4 ¬¬ ! 0OLITICAL¬(ANDBOOK¬¬ ¬¬ .'/¬#ALENDAR¬ . ¬¬ : ¬¬ ! ¬¬ . ¬¬ ) ¬¬ ! ¬¬

Dear Partners, Friends and Interested Readers,

Karibu 2008! Welcome to the year 2008!

As in the previous years the “Political Handbook and NGO Calendar 2008” will deal with political themes and topics of national and particularly of regional importance, such as the new East African Community integration process (Chapter 8). Besides, this issue will bring the readers a Calendar and a “tool box” (Chapter 10). At FES we will continue to have a bearing on peace, good governance, development and pov- erty reduction, as well as on promoting gender equality and social rights, improving aware- ness on the need to protect the living environment and to prevent the spread of HIV and AIDS. These are all parts of the promoting and protecting the human rights. Closely related to the aim of reducing poverty and promoting economic development is the agreed cooperation between the African Caribbean and Pacific States, ACP and the Euro- pean Union, EU. The conditions regulating this cooperation are described in the Cotonou Agreement and in the documents of the ongoing negotiations towards the signing of the Economic Partnership Agreements, EPAs. The EAC signed “a framework agreement” with the EU, on the 27th November 2007 as a first step towards a full Economic Partnership Agreement. Tanzania was a driving power in this process, say the experts and the media. This framework agreement is not the end of the trade negotiation process, rather the beginning. Both parties agreed to continue the negotiations in 2008 and to conclude “a comprehensive EPA not later than July 2009” (Chapter 7). Political, economic and social policies and programmes of governments and civil society or- ganizations are man-made. Behind good results or performance of groups, institutions, or even states are women and men who are committed to good leadership imbued with sound competence, ethical behavior, and social responsibility. With the Young Leadership Training Programme, YLTP VII, FES will continue to contribute to capacity building for young leaders in Tanzania (Chapter 5). Politics, policy making and leadership training do not happen in a vacuum, they are not value free. On the contrary: political and socio-economic thoughts and activities should be based on a foundation of historical experience and forward looking pragmatism framed by a political vision. FES, as the political foundation close to the Social Democratic Party of Germany, SPD, and to the Socialist International, SI, follows the political philosophy of Democracy and Social Justice. It subscribes to principles and values of Freedom, Justice and Solidarity. Therefore it is natural that FES cooperates with other social democratic organizations and parties of com- mon interest to form a strong alliance of progressive powers. The active participation of the SPD at the CCM Party Congress in Dodoma in November 2007 was a clear sign of this rela- tionship of solidarity. Discussion and dialogue to work out answers to our common challenges as well as to resolve any differences of opinion among ourselves will continue (Chapter 9). I would like to thank our many contributors to this 2008 issue for their work, with very special thanks to Dr. Azaveli Lwaitama, Lars-Christian Treusch and the Coordinator Angela Ishengoma. The staff of FES Tanzania wishes you and your family a healthy, prosperous and peaceful 2008.

Peter Häussler, Resident Director FES Tanzania Table of contents

CALENDAR 2008 6

1) OVERVIEW 63 Some basic facts and figures

2) GOVERNANCE 70 Power, Accountability and Development in Tanzania Tanzania Cabinet and Permanent Secretaries Market Economy and Leadership Ethics in Tanzania

3) NON-STATE ACTORS 96 The Role of Non-State Actors Co-ordination Committee in Tanzania Human Settlements Improvements: The Role of Civil Society Organizations

4) WOMEN 112 Women in Leadership in Tanzania: The Role of Gender Activists Paralegal Members in Decision Making Bodies

5) YOUTH 118 Building a Better Tanzania: Perspectives and Demands of Youth in Tanzania

6) ECONOMY 132 Capital, Economic Growth and Poverty Alleviation in Tanzania

7) TRADE 146 Towards the End of EPAs Negotiations: Prospects and Challenges for Tanzania European Union and East African Community Reach Historical Agreement Why are the Economic Partnership Agreements “EPAs” an Issue for Trade Unions

8) REGIONAL INTEGRATION 158 The General Opinion of the Public in Tanzania Towards the Fast-Tracking Process of the East African Federation 9) SPECIAL EVENT: PARTY CONGRESS OF CCM 163 Speech (excerpts) of Representative of Social Democratic Party of Germany, SPD The New Party Leadership of CCM

10) USEFUL TOOLS 167 a) Computers and Internet 168 (i) Internet and e-Mail - User Guide (ii) How to buy Desktops for your business (iii) Basic system maintenance (for PCs) b) Conference and discussion tools 172 (i) Holding a workshop, seminar, conference (ii) 8 tips on how to successfully chair a conference (iii) Holding effective internal meetings and planning sessions (iv) Project outlines (v) The structure of your speech (vi) Argumentation techniques (vii) How to use the blackboards and flipcharts (viii) The checklist for good implementation of activities (ix) Twelve steps towards conflict resolution c) Personal skills 182 (i) Time management - self management d) Public Relations Basics 182 (i) What is Public Relations? (ii) Preparing and running a press conference (iii) A press release e) Participatory impact monitoring and evaluation 185 Calendar 2008 Calendar 2008 Overview 2008

January 2008 February 2008 March 2008

M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 31 1 2

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

April 2008 May 2008 June 2008

M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 1

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

July 2008 August 2008 September 2008

M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30

October 2008 November 2008 December 2008

M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 Overview 2009

January 2009 February 2009 March 2009

M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S

1 2 3 4 1 1

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

April 2009 May 2009 June 2009

M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30

July 2009 August 2009 September 2009

M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S

1 2 3 4 5 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30

October 2009 November 2009 December 2009

M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S

1 2 3 4 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 week December January February M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 52 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 Dec. 2007 24th - 30th

Monday 24 Tuesday 25 Wednesday 26

...... De c em b e r 07 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 27 Friday 28 Saturday 29 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 30 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

 week December January February M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S De c / Jan 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 01 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Dec. 07 - Jan. 08 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 31st - 6th

Monday 31 Tuesday 1 Wednesday 2 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 3 Friday 4 Saturday 5 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 6 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

10 week December January February M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 y 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 02 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 Jan. 2008 7th - 13th

Monday 7 Tuesday 8 Wednesday 9 Janua r ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 10 Friday 11 Saturday 12 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 13 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

11 week December January February M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S Janua r 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 03 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Jan. 2008 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 14th - 20th y Monday 14 Tuesday 15 Wednesday 16 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 17 Friday 18 Saturday 19 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 20 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

12 week December January February M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 y 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 04 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 Jan. 2008 21st - 27th

Monday 21 Tuesday 22 Wednesday 23 Janua r ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 24 Friday 25 Saturday 26 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 27 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

13 week January February March M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S Jan / Fe b 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 05 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Jan. 08 - Feb. 08 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28th - 3rd

Monday 28 Tuesday 29 Wednesday 30 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 31 Friday 1 Saturday 2 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 3 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

14 week January February March M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 y 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 06 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Feb. 2008 4th - 10th

Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Wednesday 6 Fe br ua r ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 7 Friday 8 Saturday 9 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 10 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

15 week January February March

Fe br ua r M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 07 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Feb. 2008 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 11th - 17th y Monday 11 Tuesday 12 Wednesday 13 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 14 Friday 15 Saturday 16 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 17 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

16 week January February March M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 y 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 08 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Feb. 2008 18th - 24th

Monday 18 Tuesday 19 Wednesday 20 Fe br ua r ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 21 Friday 22 Saturday 23 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 24 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

17 week February March April

Fe b / M a r M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 09 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Feb. - Mar. 08 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 25th - 2nd

Monday 25 Tuesday 26 Wednesday 27 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 28 Friday 29 Saturday 1 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 2 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

18 week February March April M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 10 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 Mar. 2008 3rd - 9th

Monday 3 Tuesday 4 Wednesday 5 M a rc h ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 6 Friday 7 Saturday 8 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 9 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

19 week February March April M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6

M a rc h 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Mar. 2008 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 10th - 16th

Monday 10 Tuesday 11 Wednesday 12 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 13 Friday 14 Saturday 15 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 16 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

20 week February March April M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 Mar. 2008 17th - 23th

Monday 17 Tuesday 18 Wednesday 19 M a rc h ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 20 Friday 21 Saturday 22 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 23 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

21 week February March April M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6

M a rc h 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 13 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Mar. 2008 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 24th - 30th

Monday 24 Tuesday 25 Wednesday 26 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 27 Friday 28 Saturday 29 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 30 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

22 week March April May M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 14 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 Mar. - Apr. 08 31st - 6th

31 1 2 Monday Tuesday Wednesday M a r / Apr ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 3 Friday 4 Saturday 5 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 6 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

23 week March April May M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Apri l 15 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Apr. 2008 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 7th - 13th

Monday 7 Tuesday 8 Wednesday 9 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 10 Friday 11 Saturday 12 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 13 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

24 week March April May M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 Apr. 2008 14th - 20th Apri l Monday 14 Tuesday 15 Wednesday 16 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 17 Friday 18 Saturday 19 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 20 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

25 week March April May M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Apri l 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Apr. 2008 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 21st - 27th

Monday 21 Tuesday 22 Wednesday 23 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 24 Friday 25 Saturday 26 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 27 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

26 week April May June M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 18 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Apr. - May 08 28th - 4th

Monday 28 Tuesday 29 Wednesday 30 Apr / M ay ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 1 Friday 2 Saturday 3 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 4 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

27 week April May June M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 19 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 M ay 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 May 2008 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 5th - 11th

Monday 5 Tuesday 6 Wednesday 7 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 8 Friday 9 Saturday 10 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 11 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

28 week April May June M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 May 2008 12th - 18th M ay Monday 12 Tuesday 13 Wednesday 14 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 15 Friday 16 Saturday 17 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 18 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

29 week April May June M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 21 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 M ay 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 May 2008 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 19th - 25th

Monday 19 Tuesday 20 Wednesday 21 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 22 Friday 23 Saturday 24 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 25 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

