syllabi for secondary schools. About 80 percent of the respondents agreed that the youth, which includes students in secondary school, need civic education most. The study also revealed a general approach of civic education with no specific attention to secondary schools (Mallya, 2006). Generally, all the above-mentioned studies suggest the indispensability of the need for civic education, basic voter education inclusive to be provided to the youth before they leave school. The efforts of engaging civic education in schools have been carried globally despite the fact that they have not been free from challenges.
The paper therefore examines the role formal education through Basic Voters Education (BVE) can play in facilitating voters’ turnout. This is motivated by the view that, when the current voters education (the Traditional Voters Education) is complemented with the formal civic education (Basic Voters Education inclusive), voter turnout might rise. Therefore, the paper responds to the questions; what is the status of Basic Voter Education in secondary schools in Tanzania? What is the exit – level of students understanding of Basic voter Education? What are the challenges facing the provision of Basic Voter Education in Tanzania secondary schools? By responding to these questions in relation to other countries that have invested in basic voters’ education and with significant results, Tanzania’s position could then be explained.
2. METHODOLOGY
The study adopted the exploratory design using nominologist ontology so it was approached qualitatively. It was conducted at Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania. The region was among the Tanzania regions with the lowest voters’
Kivukoni Journal 236 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality turnout in the 2010 general elections. This was despite that voters education was largely provided in this region (Shumbusho, 2012). Study population included all 57 private schools and 25 public schools in Kinondoni municipality from which quota sampling was used to capture the diversity from both private and public schools. Purposeful sampling was then used to pick the actual schools to be studied using general performance in the 2018 National Examination results as the selection criteria whereby schools were categorized as high, average and low performers. The selected high performers included Canossa Girls and Shamsiye Boys, the average performing schools were Mbezi Beach and Makongo Secondary Schools while poor performers were Bunju A and Kinondoni Muslim Secondary Schools. These will be referred to as School A,B,C,D,E and F respectively. two focus group discussions were conducted From each school, [1 Four from Form and 1 from Form Six students] making 12 focus group discussions with an average of 8 students each amounting to 96 students. For schools with only Ordinary level, the two groups were taken from Form Four. In addition, eight teachers in Civics and or General Studies were involved in the study. Primary data from these students and teachers involved the status, understanding, and challenges in the provision of basic voters’ education. Secondary data on the status of basic voters’ education in Tanzania and elsewhere were collected from Civic Education textbooks, Civic Education Syllabus, Governmental records, journal articles, and unpublished theses and dissertations. Data were analyzed mainly through thematic analysis and presented in the form of text with elaborations and quotations.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Focus Group Discussions’ demographic Characteristics Sex of students was taken into consideration so as to remove bias. As it is seen, there was almost equal proportion between males and females with a few exceptions of same sex schools. In addition, sex is among the variables that must not be left out in social science studies because male and female brains differ anatomically, hormonally, and psychologically (Rabesandratana 2014) thus, a mix of their responses is crucial. Moreover, equal participation of men and women in learning and providing a shared opinion is a salient feature of modern democracy. Twelve FGDs were conducted with at least eight participants per group. In addition, eight teachers were involved. The results are presented in the following sections.
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Status of Basic Voters’ Education in Tanzania Secondary School Curriculum (Topics, Delivery) The study aimed at examining the status of basic voters’ education as delivered through civic education in secondary schools both at the Ordinary and Advanced levels. Civic knowledge is delivered through the Civics subject for Ordinary Level students and through General Studies subject for Advanced level students in Tanzania Secondary Education. Topics delivered according to levels as presented in the 2010 Tanzanian Civics Syllabus for Civics subject include: in Form One: the topics are Our Nation, Life Skills, Human Rights, Citizenship, Work, Family Life, Behaviour and Decision Making, and Road Safety. In Form Two, the topics include Life Skills, Government, Local Government, Central Government, Democracy, Democratic elections and Gender. In Form Three, the topics are Promotion of Life skills, Economic Development, Social Development and Poverty, and in Form Four, the topics are Culture and Globalization. For General studies subject in Form Five and Six the topics include Philosophy and Religion, Contemporary/Cross- cutting Issues, Science and Technology, Democratic Processes and Practices, Life Skills and International Affairs.