30 week May June July M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 May - June 08 26th - 1st

Monday 26 Tuesday 27 Wednesday 28 ...... / June M ay 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 29 Friday 30 Saturday 31 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 1 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

31 week May June July M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

June 23 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 June 08 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 2nd - 8th

Monday 2 Tuesday 3 Wednesday 4 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 5 Friday 6 Saturday 7 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 8 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

32 week May June July M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 24 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 June 2008 9th - 15th June Monday 9 Tuesday 10 Wednesday 11 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 12 Friday 13 Saturday 14 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 15 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

33 week May June July M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

June 25 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 June 2008 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 16th - 22nd

Monday 16 Tuesday 17 Wednesday 18 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 19 Friday 20 Saturday 21 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 22 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

34 week May June July M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 26 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 June 2008 23rd - 29th June Monday 23 Tuesday 24 Wednesday 25 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 26 Friday 27 Saturday 28 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 29 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

35 week June July August June / July M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 27 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 June - July 08 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 30th - 6th

Monday 30 Tuesday 1 Wednesday 2 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 3 Friday 4 Saturday 5 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 6 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

36 week June July August M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 28 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 July 2008 7th - 13th July Monday 7 Tuesday 8 Wednesday 9 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 10 Friday 11 Saturday 12 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 13 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

37 week June July August M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 29 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 July 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 July 2008 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 14th - 20th

Monday 14 Tuesday 15 Wednesday 16 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 17 Friday 18 Saturday 19 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 20 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

38 week June July August M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 30 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 July 2008 21st - 27th July Monday 21 Tuesday 22 Wednesday 23 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 24 Friday 25 Saturday 26 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 27 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

39 week July August September July / A ug M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 31 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 July - Aug. 08 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 28th - 3rd

Monday 28 Tuesday 29 Wednesday 30 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 31 Friday 1 Saturday 2 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 3 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

40 week July August September M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 32 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 Aug. 2008 4th - 10th

Monday 4 Tuesday 5 Wednesday 6 A ugu s t ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 7 Friday 8 Saturday 9 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 10 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

41 week July August September M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A ugu s t 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 33 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Aug. 2008 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 11th - 17th

Monday 11 Tuesday 12 Wednesday 13 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 14 Friday 15 Saturday 16 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 17 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

42 week July August September M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 34 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 Aug. 2008 18th - 24th

Monday 18 Tuesday 19 Wednesday 20 A ugu s t ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 21 Friday 22 Saturday 23 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 24 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

43 week July August September M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A ugu s t 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 35 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Aug. 2008 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 25th - 31st

Monday 25 Tuesday 26 Wednesday 27 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 28 Friday 29 Saturday 30 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 31 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

44 week August September October M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 36 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 Sept. 2008 1st - 7th

Monday 1 Tuesday 2 Wednesday 3 ...... Se p tem b e r 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 4 Friday 5 Saturday 6 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 7 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

45 week August September October Se p tem b e r M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 37 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Sept. 2008 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 8th - 14th

Monday 8 Tuesday 9 Wednesday 10 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 11 Friday 12 Saturday 13 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 14 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

46 week August September October M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 38 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 Sept. 2008 15th - 21st

Monday 15 Tuesday 16 Wednesday 17 ...... Se p tem b e r 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 18 Friday 19 Saturday 20 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 21 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

47 week August September October Se p tem b e r M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 39 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Sept. 2008 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 22nd - 28th

Monday 22 Tuesday 23 Wednesday 24 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 25 Friday 26 Saturday 27 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 28 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

48 week September October November M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 40 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Sept. - Oct. 08 29th - 5th

Monday 29 Tuesday 30 Wednesday 1 Se p t / O c ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 2 Friday 3 Saturday 4 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 5 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

49 week September October November M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S O c t ob e r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 41 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Oct. 2008 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 6th - 12th

Monday 6 Tuesday 7 Wednesday 8 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 9 Friday 10 Saturday 11 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 12 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

50 week September October November M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 42 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Oct. 2008 13th - 19th

Monday 13 Tuesday 14 Wednesday 15 O c t ob e r ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 16 Friday 17 Saturday 18 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 19 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

51 week September October November M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S O c t ob e r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 43 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Oct. 2008 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 20th - 26th

Monday 20 Tuesday 21 Wednesday 22 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 23 Friday 24 Saturday 25 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 26 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

52 week October November December M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 44 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 Oct. - Nov. 08 27th - 2nd

Monday 27 Tuesday 28 Wednesday 29 O cT / No v ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 30 Friday 31 Saturday 1 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 2 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

53 week October November December No vem b e r M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 45 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Nov. 2008 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 3rd - 9th

Monday 3 Tuesday 4 Wednesday 5 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 6 Friday 7 Saturday 8 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 9 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

54 week October November December M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 46 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 Nov. 2008 10th - 16th

Monday 10 Tuesday 11 Wednesday 12 ...... No vem b e r 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 13 Friday 14 Saturday 15 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 16 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

55 week October November December No vem b e r M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 47 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Nov. 2008 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 17th - 23rd

Monday 17 Tuesday 18 Wednesday 19 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 20 Friday 21 Saturday 22 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 23 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

56 week October November December M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 48 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 Nov. 2008 24th - 30th

Monday 24 Tuesday 25 Wednesday 26 ...... No vem b e r 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 27 Friday 28 Saturday 29 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 30 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

57 week November December January De c em b e r M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 49 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Dec. 2008 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 1st - 7th

Monday 1 Tuesday 2 Wednesday 3 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 4 Friday 5 Saturday 6 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 7 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

58 week November December January M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 50 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 Dec. 2008 8th - 14th

Monday 8 Tuesday 9 Wednesday 10 De c em b e r ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 11 Friday 12 Saturday 13 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 14 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

59 week November December January De c em b e r M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 51 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Dec. 2008 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 15th - 21st

Monday 15 Tuesday 16 Wednesday 17 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 18 Friday 19 Saturday 20 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 21 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

60 week November December January M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 52 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 Dec. 2008 22nd - 28th

Monday 22 Tuesday 23 Wednesday 24 De c em b e r ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 25 Friday 26 Saturday 27 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 28 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

61 De c 08 / Jan 09 week November December January M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 01 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Dec. 08 - Jan. 09 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 29th - 4th

Monday 29 Tuesday 30 Wednesday 31 ...... 8 8 8 ...... 10 10 10 ...... 12 12 12 ...... 14 14 14 ...... 16 16 16 ...... 18 18 18 ...... 20 20 20

Thursday 1 Friday 2 Saturday 3 ...... 8 8 12 ...... 10 10 16 ...... 12 12 20 ...... ______14 14 Sunday 4 ...... 16 16 12 ...... 18 18 16 ...... 20 20 20

62 1 - Overview

63 945,087 sq. km 886,037 sq. km 883,600 sq. km 2,500 sq. km 59,050 sq. km 3,861 km 1,424 km 5,895 m coal, diamonds, gemstones, gold, natural gas, ore, tin, phosphates, iron hydropower, nickel, uranium 4,23% 1,16% 1,840 sq. km 40% 38% 18% 39,384 223 (July 2007) 2,091% SOME BASIC FACTS AND FIGURES SOME BASIC FACTS Geography area Total Land area -Mainland -Zanzibar (includes the islands of area Water Mafia, Pemba and Zanzibar) land boundaries Total Coastline Highest Point: Kilimanjaro Natural resources Land use Arable land Permanent crops Irrigated land Permanent pastures & woodlands Forests Other Population Population (estimated) rate Population growth

64 - African 99% (indigenous), other 1% (consisting of Asian, European and - African 99% (indigenous), other 1% (consisting of Asian, European - Christian 30%, Muslim 35%, indigenous beliefs 35% - Arab, African, mixed Arab and African than 99% Muslim - more 45,6 million 23,8% 44 per sq. km 17,7 years 43,9% 2,8% Mainland Arab) Zanzibar Mainland Zanzibar 19 1,723.0 -2,141.1 9 Estimated population in 2015 Urban population Population density Median age Population < 15 Population > 65 & languages religion Ethnic groups, Ethnic groups Religions Economy Exports of goods and services (% GDP) Exports (Mill. US$) balance Trade Internet users (per 1000 people) 2007 Source: Human Development Report 2006, Bank of Tanzania

65 Source: National Bureau of Statistics (NBS): 2007

Gender related indicators Seats in parliament held by women (% of total) 30,4 Estimated earned income, female (PPP US$) 569 Estimated earned income, male (PPP US$) 781 Women in government at ministerial level (% of total) 15,4% Source: Human Development Report 2006

Tanzania Trade in Goods with the World 2006 Imports Partner Title Trade Value Percentage South Africa $ 546,760,142 12,32% United Arab Emirates $ 500,910,716 11,28% Bahrain $ 409,350,149 9,22% China $ 308,604,817 6,95% Saudi Arabia $ 252,812,901 5,69% Other partners $ 2,421,073,264 54,53% TOTAL $ 4,439,511,989 100%

66 Tanzania Trade in Goods with the World 2006 Exports Partner Title Trade Value Percentage Switzerland $ 367,234,299 21,73% South Africa $ 241,825,205 14,31% China $ 150,300,648 8,89% Germany $ 112,716,756 6,67% Netherlands $ 102,068,420 6,04% Other partners $ 715,718,075 42,35% TOTAL 1,689,863,403 100% Source: http://comtrade.un.org/db/ce/ceSnapshot.aspx?r=834

67 TOP IMPORTED COMMODITIES 2006 Mineral fuels, mineral oils and products of their distillation $ 1,076,375,228 Machinery and mechanical appliances; parts thereof $ 509,678,924 Vehicles other than railway or tramway rolling stock $ 445,595,688 Electrical machinery and equipment and parts thereof; $ 405,218,413 sound recorders and reprocucers, and parts and accessories of such articles Animal or vegetable fats and oils $ 222,246,732 Other commodities $ 1,780,397,004

TOP EXPORTED COMMODITIES 2006 Natural or cultured pearls, precious or semi-precious stones $ 627,643,209 Fish and crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic inverte- $ 187,130,326 brates Ores, slag and ash $ 179,760,988 Coffee, tea and spices $ 117,711,183 Tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes $ 106,699,932 Other commodities $ 470,917,765 Source: http://comtrade.un.org/db/ce/ceSnapshot.aspx?r=834

68 NEWS ABOUT MINIMUM WAGE

After the government has announced 105,000/=: Big security companies the minimum wage levels for the private 80,000/=: Small security companies sector employees, the responses of the 120,000/=: Big hospitals and pharmacies society are positive. A house-girl working 80,000/=: Dispensaries and laboratories in Mwenge, Mariam Hassan, was quoted 150,000/=: Manufacturing industries by the Guardian (October 11, 2007) as 80,000/=: Small factories expressing her relief since before she 65,000/=: Agriculture sector used to earn as little as Tsh 30,000/=. 225,000/=: Water and marine services So Tsh 65,000/= is at least a relief of her sector (workers on passengers and cargo burden in caring for her family. A barmaid ships) Husna Ramadhani quoted by Mwananchi 196,000/=: Workers on fishing ships newspaper (October 9th, 2007) said that 300,000/=: Porters she will now be able to get the necessary 150,000/=: Employees in five star hotels needs with less problems. 80,000/=: Employees in small hotels 90,000/=: Housemaids in diplomatic NEW MINIMUM WAGE (TSH) LEVELS missions 65,000/=: Housemaids 350,000/=: Workers in aviation services 350,000/=: workers in minerals sector 300,000/=: Clearing and forwarding 230,000/=: Telephone companies Sources: The Guardian newspaper, Tuesday October 200,000/=: Drivers & Conductors 9, 2007 and http://ippmedia.com/ipp/ 250,000/=: Media institutions doing guardian/2007/10/09/100057.html business 150,000/=: Media institutions providing religious services 69 2 - Governance

POWER, ACCOUNTABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA: A Proposal for Alternative Initiatives for Consolidation of Governance Reforms in Tanzania By: Max Mmuya, University of Dar es Salaam

INTRODUCTION strengths and weaknesses associated with the policy process in Tanzania. Tanzania has been taking numerous The findings were also expected to reform measures since the mid make policy analysts and decision- 1980’s with varied results. The makers more sensitive to the social year 2007/2008 is thought to be and political realities that, in the end, an appropriate point at which one determine how far specific reforms or could make reflections regarding policy interventions may go. the realization of the envisaged goals of the reforms particularly in order The study assumed that “power” to carry the previous efforts further. was an important variable the way It is for this reason that we opted to things work. The variable was present an abridged version of the therefore disaggregated into long- results and recommendations of a term determinants; Structures and study on Monitoring Power around Institutions, short-term variables; which over the year of 2006/07 we and Human agency. These aggregates had the opportunity to engage in. of power were studied by examining The main objective of the study was the impact that the use of power to investigate why things work the occasions with respect to the taking way they do inspite the various reform of development initiatives. On efforts. In this regard the effort was to the structural/institutional side, analyze and understand the political the “constitution” of power and and institutional factors that shape the “distribution” of power were development outcomes. The hope examined. On the human agency was that the results would make side the “exercise” of power and the analysts and policy-makers more “control of power” were examined. aware of the political conditions in which specific reform initiatives are Under this framework, a survey being implemented. To that extent, the instrument was applied on a variety of study was envisaged to offer a more categories of “Well Informed Persons” informed and balanced perspective (WIP) to investigate four distinct on threats and opportunities, and different points in the policy process: Agenda-setting, formulation, 1 Max Mmuya ( 2007) Monitoring Power a implementation and effects. On Effects Consultant’s Report submitted to SIDA of Power two questions were raised,

70 2 - Governance that is achievement and process of that in each of the angular vertexes, carrying out development initiatives. there are varied fractions of players. The Development Partners for POWER CONFIGURATIONS AND example, have a variety of agencies RELATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT that interact differently (sometimes IN TANZANIA: STUDY FINDINGS in competition and at other times in opposition) with the Tanzanian State The broad findings from the study and the Non-State actors. A broad suggest that there is a triangle of thrust in development assistance is power with key angular actors in for example, that some DPs decide Tanzania. These actors are, the on supporting Tanzania on the Development Partners (DPs), the basis of DPs’ “ own interest” while Tanzanian State and Non-State actors others do so on the basis of “foreign in their various organizations. Of needs”/recipients’. Such differences these actors, the findings suggest notwithstanding, it has been that the DPs are critical political established that the Development actors having influence all the way Partners are critical actors in the from national agenda setting to the development assistance regime. outcome of policy implementation. As Various fractions exist with these other studies have previously shown, vertexes and these fractionshave a besides the DPs predominance, the bearing in the way they relate amongst study confirms that there is more themselves as well as with the DPs. mutual bondage between the DPs and the state in Tanzania to the Inside the Tanzania State extent that the two can sideline local populations, including their For the purpose of the objectives of organs of representation, notably the this summary paper, there is need to parliament. present some detailed information on the findings in respect of the The study has also brought out the state in Tanzania. The Tanzania finding that, although the state in state has been the major object of Tanzania has developed mutual the reform process involving at least working relationship with the DPs, three major areas: Building of an it always is averse and suspicious effective state ( Stateness), enhancing of the somewhat “easy” relationship Good Governance and promoting that seems to exist between non-state Democracy. In definitional terms, actors and the very Development Partners it goes along with. • Stateness meaning a sovereign entity with institutions vested Inside the Angular Actors in formalized practices and government capacity to set an While three angular actors were agenda and implement policy isolated, the study findings do suggest towards the realization of goals, or simply, government effectiveness 2 DFID ( 2005) Understanding Patterns of Ac- countability in Tanzania 71 • Good Governance implying the to implementation. Relatedly, the development of institutional findings show that although the state environment in which citizens has all the trappings of a modern interact among themselves and one, its institutions are far from with government agencies/officials being effective and the behavior of underlined by the principles of the bureaucracy is motivated more Accountability, Transparency, by patronage than rational and policy Responsiveness, and Rule of law, considerations. It was suggested and, that these tendencies account for • Democracy focusing on the more the many cases of slippage in policy political dimensions of governance implementation. with reference towards specific requirements which include Second there is the change of grid first,free, second, fair, and third, of power within the state. This was competitive elections; citizenry recognized as a drift of the centre of freedoms that make them truly power toward the President’s Office meaningful for example freedom and even more noticeably to the of expression; alternative sources Ministry of Finance (MoF). The state of information, and Institutions in Tanzania is not holistic. It is “some that ensure that government preeminent agencies” This trend was policies depend on the votes and identified as reflecting the increased preferences of citizens. role that the Ministry of Finance plays as a “docking site” of development In relation to the main subject aid. Its direct connection to the DPs above, what do the findings from the enhances the Ministry’s status and study say with regard to the power influence configurations within the Tanzanian state and to what extent do the Third, there is the preeminence of identified power configurations so the Executive over Parliament. The identified have a bearing on the findings were very explicit on this reform initiatives that focused on it. aspect emphasizing the point that the executive would only consult with Among the Key Findings parliament as a matter of formality rather than be motivated by genuine First, there is the recognition that desire to seek opinion which the the state in Tanzania has lost executive can act on. Because many sovereignty in so far that it does not parliamentarians belong to the have ownership of its own programs. ruling party they feel frustrated by This rhymes with what was earlier this neglect of their institution and recognized from the study that there there has been an increase in extra- is donor dominance when it comes parliamentary party caucus sessions to Agenda Setting and all through to reconcile differences and maintain party coherence in the public whenever such tensions have taken 3 Robert Dahl - Democracy and its Critics place.

72 Fourth, there is the issue of the POWER ACCOUNTABILITY AND overlapping of the structures of the DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA State and of the Party in office. The latter is not only dominant. There is The study hypothesized that beyond also a lot of overlap with party officials technocratic and/or managerial and loyalists serving in government considerations, power configurations positions at central and lower are important in development levels. This arrangement limits both initiatives. It was suggested that vertical and horizontal accountability. the way power is used “affects Vertically, citizen voice can not be good governance and what sufficiently articulated or can simply be power accomplishes presents the stifled; and horizontally, the expected development record”. Thus the follow checks and balance between the arms up questions were: how is power used of government become constrained as in Tanzania and what is the effect well. of the way the power is used? Also, what has been the way power has In summary, with regard to the effect been so configured and accomplished of the reform around the state the in Tanzania? How close or far away findings simply suggests that looking has the spirit of development been back to the time of the study since accomplished? The findings from the reforms were instituted, while some study speak a great deal on the two positive trends could be identified, major issues thus. power relations in Tanzania were yet to evolve into the “modern” form. Looking at Tanzania around the issues They were underlined/informed of state effectiveness, accountability largely by tradition, informal and development it is abundantly relations away from being inspired clear that the way power is by structural transformational drives constituted, controlled and exercised and enshrined in a legal regime. has significant bearing on the three aspects of reform around the state. A Power in Tanzania was seen to be few clippings from the study findings dispersed, contradictory and arbitrary. can save as an illustration. Its face was at times harsh, at another time merely latent, unpredictable and Power and Policy Formulation discretional. One important finding on how power The public bureaucracy was seen as effects policy is that within the weak, among other considerations, government, the emerging trend is because of lack of organic link between that while there are power checking it and organs of public representation mechanisms, these are only formal. and the mass of civil society, but also In reality there is no follow up on because of the way power around the the issues from attendant reports. In public bureaucracy is constituted and other words the concerns, suggestions exercised. and recommendations are left to

73 fall through and unattended. The Distribution of power and Policy explanation behind the trend, as per Effects the findings is that a) the state in Tanzania is yet to evolve into a policy On distribution of power, the effort was state and b) the bureaucracy is yet to find out how far the government to become a formal one. Informality system itself and the way power is informs the way state matters are distributed affects the outcome of handled policies.