All these indicate the will of the government in imparting professional, formative, and learning-oriented civic education to its citizens as a prerequisite for ensuring students’ democratic competence. However, the above topics lack progression from one level to the other. A study by URT (2011) proposed that content should include three attributes, i.e. knowledge attributes, competencies attribute and attitude/ values attributes. These are slightly covered in Tanzania supposedly caused by the fact that a school system is not recommended as the main institution of providing civic education in Tanzania (Malya, 2016). However, with more than 70 percent of the content geared for the mentioned attributes in the Tanzania syllabus, it thus settles well with Classical Condition Theory in the third scenario where Neutral Stimulus (NS) is transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). In other words, after the BVE has been acclimatized to students/voters/citizens, the question of voting becomes a conditioned involuntary response as a reflex action. However, the mere presence of topics does not guarantee learning. Whether this will happen, depends on students’ understanding.
Exit Level Students’ Understanding on Basic voters’ Education This objective intended to know the extent to which civic education, which is provided at school, transforms students towards understanding their civic
Kivukoni Journal 238 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality responsibilities especially voting. Major questions posed in the FGDs were checking whether students will vote in the coming election, knowledge on their rights and responsibilities as citizens, knowledge on the concept of democracy and their opinion on the education that is provided.
Whether Students will Vote in Future Elections As to whether they will vote when they are of the legal age, the responses differed across levels, that is, those in Ordinary Level and Advanced Level. About quarter of ordinary level students, confessed that they would not go to vote in the coming elections unlike the Advanced level where only a few students were of this opinion. When asked why, the reasons differed. For those who said ‘Yes’ (who were the majority) the reasons include ‘it is my right, it is my responsibility, if I qualify, I want to see changes in the development, to get my needs, to get a patriotic leader, and to have better life future generations’. For those who said ‘No’ who were few mentioned things such as, ‘not interested in politics, under age, hate election processes including long queue and weather. Others include lack of safety, politics is a lie, leaders turn into betrayers, apathy- that is even if I’ll go to vote the ruling party (CCM) always wins, my vote won’t count, present leaders are not ethical even though they give promises in the campaigns, I don’t have enough education on the matter, no change and no safety.’ Some were undecided for the reason that it will depend on the contestant of the day and the political parties manifesto.
These findings extrapolate an understanding of civic responsibilities ofthe participants. this can be attributed to the fact that school education creates critical thinkers who are able to assess situations (Print and Lange 2012). The possibility of these individuals changing their minds when they grow old is little or nonexistent because whatever stimulus they receive will be conditioned automatically with the inner knowledge gotten from school hence eliciting the required response. This ‘democratic citizenship education’ in turn will develop students’ capability for thoughtful and responsible participation in political, economic, social and cultural life as democratic citizens (Print and Lange ibid). The majority of those who said they would not go to vote were from the ordinary level. Regardless that of a few these cited age as a reason, yet it implies that civic education in Ordinary Levels and especially basic voters’ education is very low. Similar findings are reported by Inkinen and Saari (2019) who recommends for an open classroom environment that can predict ‘higher levels of civic knowledge and the intended voting’ as an intervention.
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Knowledge on the Right to Participate in Community Affairs This information was obtained by asking students to mention avenues in which they can participate as Tanzania citizens when they are out of the school environment. The majority were conversant in explaining the way they would participate in community works, local government meetings, and in sharing opinions in public gatherings and in elections of local leaders. Advanced school learners were more enthusiastic and confident in the manner they would exercise their rights. Some hesitated as they have once experienced or feared that their opinions would be rejected due to young age. confidence and ability to question and critically express their opinions as active citizens is the aim of school system, there is need for making deliberate efforts in facilitating the same. Moreover, civic participation is considered as a prerequisite and a significant predictor for future participation (Reichert and Print, 2017).
Students Opinion on the Provision of Basic Voter Education The aim of this question was to get a clear picture on the provision of civic education generally and on Basic voter Education in particular. Generally, the majority of FGD participants confessed of not liking the civic/general studies subjects. Similar findings were reported by Komba (2013), Waldschmitt (2010) and Mande (2016). Despite that, the disparity was per individual student, major differences existed across schools.