Power and Policy Implementation A number of issues were brought out on this aspect. The predominant Other highlights of the findings were view expressed was that while related to the major question of policy state power helps get things done, implementation. it remains insensitive to rights and matters related to accountability. This Observations included: is to suggest, as the subject entails, that the way policies are carried out • A lack of enforcement capacity within the existing government system leading to serious slippage of does not have positive consideration policy intentions; for the enhancement of rights in the • A reluctance on the part of central democratic sense. organs to delegate authority; • Whenever delegated, authority A NEW GENERATION OF tends to be too dispersed and thus INITIATIVES ineffective; • Non-state organizations are too The study on monitoring power has few and far apart to constitute a led us to accept the proposition that critical mass for aiding in public power is an important variable in most policy implementation; if not all transformation initiatives. • Too much personal arbitrariness Power is both a problem and a solution among government officials when to the problem. The way power is it comes to deciding on ways and constituted, controlled and exercised means of implementing policy. can frustrate development or facilitate its realization. For the current subject, If one were to seek explanations for in order to realize the envisaged the trend, power analysis also assists goal of enhancing governance, it is the understanding of the trend. One recommended to reconstitute the of these is that the institutions of the moulds and uses of power around two state are not vested in formalized institutional structures: the State and practices that assure implementation Civil Society. But due to the need for and follow up of the implementation. brevity of the paper, we deliberately Besides, another explanation for the spare the transformation initiatives trend can come from the findings that round the Civil Society cluster to the Executive can ignore the public another setting. and organs of their representation.

74 Enhancing Governance Around the is not enforceable obviously the reform State agendas above will fall through.

Dissecting the Problem around the Suffuse State It came out of the study that areas/ Dual fusion 2 entails the overlapping/ issues under the state which required pilling up of offices and officials of transformations are a) Fusion of two (or more) governance institutions state entities that should otherwise into one power mould. Under fusion be separate and discrete and b) 1, the three organs (often referred to Distinction/Pre-eminence accorded to as branches) belong to one entity, the an element of the state among several government. Under fusion 2 reference other elements. We respectively refer is to a much broader institution of to these as “Dual Fusions” and the governance whose elements may second as “Dual Pre-eminences”. include governmental and no- governmental entities. In the case of The fusions and pre-eminences are the current study in Tanzania, we have seemingly the same but conceptually identified these elements to include, and strategically different in their besides the branches of government, transformation handling. Fusion the party in office. But they could simply implies unification which include, Non-state actors if they are in the transformation handling will co-opted into one power mould, such require its own type of strategy to as the media, the religious, etc. resolve the implied power problems and solution. Pre-eminence implies From the study, this fusion was distinguishing or highlighting one identified as involving government among several elements which will offices and officials on the one hand require, again a distinct strategy to and the ruling party’s offices and handle the underlying problem. officials on the other. The fusion practically has meant that at anyone The Dual Fusions activity or role execution by an official Dual fusion 1 refers to the collapsing or formal organ, for example the of Executive, Legislative and Judicial Head of state, a Minister, Parliament, elements of state into one power a City Council meeting or the Party’s mould. The identified implied National Executive Committee (NEC), problem here is that the fusion of the one cannot easily distinguish to Executive with Legislature and with which office and official the given the Judiciary defeats the cardinal role or function executed would be principle of functional autonomy and attributed. the mediation roles of the powers of one organ over the other two The state and or the dominant party organs of government. In which case, subsumes one into the other thereby horizontal accountability cannot be making the units that are derived from enforced. If horizontal accountability the party, such as the parliament and lower levels peoples’ representatives’

75 organs such as councils, including the cardinal principle of autonomy the much smaller parties lose voice. of the institutions and capacity to exercise effective oversight over one The Dual Pre-eminences another. This has been referred to as Pre-eminence 1 again at the level of Separation of Powers. the state, was identified as involving b) Decongesting of Public Offices and the “ Distinction of the Executive Officials of both the state and party branch high above the other organs organs and assigning autonomous of state, that is the Judiciary and duties and roles. Parliament. Devolution of state powers and Pre-eminence 2 at the broader Assets governance level involves the The second transformation of the State upholding of an organ of governance, calls for devolution of state powers in this case the Party in office not only and assets from central to local and as dominant but also as ‘Supreme” private organs. Power must go to the over, may be the government, other hierarchically lower state organs of Non- State actors such as the religious, the state to allow for focus, ownership media, academic, etc. and, ultimately, accountability. Additionally, devolution calls for The implication of a power arrange- transposing of the state to citizen ment that is based on systems of dual bodies and individuals, for example fusion and dual pre-eminence coun- the Parliament and district/municipal tervails efforts at the realization of Councils. the three main reform agenda’s sur- rounding the state: stateness, good Agencies for the Transformational governance and democracy. Process

Transforming the Dual Fusions and Under previous reform efforts, Dual Pre-eminences numerous initiatives have been put in place to address the problems around Transformation of the state requires the state with limited results. We two major pronged action: transfor- would like to argue that the limited mation of the dual fusions and dual results emanated from the little pre-eminences and the second is the appreciation of the centrality of the devolution of state powers and as- power analysis of the problem. Power sets. was the problem and power is the key to the resolution of the problem. This Transformation of the Dual Fusions leads to the suggesting that the next and Dual Pre-eminences generation of initiatives for handling Both fusion and pre-eminence call for the problem of fusion and of pre- the following actions. eminence as dissected above, should a) Streamlining Roles and Functions of involve the invoking of agencies of the organs of the state with the explicit power that can appropriately act, direction towards the realization of effectively negotiate and if necessary

76 impose sanction, etc. on power lines event, is to increase the proportion of that nourish on fusion and on pre- power in order to have more power eminence. In our estimate, these with which to surge pressure on agencies include impersonal structural existing power. forces and deliberate human action. Most local initiatives that have Structural Transformational been “lone” in their activism have Agencies easily been dismissed away as “irresponsible truants”, “power Structural transformational agencies hungry sycophants” draped with include all those law like impersonal numerous other disparaging referents. forces that lead to creating alternative It is high time that local actors build and independent power sites and coalitions of Citizen Groups (NGOs, that lead to subjecting fusion and The Media, Willing Political parties pre-eminence to differentiation, etc.) to increase voice, thereby build multiplicity and rearrangement of power. Increased voice on effective power blocks. Capitalism (and not government, good governance and Crony Capitalism) has proven to democracy can alter the power embody these transformational structure in key areas such as agenda capabilities. setting, agenda implementation, policy effect, human rights, etc. Human Agencies Development Partners Under the human agencies, one can identify two categories of the The development Partners were human agencies: local and foreign identified in the study as having (development) partners. The considerable power in Tanzania. To preoccupation here is to “build that extent DPs power can strategically Power”, alternative power. Human be invoked and applied as a resource agencies refer to purposive and with which to alter the adverse power calculated efforts of persons who seek arrangement through the following to promote change. conscious efforts.

The thrust of the human agency is to • Imposition of targeted sanctions build power with which to handle the to address problems of fusion and problem of power. We are assuming conferment of pre-eminencies that like-minded persons, outside • Support meaningful voices the existing power moulds can come • Support through intervention together thereby increasing size and (legal and technical) tendencies voice. On this, we are not oblivious at promotion of crony to the difficulties of forming coalitions capitalism carried out in a of citizen groups. It however is transnationalisation context an inescapable proposition that involving local business “quantity” or “size matters” as does and political elites and their quality also matter. The effort, in any international partners.

77 TANZANIA CABINET AND PERMANENT SECRETARIES

Sources: Tanzania Information Department, August 2007 http://www.tanemb.set/tanzania_ministries_and_contact_.htm (Valid as on the 9th of December 2007)

1. PRESIDENT’S OFFICE Minister of State (Union Affairs): Magogoni Road Dr. Hussein Ali Mwinyi, MP P.O. Box 9120 Tel: 2116994 DAR-ES-SALAAM. Tel: 2116898-9, 2116679, Minister of State (Environment): Fax: 2121508/2113425 Prof. Mark James Mwandosya, MP Tel: 2113857 THE PRESIDENT: H.E.Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete Permanent Secretary: Mrs. Ruth Mollel Chief Secretary: Tel: 2116995 Mr. Philemon L. Luhanjo Tel: 2116679 Deputy Permanent Secretary: Mr. Sazi Salula Minister of State (Political Affairs Tel: 2116995 and Civil Societies Relations): Mr. Kingunge Ngombale Mwiru, MP Tel: 2116898 3. PRIME MINISTER’S OFFICE Magogoni Road Minister of State (Good Governance): P.O. Box 3021 Mr. Philip S. Marmo, MP DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2114240 Tel: 2117249-55, 2135076, 2123281 Fax: 2112850 Permanent Secretary, State House: Mr. Michael P. Mwanda Prime Minister’s Office in Dodoma Tel: 2110972 Permanent Secretary P.O. Box 980 2. VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE Dodoma Magogoni Road Tel: (026) 23320-9 P.O. Box 9120 or 5380 DAR-ES-SALAAM PRIME MINISTER: Tel: 2110614, 2113857 Mr. Edward Ngoyai Lowassa, MP Fax: 2113856 Tel: 2112847, 2117264 Fax: 2116798 VICE PRESIDENT: Dr. Ali Mohamed Shein Tel: 2116919

78 Minister of State (Policy and Coordination of Parliamentary Permanent Secretary: Affairs): Mr. George D. Yambesi Dr. Batilda Salha Burian, MP Tel: 2130122 Tel: 2112849 5. PLANNING AND ECONOMIC Minister of State (Regional EMPOWERMENT Administration and Local Kivukoni Front Government): P.O. Box 9242 Mr. Mizengo Kayanza Peter Pinda, MP DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2124326 Tel: 2112681-4 Fax: 2113984, 2132590 Fax: 2117103

Dodoma Office Minister: P.O. Box 923 Dr. Juma Alifa Ngasongwa, MP Dodoma Tel: 2112746 Tel: 026-21607 Fax: 2117103

Deputy Minister (Regional Deputy Minister: Administration and Local Mr. Gaudence Cassian Kayombo, MP Government): Tel: 2112852 Mrs. Celina Ompeshi Kombani, MP Tel: 2120120 Permanent Secretary: Balozi Charles K. Mutalemwa Deputy Minister (Disaster and HIV/ Tel. Fax: 2116728 AIDS): Dr. Luka Jelas Siyame, MP Deputy Permanent Secretary: Tel: 2110365 Mrs. Joyce K. G. Mapunjo, Tel: 2110411 Permanent Secretary. Mr. Vicent Mrisho 6. DEFENCE AND NATIONAL SERVICE Tel: 2135076 Ismani Road Fax: 2112850 P.O Box 9544, DAR-ES-SALAAM. 4. PUBLIC SERVICE MANAGEMENT Tel: 2151197-9, 2150556-9, 2150588, Kivukoni Front 2150690, 2117153-9, 2112793, P.O. Box 2483 2137138, 2112791 DAR-ES-SALAAM Fax: 2156719, 2116719 Tel: 2118531-4, 2130122, 2118331-4 Fax: 2113084, 2125299, 2131365 Minister: Prof. Juma Athumani Kapuya, MP Minister of State (Public Service): Tel: 2152697 Mrs. Hawa Abdulrahman Ghasia, MP Fax: 2116719 Tel: 2116999 Fax: 2125299

79 Deputy Minister: Minister: Mr. Omar Yussuf Mzee, MP Mr. Bernard Membe, MP Tel: 2150588 Tel: 2112851

Permanent Secretary: Deputy Minister: Mr. Abed Mwaisumo Ambassador Seif Ali Idd, MP Tel: 2152690 Tel: 2112852

7. INDUSTRY, TRADE AND Deputy Minister: MARKETING Dr. Cyril August Chami, MP Lumumba Road/Co-operative Union Tel: 2112852 Building P.O. Box 9503 Permanent Secretary: DAR-ES-SALAAM Ambassador Patric C. Mombo Tel: 2180049, 2180075, 2180418, Tel: 2112851-3, 2111906-11 2117219-23, 2180050 Fax: 2182427, 2182481, 2112527, Deputy Permanent Secretary: 2180411 Ambassador Charles Sanga Tel: 2112851-3 Minister: Mr. Basil Pesambili Mramba, MP 9. INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT Tel: 2181398 P.O. Box 9144 or 9423 DAR-ES-SALAAM Deputy Minister: Tel: 2115079, 2115080, 2111951 Mr. Hezekiah Vicent Ndahani Fax: 2112751 Chibulunje, MP Tel: 2181398 Minister: Mr. Andrew John Chenge, MP Permanent Secretary: Tel: 2112857 Mrs. Stegomena Tax-Bamwenda Tel: 2127884 Deputy Minister: Dr. Maua Abeid Daftari, MP Deputy Permanent Secretary: Tel: 2116704 Mr. Godfrey Mkocha Tel: 2181397 Deputy Minister: Dr. Milton Makongoro Mahanga, MP 8. FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND Tel: 2116704 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Kivukoni Road Permanent Secretary: P.O. Box 9000 Dr. Enos Bukuku DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2112858 Tel: 2111937-41 Fax: 2116600 Deputy Permanent Secretary: Mr. Omar Chambo Tel: 2112858

80 10. LABOUR, EMPLOYMENT AND Permanent Secretary: YOUTH DEVELOPMENT Mr. Gray S. Mgonja Hifadhi House, Samora Avenue/Azikiwe Tel: 2112856 Road P.O. Box 1422 Deputy Permanent Secretary: DAR-ES-SALAAM Mr. Ramadhani Khijjah Tel: 2112506, 2120419, 2110218-9, Tel: 2113334 2112510 Fax: 2113082 Deputy Permanent Secretary: Mr. Andrew Nyumayo Minister: Tel: 2113334 Capt. John Zefania Chiligati, MP Tel: 2112510 12. EDUCATION AND VOCATION Fax: 2112510, 2112054 TRAINING Magogoni Road Deputy Minister: P.O. Box 9121 Dr. Emmanuel John Nchimbi, MP DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2110876 Tel: 2110146-52, 2113139 Fax: 2113271 Permanent Secretary: Dr. Ladislaus Komba Minister: Tel: 2110877 Mrs. Margaret Simwanza Sitta, MP Tel: 2113134 Deputy Permanent Secretary: Mr. Edris V. Mavura Deputy Minister: Tel: 2110877 Mrs. Mwantumu Bakari Mahiza, MP Tel: 2127535 11. FINANCE Madaraka Avenue Deputy Minister: P.O. Box 9111 Mr. Ludovic John Mwananzila, MP DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2127535 Tel: 2111174-9, 2111175-6 Fax: 2117790, 2138573 Permanent Secretary: Dr. Khamis Dihenga Minister: Te: 2113139 Mrs. Zakhia Hamdani Meghji, MP Tel: 2112854 Deputy Permanent Secretary: Mr. Oliver Mhaiki Deputy Minister: Tel: 2113139 Alhaj. Abdisalaam Issa Khatib, MP Tel: 2112855

Deputy Minister: Mr. Mustafa Haidi Mkulo, MP Tel: 2113804

81 13. HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE 15. NATURAL RESOURCE AND AND TECHNOLOGY TOURISM Msasani Road (TIRDO Premises) P.O. Box 9352 or 9372 P.O. Box 2645 DAR-ES-SALAAM DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2114373, 2111061-4 Tel: 2666376, 2668322, 2667310 Fax: 2114659, 2110600-4 Fax: 2666097 Minister: Minister: Mr. Jumanne Abdallah Maghembe, MP Prof. Peter Mahmoud Msolla, MP Tel: 2116681 Tel: 2116531 Fax: 2112533 Deputy Minister: Mrs. Zabein Muhaji Mhita, MP Deputy Minister: Tel: 2114373 Mrs. Gaudensia Mugosi Kabaka, MP Tel. 2668322 Permanent Secretary: Mrs. Blandina Nyoni Permanent Secretary: Tel: 2116682 Dr. Naomi Katunzi Tel: 2116669 16. MINISTRY OF INFORMATION, CULTURE AND SPORTS 14. AGRICULTURE, FOOD SECURITY P.O. Box 8031 AND CO-OPERATIVES DAR-ES-SALAAM Kilimo Road (off Nelson Mandela Rd.) Tel: 2111553-9 P.O Box 9192 DAR-ES-SALAAM Minister: Tel: 2862480-4, 2862075 Mr. Muhammed Seif Khatib, MP Fax: 2862077 Tel: 2123969 Fax: 2123969 Minister: Mr. Stephen Masatu Wassira, MP Deputy Minister (Information and Tel: 2862065 Culture): Mr. Daniel Nicodemus Nsanzugwako, Deputy Minister: MP Mr. Christopher Kajoro Chizza, MP Tel: 2123941 Tel: 2862065 Fax: 2123961

Deputy Minister: Deputy Minister (Sports): Dr. David Mathayo David, MP Mr. Joel Nkaya Bendera, MP Tel: 2862065 Tel: 2123989 Fax: 2123937 Permanent Secretary: Mr. Peniel Lyimo Permanent Secretary: Tel: 2862064, 2861395 Mrs. Kijakazi Mtengwa Fax: 2862077 Tel: 2123936

82 17. ENERGY AND MINERALS 19. HOME AFFAIRS Sokoine Drive/Mkwepu Street Ohio/Ghana Avenue P.O.Box 2000 or 9152 P.O. Box 9223 DAR-ES-SALAAM DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2117153-9, 2126557, 2137138, Tel: 2112034-9, 2117353 2124170 Fax: 2120486, 2139675 Fax: 2128250 Minister: P.O. Box 903 Mr.Joseph James Mungai, MP Dodoma Tel: 2117108 Tel. 026-324943 Fax: 026-324943 Deputy Minister: Dr. Lawrence Kego Masha, MP Minister: Tel: 2113753 Mr. Nazir Mustafa Karamagi, MP Tel: 2112791 Permanent Secretary: Mr. Mohammed Muya Deputy Minister: Tel: 2112036 Mr. William Mganga Ngeleja, MP Tel: 2110426 20. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT GENDER AND CHILDREN Permanent Secretary: Kivukoni Front Mr. Arther Mwakapugi P.O. Box 3448 Tel: 2112793 DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2132526, 2115074, 2132057, 18. HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 2115635 Samora Avenue Fax: 2132647 P.O. Box 9123 or 9083 DAR-ES-SALAAM Minister: Tel: 2120261-7 Mrs. Sophia Mnyambi Simba, MP Fax: 2139951, 2138060 Tel: 2132057 Fax: 2133647 Minister: Prof. David Homeli Mwakyusa, MP Deputy Minister: Tel: 2124019 VACANT Fax: 2138060 Permanent Secretary: Deputy Minister: Mrs. Mariam Mwaffisi Dr. Aisha Omar Kigoda, MP Tel: 2115074 Tel. 2112883

Permanent Secretary: Mr. Wilson C. Mukama Tel: 2116684

83 21. LAND, HOUSING AND HUMAN Minister: SETTLEMENTS DEVELOPMENT Dr. Shukuru Jumanne Kawambwa, MP Ardhi House, Kivukoni Front Tel: 2452035 P.O. Box 9132 DAR-ES-SALAAM Deputy Minister: Tel: 2121241-9, 2120209 Ms. Shamsa Selengia Mwangunga, MP Fax: 2124576, 2113224 Permanent Secretary: Minister: Mr. Patrick Rutabanzibwa Mr. John Pombe Magufuli, MP Tel: 2113164 24. JUSTICE AND CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS Deputy Minister: Kivukoni Road Mrs. Rita Louise Mlaki, MP P.O. Box 9050 Tel: 2116517 DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel: 2111895,2118178, 2117099, Permanent Secretary: 2111906 Mrs. Salome Sijaona Fax: 2113236 Tel: 2113165 Minister: 22. EAST AFRICAN COOPERATION Dr. Mary Michael Nagu, MP P.O. Box 9280 Tel: 2113234 Tel: 2126660-1 DAR-ES-SALAAM Deputy Minister: Mr. Mathias Meinrad Chikawe, MP Minister: Tel: 2113234 Dr. Ibrahim Said Msabaha, MP Tel. 2126656 Attorney – General: Mr. Johnson Mwanyika Deputy Minister: Tel: 2113236 Dr. Diodorus Buberwa Kamala, MP Tel. 2126657 Permanent Secretary: Mr. Vincent Lyimo Permanent Secretary: Tel: 2113243 Mr. Wilfred Nyachia Tel. 2126660 25. LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT P.O. Box 99152 23. WATER DAR-ES-SALAAM Sokoine Drive/Mkwepu Street Tel: 2866446 P.O. Box 9153 Fax: 2862538 DAR-ES-SALAAM Tel. 2117153-9, 2117038, 2112772 Minister: Fax: 2451450 Mr. Anthony Mwandu Diallo, MP Tel. 2862592 Fax: 2861905