The most prominent factors mentioned across all the groups include, subjects (Civics/General Studies) are not career oriented. that is, they do not have any combination as is in other subjects such as Physics Chemistry and Biology (PCB) among others. no matter how high one scores he/she will only be ranked ‘S’ for Subsidiary in General studies subjects. This creates apathy and negative towards the subject and teachers among students. If this continues, civic literacy will wane and voter turnout might remain low, as it has been proved that there is a relationship between civic competency and voter turnout (Inkinen and Saari, 2019)
The presence of more than five different authored text books, some with ambiguous and contradictory facts for these subjects was another factor. The majority of the interviewed teachers argued that there is always disagreement among teachers themselves on some of the answers students give on the examinations because of different contents read by students from various textbooks. Paradoxically, some of the students from both Ordinary and Advanced levels confessed to have
Kivukoni Journal 240 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality never seen any Civics or GS textbooks. Moreover, all students from Ordinary and Advanced level complained of lack of transparency in the marking criteria; they complained that no matter how hard they study they would not pass as expected. This factor was also associated with teachers’ incompetency; for instance, of the six schools visited only 5 percent had professional teachers’ in Civics and GS, in other words, they themselves studied the courses and the teaching methodology. The same problem was observed in Morogoro region (Mande 2016), and in Nigeria by Adeyinyi et al. (2015) who found History teachers teaching civic subjects, something that promoted rote learning. This calls for the resurrection of teachers’ subject panels in Tanzania which were once the best forum for teachers to train and share new developments; these are no longer existing due to lack of incentives.
Another contributing factor was time limit whereby Civic subjects are only allocated two periods per week unlike other subjects (by 98%), the content being too theoretical, and lack of content continuity from one level to the next. Little time allocation especially for Ordinary level was said to be making teachers resort to content based instead of competency based learning where they could have prolonged engagement and even have time to learn by practice. This method has been proven to be better in engaging learners’ and consequently making students acquire a disposition of being politically engaged (Campbell 2008).
The seemingly easiness of the subjects was another factor, in that little effort is needed to understand the topics. One student from school B said, ‘ somo la GS hamna haja ya kusoma ukikutana na swali ambalo hujafundishwa unajiongeza tuu’ meaning that there is no need of studying the subject, since you can attempt any examination questions by intuition even if the topic has never been taught before. s. Had the environment been different, students would see the subject as beneficial. Unique situation was found in schools A and B where students were very positive about the subject due to the fact that the school in general and teachers have made deliberate efforts of emphasising on the subjects including starting a social science week, increasing the number of periods from two to four and adopting inclusive and competency based approach. Civics and General studies performance in these schools were even higher. This should be practiced by all schools, as it is one of the requirements of the competence-based learning, which the government claims to follow (Kafyulilo, Rugambuka, and Moses 2012).
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Challenges in the Provision of Basic Voters’ Education This was addressed to Civics and General Studies teachers through in-depth interviews whereby all 8 teachers ascribed the low status of civics and General studies subjects to the Government, parents and students. The government and/or Tanzania Institute of Education curriculum developers were blamed for failing to design the content and effective modality of delivering civic education in schools. As a result, Civics and General Studies are ranked subsidiary (S) (for General Studies) and that Civics subject’s role is only to penalize students. This has been a source of students negative attitudes towards teachers and the subjects. Furthermore, little time (two periods) is devoted Civics subject compared to other subjects such as Mathematics (six periods) an indication of lack of seriousness on the subject. Other challenges include fragmentation of topics, repetitions, time limit, lack of effective teaching and learning material and incompetency of some teachers. Others include ,failure of regulating materials on civic education resulting to a plethora of unfiltered materials in the market, disbanding of subject teachers’ panels on General Studies and Civics and failure of the National Electoral Commission (NEC) to establish itself in secondary schools. None of these challenges is unique in Tanzania. In Nigeria, the government is blamed for failing to develop a stable civic education program, which has resulted to ‘immoral laxity’ in the society (Adeyinyi et al 2015). Lessons can be learnt from Finland where deliberate efforts have been taken to invest in civic education in the education system and have resulted to high turnout of educated citizens (Inkinen and Saari 2019).