84 Deputy Minister: Minister: Dr. Charles Ogessa Mlingwa, MP Mr. Harith Bakari Mwapachu, MP Tel. 2861904 Tel. 2123723

Permanent Secretary: Deputy Minister: Dr. Charles Nyamurunda Mr. Mohamed Aboud, MP Tel. 2861910 Tel. 2123724 Fax: 2861907 Permanent Secretary: Deputy Permanent Secretary: Mr. Bakari Mahiza Dr. Jonas Melewasi Tel. 2123727 Tel. 2861912 Fax: 2123846

26. PUBLIC SAFETY AND SECURITY P.O. Box 2216 Tel. 2124027 Fax: 2123846, 2123825 DAR-ES-SALAAM

Notes

85 FREE MARKET ECONOMY AND POLITICAL CORRUPTION IN TANZANIA

By: Wilman N. Kapenjama, Dar es Salaam

Introduction: sector breakdown, which should be The international community is in- addressed as part of a broad strategy creasingly concerned about cor- for improving public sector perfor- ruption and its corrosive effects on mance. Part of that strategy entails economies and societies1. Evidence strengthening key institutions of the is growing in rich and poor countries public sector, principally the Execu- of the costs of corruption and its effect tive branch, but also the Judicial and on foreign direct investment, growth Legislative branches. It also involves of local entrepreneurs, protection of reviewing policies to eliminate, when the environment, the poor, public pol- possible, policies that give rise to eco- icy, and the informal social pact be- nomic rents. Furthermore, combating tween government and governed. A corruption is not an end in itself, but wide range of anti-corruption activi- part of a broader goal of creating a ties have been launched with support more effective government. from the Global Coalition for Africa (GCA), the World Bank (WB), the In- Re-Thinking the Mwalimu Nyerere ternational Monetary Fund (IMF), the era anti-corruption strategies United Nations Development Program The Leadership Code was part and (UNDP) and others. Corruption can parcel of the Arusha Declaration be most simply defined as the abuse that was adopted by the National of public office for private gain. While Executive Committee of the then corruption can take many forms, in- ruling Party (TANU) in Arusha on cluding corruption entirely within the 29th January 1967.3 Though it was private sector, the current concern is made public on 5th February 1967, with corruption in the public sector the Declaration, and the Leadership or at the interface between the pub- Code in particular, reflected to a very lic and private sectors. In corruption large extent, Nyerere’s commitment cases, two parties are usually guilty— to build an egalitarian society. Before the briber and the bribe-taker. While and immediately after independence investigating and sanctioning cor- in 1961, Nyerere had noted and rupt practice is critical, an empha- warned against pomposity and sis on enforcement and punishment ostentation amongst TANU (and later will not achieve sustainable results on government) leaders. (Nyerere unless accompanied by efforts to ad- 1966:223-226). In February 1966, dress underlying causes2. Systemic while addressing Mafia district corruption is a symptom of public residents, he totally disapproved of 86 the practice of leaders owning big Member of Parliament, member of a farms: local authority or leader of an ujamaa village); or else on the amount of a “We do not want such a situation to person’s annual salary. Government, arise. We have stopped TANU leaders Party and Parastatal employees from owning farms. We have taken in receipt of a monthly salary of similar steps with other leaders…. above one thousand and sixty six Yesterday we were all poor. If we shillings, sixty seven cents (equivalent hear you have a big farm, we shall toapproximetely US$ 1,606/67 at that ask you how you got it.” (Nyerere time) were automatically covered 1968: 141-2). by the Leadership Code. When this amount was fixed in 1973 it was He rationalized this by arguing that a aimed at covering Government and leader owning a big farm cannot have parastatal employees in high and time to fulfill effectively the duties middle levels. of his office; and further that such a leader will end up hiring labour and A leader contravenes the Leadership thereby become an exploiter which Code if he does any of the following was contrary to TANU policies. He things: preached frugality, introduced salary cuts and a system of progressive a) if he is a beneficial owner of taxation. The adoption of the any share in any company Leadership Code was the result of this incorporated or established in the philosophy of egalitarianism. United Republic or elsewhere or of any interest in any such share; I shall, however, show that the b) if he or his spouse holds the office Party has not succeeded to block of a director in any company the development of a privileged, incorporated or established in propertied class and has also failed the United Republic or elsewhere to purify the body politic. Despite all otherwise than as a nominee of the attempts at bridging the gap between Government or a local authority or the rich and the poor, Tanzania to-day of any statutory corporation or of has more inequality than at any other any company of which the majority time since she became independent. of ordinary shares are hold by the Government, a local authority or The Leadership Code: a statutory corporation; Initially, when the Code was adopted, c) if he or his spouse is the it was taken to cover senior party beneficial owner of any house and Government leaders, including or other building which, or any members of Parliament, and leaders portion of which, is the exclusive of local authorities. However, later it occupation of some other person became clear that the definition of a in consideration of payment leader or public officer depended either of rent, fee or other valuable on his official title (e.g. member of the consideration whatsoever, other Party National Executive Committee, than lawful deductions from the

87 wages payable to a domestic In 1973 a Committee for the servant in respect of occupation Enforcement of the Leadership Code by him of any portion of such was formally established by an Act of house or of any quarters attached Parliament.4 It consists of a Chairman thereto; and not less than two and not more d) if he or his spouse is in receipt of than three other members. It has two or more salaries; powers to enquire into any alleged e) if he or his spouse, being a person or suspected breach of the Code by engaged in any trade, business, any public officer. It is supposed to profession or vocation, employs conduct its business in private. It any workman for the purposes of, is empowered to use the police to or in connection with, such trade, arrest people who do not respond business, profession or vocation. to its summonses voluntarily. After enquiring into any alleged breach of On top of Leadership Code the the Code, the Committee submits a National Executive Committee of the confidential report of its findings to Party adopted in November 1974 a the President. Leadership Code of Conduct. The Code of Conduct stipulates that a Following an amendment to the Act leader shall be a person who: establishing the Committee for the Enforcement of the Leadership Code a) respects people; in 19875, the Code was extended b) constantly strives to understand, to cover Zanzibar also. The explain and implement the “committee” was dropped in favour policies of the Party; of “commission” and the composition c) is a diligent worker; of the Commission was expanded to d) always generally cooperates with include “not less than three and not his colleagues; more than five other Commissioners e) is always in the frontline in the of whom at least not more than half implementation of programmes Commissioners (shall come from) which have been decided by the the Revolutionary Government of people; Zanzibar”. f) always strives to be of exemplary behaviour both in his words and Although the Bill establishing deeds, and in particular, he shall the Committee was unanimously not be a loiterer or an addict supported in the Parliament in of excessive consumption of 1973 the Committee has generally alcohol. been ignored by the people. It has not enjoyed any popularity like the Any person categorized as a leader Permanent Commission of Enquiry for has to sign a declaration that he will example. Indeed, when interviewed abide by the conditions stipulated by by the Sunday News in February both the Leadership Code and the 1982, the Chairman of the Committee Code of Conduct. was reported to have complained that Party organs were not reporting

88 suspects to the Committee as small scale and communal production expected. in agriculture to the encouragement of large scale farms. Large tracts “We in the Commission have realized of agricultural land were leased to that in the past five years of CCM’s individuals and corporations and existence, it is only the CCM Chair- credit facilities were provided to the man and the Party Vice Chairman creditworthy. Some estates were who handed suspects to the Commis- denationalized and private individuals sion in order to establish if they re- were invited to purchase them. ally violate the Code. Under the Con- Trade was liberalized and exchange stitution, we are supposed to get the control restrictions were considerably names of suspects from Party organs relaxed. All these were unthinkable at duly discussed. We never got such the height of the Arusha Declaration. cooperation.”6 To cap it all the ‘second phase’ government of President Ali Hassan Most people who were punished for Mwinyi signed the IMF conditions violating the Code were the ordinary in 1986 after prolonged bargaining. members of CCM including branch There was a clear encouragement and district functionaries. The most and support for private initiatives to common punishment was expulsion revive the economy. By 1988 the state from the Party. Even then, it would was openly inviting foreign firms to appear that the number of such cases participate in joint ventures with local had considerably dwindled in the entrepreneurs. 1980s when compared to the 1970s. This should by no means be taken to What are the implications of this turn indicate that leaders were complying of events in the enforcement of the more with the Leadership Code Leadership Code? First, the so called than in the 1970s. In actual fact the “local entrepreneurs” include and opposite was the case. will continue to include “Leaders” as defined in the Leadership Code. The Reality: Even where such leaders are not In the spirit of the Arusha Declaration, directly involved in various forms of the income gap in the public sector entrepreneurship, they will invariably was narrowed from 18.8:1 in 1962 to end up servicing the interests of such 15.7:1 in 1966, and by 1984 the gap entrepreneurs. This was realized by stood at 4.9:17. This was achieved the National Executive Committee through two ways: first through the of the Party in 1988, when it taxation system, and secondly by warned against the danger that the increasing the low income bracket emerging local millionaires would salaries at a higher proportion than turn the leaders into a committee those at higher levels. to service their interests and that, with their money, they would pick In the mid 1980s there was a clear people to contest Party elections and shift in the economic policies of the ensure their elections to leadership country from putting emphasis on positions.8

89 In this case; in understanding could have flourished so successfully corruption in Tanzania requires without the involvement and appreciation of the country’s participation of people who are the political and economic history since subject of the Leadership Code. Independence. Such a history, however, will not be attempted here— On the other hand, the Leadership rather, suffice it to say, Tanzania Code itself is seen as responsible followed a socialist path of economic for the existence of all these vices. development for over twenty years, According to Mazrui: and a political regime, characterized by single-party rule for even longer. “To discourage Party officials from Under socialism, corruption spread owning another house, or from buying because of low and declining civil shares in a company or sometimes service wages, combined with even from buying land, is to narrow excess demand for public services; the officials range of legitimate options economic distortions arising from for enhancing his income. This might inappropriate policies; excessive work if his income improved in other regulation and inefficient public ways, or even remained constant in enterprises; and over-extension of real terms. But in Tanzania this has Government programs. These factors not been the case.”10 stifled competition and efficiency, and weakened Government’s internal Mazrui concludes that in the light of control and the budget’s credibility hostile economic realities (inflation, for managing spending. Inevitably, falling production and living informal rules began to replace standards), public employees “may formal rules and, as the WR makes feel that the economic walls are clear, accountability was inadequate closing in and they must puncture the across the public sector. The public system one way or another”.11 The administration controls broke down, 1980s has also witnessed phenomenal encouraging the spread of corruption. embezzlement of public funds and Simultaneously, single-party rule property by employees. inhibited growth of civil society Some individuals have tried to find institutions as countervailing sources more acceptable means of generating of political power, reducing checks extra income within the existing and balances in the system. limitations. Some public employees and professionals have taken to Secondly, trade liberalization can activities such as poultry keeping, rightly be linked with the phenomenal dairy farming and different types of increase in corruption, racketeering businesses. Whatever the case, this and smuggling offenses.9 Smuggling practice has also negatively affected of cash crops and minerals out of the their performance of work. It seems country, illegal dealings in foreign illogical to underpay a surgeon or a exchange and poaching, have not university professor for example, spared people in the public service. and to expect him to supplement There is no way that these crimes his income by keeping pigs, instead

90 of doing something in the line of his against corruption in Tanzania as a profession. case of “heroic failure”.12 Mazrui has observed that: In some public enterprises different types of tax free allowances are paid, “Tanzania to-day has more bribery particularly to senior executives to and corruption, less dedication to mitigate their economic hardships. the work ethic, greater indifference However, some professionals have to productivity, more cynicism found it much easier to quit the about political leaders and a more country altogether. For example, pronounced acquisitive drive than I have learnt from reliable sources it had when the Arusha Declaration that from 1984 up to the beginning affirmed its dramatic ideological of 1989, 196 qualified physicians blueprint in 1967”. left the country for greener pastures elsewhere. The University of Dar It is a serious contradiction that as the Es Salaam is one of the hardest hit country and the masses of the people institutions in losing its qualified get poorer, corruption continues to academics to other Universities in thrive as a means of assuring rapid Kenya, Botswana, Zimbabwe and richness for a tiny minority in a others within and outside Africa. country purporting to be engaged in socialist construction. It is also true that many of those who seem to make it notwithstanding The Verdict: the existing problems accumulate The Party’s efforts and expectations property illegally or in contravention to frustrate the development of a of the Leadership Code. Corruption privileged, properties class and to in its different forms would probably purify the body politic have been far top the list. Even fresh graduates from being successful. Inequality and are now attracted to a particular job inequity is now far more entrenched less because of a seemingly attractive than at any other time before. salary than for opportunities of michuzi (privileges & benefits) such Referring to the Leadership Code in a job carries. Indeed, corruption 1986, Nyerere, the Party Chairman, has been the principal source of remarked that the Code was intended accumulation of wealth by the ruling “to help Party members to avoid some class in all post-colonial African of the temptations which go with countries. leadership, and thus to be, and to be seen to be, more socialist in their As Kameir and Kursany (1985) behaviour”.13 He blamed some of the correctly argue, corruption has to be post Arusha Declaration problems viewed “as a principal mode of financial on some of the leaders “who were accumulation for a particular social not really socialist”. A year later, class or classes rather than simply addressing the Party National an instance of individual criminal Conference at Dodoma (Kizota) behaviour”. Describing the struggle he openly admitted that economic

91 differences among Tanzanians were gap between goals and achievements beginning to be conspicuous.14 He is consequently getting wider as added that “more noticeable to time goes by”.15 In fact even the people suffering economic hardships socialist rhetoric and sloganeering of (as mot honest people now do) is the the late 1960s and early 1970s has beginning of real individual wealth in considerably subsided. As we have a poor country like ours”. Cautioning seen, policy changes introduced in the delegates on the dangers of this 1980s including trade liberalization development, he said: have seriously compromised the country’s commitment to socialism. “Both our steps to move towards The Party Chairman has tried to greater equality and greater justice, rationalize this as a temporary retreat and the trust of the people in their in the following words: leaders, have begun to be looked upon with suspicion by some people… “In any struggle, when the forces There is growing up a felling among against you become too strong, you the people that between the words make a tactical retreat. There is no and actions of leaders there is a gap disgrace in that. What is important is which is getting wider.” not the fact of retreating, but the fact of not surrendering and of organizing According to Nyerere, even during the retreat in an orderly manner so retirement, a leader should continue that you will be able to regroup, and to lead a socialist life: later counter-attack and advance in the direction you wish to go.”16 “If leaders retire, and immediately get the capital to begin a capitalist Of course this automatically begs the enterprise, they are not breaking question as to what are the chances the law; but it is not surprising if the of regrouping and counter-attacking people express some doubts about under the prevailing conditions? their previously expressed support for Ujamaa, and ask themselves: how As we have argues, all post-colonial is it that in a socialist country they African countries experience the so quickly get all the money they problem of corruption which is need for such an enterprise? And it unaffected by any ideological is this kind of thing which gives birth inclination of any given country. to cynicism about leaders who have Such corruption is deep rooted in the not retired. Their commitment to social formation of these countries. building socialism and equality also In these countries there is a general begins to be questioned.” absence of the civil service ‘work- ethic’, characterized by lack of work From the second half of the 1970s discipline, stealing of public property onwards it has increasingly become and nepotism. (Hope 1987: 127– clear that Tanzania’s socialist 144). rhetoric and her policies are moving in opposite directions; “and that the

92 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF subsidies (over 80%) and again POLITICAL CORRUPTION the bulk of private donations (over 90%). Thus there is formal ÿ Political corruption has become equality of political parties but the main feature in competitive not real equality on the ground politics, especially in transitional in terms of all the actors to democracies. Mobilization of have equal opportunities and resources is one of the major possibilities of carrying out their tasks of political parties in order political activities to reach out to to reach out to the electorate voters unhampered. and seek political support in ÿ There is limited pro-active elections. strategy to combat corruption ÿ The Legislation to protect the in the political strategy because integrity of the political process opposition parties are too weak in which the electoral process in terms of parliamentary is subsumed, is inadequate and representation and the ruling found wanting in ensuring control party is advantaged by the status of activities of political parties quo. including political finance and campaign funding. ÿ Political corruption is widely CAVEATS IN LEGISLATION AND spread in the public sector EFFECTIVE ENFORCEMENT because of lack of control legislation in which the activities ÿ It is difficult, for the Tanzanian and processes in the political government with few resources domain become subject of strict and with law enforcement control, especially to check the officers not trained in modern power and influence of money techniques of forensic auditing politics and the relationship of to the monitor sources of income political parties and politicians and expenditures of political and private interests. parties. Most, if not all political ÿ Corruption in the electoral parties operate as secret societies, process is mainly defined and especially in relation to political perceived by voters in terms of finance and campaign funding. money politics. Issues of misuse Much of what is submitted to The of power and state resources Registrar of Political Parties as or of non-monetary nature are Annual Audit Reports is done as a secondary matter of course in order to fulfil ÿ As money politics has become the legal requirements. There are dominant in the political domain, a lot of unreported contributions inequality between political by the way of cash. The sources parties (key actors in electoral of such as contributions are not politics) has assumed exponential reported. It could be drug money proportions. The ruling party or proceeds from crime. (CCM) gets the bulk of public

93 ÿ The Parliament in February 2000 section 32, Act No. 7 of 1992 amended the elections Act of section 22, and Act No. 11 of 1994 1985 by inserting in section 98(2) (section 8)do allow for door to of the Act a provision to the effect door canvassing. This canvassing that, “anything done in good faith is usually done at night, and this as an act of normal or traditional practice, as the 2000 elections hospitality shall be deemed not to show, was used to distribute be treating.” Treating is regarded bribes and to organize religious as an illegal act in the elections, or ethnically motivated meetings. but the amendment of the election Door to door campaigns were law to sanction traditional used to engender corruption in hospitality is an indirect way of the electoral process because of accepting treating. primordial loyalties and extensive ÿ The idea of putting a ceiling political patronage networks, on campaign expenditure was which characterize the terrain of contested by some interviewees Tanzania politics. from the point of view that many candidates do not have a lot of money to spend and the idea Faced with such contradictions, the of putting a ceiling on electoral immediate concern of the state should campaign funds only looks at be to encourage people to produce or the wealthy few and that is acquire wealth through legal means discrimination. Some leaders instead of closing such opportunities of political parties interviewed as per the Leadership Code. The were of the view that the public Leadership Code looks even more authorities responsible for curious in the context of Tanzania enforcing political parties Act and where the state pays its employees Electoral Law and regulations salaries below the poverty line. Limits should only be concerned to private ownership or individual with cases of candidates who entrepreneurship become relevant use illegally obtained money where the state can guarantee the for political purposes. It was individual’s economic and social contended that it would be security. Otherwise making individual difficult for concerned authorities entrepreneurship illegal may lead to to monitor the ground situation a more serious situation of illegality. and ascertain real as distinct Under the present conditions the from campaign expenditures that major preoccupation of the state are not real since the government should be proper remuneration and does not have trained personnel motivation of employees in the public and resources to enforce the laws service. This should then be followed made to protect the integrity of the by strict enforcement of civil service political and electoral processes. and other relevant regulations like ÿ Furthermore, several pieces of the Leadership Code of Conduct and legislation including the Election other relevant campaigns such as Campaign Act No. 3 of 1993 “accountability”. Such measures