However, the current shift of emphasis to science and technical subjects from social subjects in Finland and rechanneling of resources might impair civic education delivery and eventually affect turnout (Inkinen and Saari, ibid). For basic voter education to be productive, teachers opined that it is better to have topics that are building progressively from the previous to the next, sensor books before authorization and ensuring that effective citizenship that has the ability of making knowledge-based decision is attained through education.
Generally, parents are responsible for students’ performance whereby achievement increases when parents are involved (Campbel 2008). In this research, parents were found to play a negative role in supporting their children by not encouraging them to study Civics or General Studies and instead emphasizing on core subjects. It was reported for instance that during parents’ visitations to schools whereby parents
Kivukoni Journal 242 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Basic Voter Education: a Panacea to low voter turnout in Tanzania? A Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Kinondoni Municipality were supposed to visit each subject teacher to get feedback on students’ progress, rooms hosted by Civics/Gs subjects’ teachers receive very few or no parents at all. In addition, percent of private school students had other subject text books but, very few had books for Civics and GS; and hardly did parents pay for extra Civics/ GS lessons (commonly known as tuition) during school vacations. All these reflect the fact that these subjects are considered as luring children to politics, which is considered dangerous, a lie and unbeneficial (Armstrong 2015). Lack of adequate civic education among parents might also be a cause. According to Cooper and Olsen (2003), parents play a significant role in supporting the teaching and learning process.
Students on the other hand, have to actively play their role otherwise attention would wane and learning would stop (Benassi et al., 2014). However, this is not the case for Civics and GS subjects’ whereby majority of the interviewed teachers blamed students for apathy, which has become a barrier to their learning. Moreover, students are only serious during examination time. For example, students in School F confessed that it is only during the examination period that library shelves with Civics and General Studies books are found empty as books are borrowed. However, Duer (2016) argues that teachers need to device means that can actively engage them to make them interested in the subjects they teach. Nonetheless, students need also to react, respond outwardly, inwardly, emotionally, and intellectually, listen to ideas, ask questions, work cooperatively and complete assignments in time, and to the best of their abilities (Cooper and Olsen 2003) for learning to take place. Oxford Dictionary of Sciences quoted Thorndike who has explained the law of readiness which states that individuals learn best when they are ready to learn.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion Voter education is among the factors that if well provided can lead to higher voter turnout in elections. The paper concludes that the current modality of providing BVE through Civics and GS subjects in secondary schools does not ensure higher voter turnout in general elections. It is also concluded that despite the significance of BVE, the Tanzania’s school system does not prioritize its teaching and learning, teachers, and students face many challenges in the teaching and learning of the subject respectively. The challenges include shortage of class time, lack of competent teachers, poor quality of many civics/general studies textbooks, lack of a required
Kivukoni Journal 243 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Ambiliasia Peniel Mosha, main text books, lack of proper weighting compared to other subjects and teacher- centred mode of delivery. It is further concluded that, the Tanzania government has failed to address problems facing civics and GS subjects as pointed out by students through lack of prioritization and in allocation of adequate resources. In addition, it is concluded that parents do not encourage their children to learn Civics and GS subjects hence, students lack of commitment to studying the subjects. Lastly, it is concluded that despite that basic voter’s education (BVE) is a necessity it is nonetheless not sufficient when it comes to voters turn out during elections.
Recommendations Based on the papers conclusions the following are recommended,
1 The government of Tanzania needs to make deliberate efforts in investing in awareness creation among her citizens and especially among students in schools on the importance of participation in general elections. This could be done through review of the existing Civics and GS curricula to include relevant topics that promote patriotism and behavioural change.
2 Teachers teaching Civics and GS need retraining through short courses to equip them with the necessary skills and knowledge that are critical in making the delivery of the above-mentioned subjects more interesting to students.
3 Parents need to encourage their children to take Civics and GS subjects seriously just as they do for other subjects.
4 Tanzania’s National Electoral Committee needs to invest strategically in the promotion of voters’ education and their participation in general elections through proper engagement with secondary schools and the public. .
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Kivukoni Journal 247 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020 Minding the Gaps: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Sustainable Agriculture Development in Rural Areas of Tanzania
Kivukoni Journal 248 Vol. 4 - 7, June, 2020