94 will suffice to get rid of leaders who REFERENCES have become inefficient as a result of being over-committed in their private Hope, K.R. (1987) “Administrative Corruption dealings; instead of paying attention and Administrative Reform in Developing at present to a Leadership Code States”, Vol.2 NO.2, Corruption and Reform, whose enforcement looks like witch- pp.127-144. hunting. Kameir, E. & Kursany, I. (1985) Corruption as the ‘fifth’ factor of Production in the, Sudan Uppsala, The Scandinavian Institute of African ENDNOTES Studies Research Report No. 72. Nyerere, J.K. (1966) Freedom and Unity, Dar 1 World Bank, Helping Countries Combat Es Salaam, Oxford University Press. Corruption: The Role of the World Bank, September 1997. Nyerere, J.K. (1986) Freedom and Socialism, Dar Es Salaam, Oxford University Press. 2 Robert Klitgaard, who has written extensively on corruption and economic development Shaidi, L.P. (1988) “Trade Liberalization and relates the scope of corruption (C) to the the Law”, Taamuli, University of Dar Es Salaam presence of monopoly power (M), discretion (forthcoming) (D), and accountability (A), in the formula: C=M+D-A. See Robert Klitgaard, “International Cooperation Against Corruption” in World Bank/IMF, Finance and Development, March 1998, pp. 3-6. 3 Contained in Nyerere (1968:231-250) - He was then both Party Chairman and President of Tanzania 4 Act No. 6 - The Committee for the Enforcement of the Leadership Code Act, 1973 5 Act No. 2 - Committee for the Enforcement of the Leadership Code (Amendment), 1987 6 Sunday News, 14th February, 1982 7 Bank of Tanzania statistics reported in Daily News, 13th February, 1989 8 Sunday Times, 17th January, 1988 9 For detailed discussion see Shaidi (1988) 10 Lecture given by Prof. Ali Mazrui at the University of Jos (Nigeria), reproduced in Africa Events, Vol 2, No. 5/6, May/June 1986. pp. 62-68 11 Ibid. 12 Ali Mazrui, op.cit. 13 Speech given at the University of Dar es Salaam when accepting an honorary D.Litt. degree on 13th September 1986, printed in Daily News, 22nd September 1986 14 Opening speech, printed in Daily News, 23rd Octoer 1987 15 J.K. Nyerere, Speech given at the University of Dar es Salaam, op.cit. 16 Ibid.

95 3 - Non-State Actors

THE ROLES OF NON STATE ACTORS COORDINATION COMMITTEE (NSAs - CC) IN TANZANIA

By: Abubakar M. Ali, Chake Chake Pemba

Background It can now be realized that the first committee (Task Force Group) was The Non-State Actors Coordination to prepare the programme while the Committee (NSAs-CC) is formed of second one (Co-ordination Committee) seventeen candidates, fourteen of is vested to guide the implementation them representing constituencies of a programme with specific laid and the rest three others is a team of down roles and obligations as per the experts on either Cotonou partnership agreement signed by the Government agreement issue or those related to of the United Republic of Tanzania non- state actors. and the Delegation of European This committee was appointed at a two Commission on 1st November 2006 days NSAs feedback workshop held at before the official closing a feedback Oceanic Bay Hotel, Bagamoyo between workshop. The programme is first 30th October and 1st November 2006. of its kind and it is one of the new This committee is a replication of what arrangements under the ACP and EU was known as Non-state actors Task agreements. force group (NSAs-TFG) which was mandated by the first big workshop The programme held at Kunduchi beach hotel between 8th and 9th February 2005 to develop The non-state support programme a support programme. This is a result which was developed through of consultations and a mapping study TFG consultation country wide is conducted throughout Tanzania to see elaborated here under. how the NSAs meet their founding objectives. This group was mandated The overall objective to work for one year to come up with The overall objective of the programme the proposed programme to support is to empower non-state actors their initiatives and report back to the to contribute to the formulation, same. implementation, monitoring and evaluation of development policies and All these two big workshops were processes at all levels in an organized convened jointly by the National manner. Thus, the programme will Authoring Officers office (Ministry facilitate a deepening and broadening of Finance of the United Republic of public participation in development of Tanzania) and the European processes. This will in turn nurture a Commission Delegation in Tanzania. culture of accountability, transparency 96 and civic responsiveness in the Learning platforms around policies 3 - Non-State Actors national development process. reforms or other pertinent issues will be organized at the initiatives Specific objective of NSAs. Furthermore, peer review The programme seeks to facilitate mechanisms will be introduced for improvements in technical and NSAs to improve internal governance institutional capacity, and strengthen and engagements with others. networking and information sharing among NSAs in order to nurture Result area Two: an informed dialogue with the Improved communication and government and the wider public. information to enhance collaboration The programme will avoid duplication and networking among NSAs at and of ongoing efforts but seek to between all levels. complement other interventions and functions as learning platforms for How will it be achieved: NSAs- Government engagements at Policy resource centers will be all levels, and in various sectors and supported with the objective of policy environment. responding to the demand for information by the NSAs at all levels. What results does the programme The policy resource centers will not aim to achieve? only gather information, but will also make the information accessible to The programme aims at achieving NSAs and other interested individuals four result areas, as follows:- and organizations. They will also initiate and contribute to productions Result area One: of popularized versions of development The institutional and technical policies and strategies and to civic capacity of NSAs is strengthened so education initiative. Information from that they engage more effectively with the international arena for a will each other, with the Government, with also be made available. Support will the Parliament and with international be provided to effectively link up the development partners. resource centers.

How will it be achieved: Result area Three: Trainings will be offered to address Consolidated mechanism to facilitate capacity needs. Capacity building will engagement and structured dialogue preferably be based on experience, tools between the Government and NSAs. and best practices that are nationally available. These trainings will aim How will it be achieved: at a medium–term improvements in This objective aims at improving the the quality of contributions to policy quality of the dialogue between the dialogue and longer term gains in NSAs and the government. Mechanisms terms of improved collaborations at must facilitate the division of labour horizontal levels. between NSA platforms and a non-

97 imposed and non-arbitrary selection each one having her different roles of representative organizations. and functions that are clearly defined It is also envisaged to facilitate in the appraisal document. discussions around rules of engagement in policy dialogue. The roles and functions of the NSAs The programmes will also facilitate Coordination Committee reflections and discussions on the future of the NSA Coordination In order to make the NSAs support Committee (NSAs-CC) . programee a success, the Coordination Committee is formed with the Result area Four: following roles and functions. Conditions created for NSAs to fully • It will function as the reverence participate in the programming, point and the interlocutor for all implementation, monitoring and NSAs in this programme. evaluation of European Commission • It will have an advisory function supported progrmmes. to the PMFU on the overall programme, on the development How will it be achieved: of the concepts and direction / Tripartite meetings between NSAs, structure of , and implementation European Commission (EC) in of the individual progrmme Tanzania and the Government of the activities(including the concept United republic of Tanzania will be for the operation of the policy organized in relation to the sectors resource centers and its partners that have received EC funding in up country, the themes for the the past, or potentially could benefit learning platforms, etc….) from the same, to explore ways of • To facilitate the creation of structuring NSAs involvement in the synergies with other initiatives programming, implementation and and interventions, and do this with monitoring and evaluation of the 10th a concern to avoid duplication of European Development Fund(EDF) efforts. cooperation programme. A technical • To actively collaborate in the assistance facility will provide funds dissemination of information for demand driven policy research on the progrmme and assist and initiatives that can increase with the distribution of relevant public accountability programme outputs through the channels of the respective The programme implementation constituencies and networks of the NSAs Coordinating Committee The programme implementation members. will be carried out under three • To agree or disagree on eligibility/ tiers, namely the Programme selection and evaluation criteria Steering Committee (PSC), the NSAs for organizations and networks Coordination Committee (NSAs-CC) /association to benefit from the and the Programme Management individual activities for tenders and Facilitation Unit (PMFU), with

98 and calls for proposals initiated come to the fi nal selection of the by the PMFU. would be Programme Management • Because of her roles and functions, and Facilitation Unit (PMFU). the NSAs Coordination Committee will be meeting monthly and According to the process so far can either convene need extra reached, the programme was to ordinary meetings when felt eventually start not later than the necessary or will make electronic third quarter of the year 2007. meetings if prompt resolutions are to be made. Conclusion

Status of the programme Having realized the importance and impact so far envisaged from the Non- After the support programme was State-Actors support programme, I signed between the United Republic am appealing to all stakeholders to of Tanzania and the European make a thorough follow-up of the Commission on 1st of November programme implementation and see 2006 in Bagamoyo, the startup in which result area can they cheep- stage commenced. This stage started in. This will make the whole process by orienting the Co-ordination truly owned by the constituencies and Committee on their roles during the not the committee alone. implementation of the programme. This was followed by a staff recruitment I strongly believe that this programme process which involved advertisement will stimulate the NSAs to participate of the post, short-listing of applicants in policy dialogue through the and then interviewing of the short- enabling environment to be provided listed candidates. This process has by the programme.

99 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS IMPROVEMENTS THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATION: A case of WAT – Human Settlements Trust

By: Tabitha Siwale, WAT-Human Settlements Trust, Dar es Salaam

Introduction to facilitate the provision of adequate and affordable shelter to all income Human settlements improvement is groups in Tanzania. of a big concern both internationally and at national level. Article 25 of WAT – Human Settlements Trust the Universal Declaration of Human (here after referred to as WAT) was Rights of December 10, 1948, states established on July, 28th 1989 as clearly that “Everyone has the right a national non-governmental, non- to a standard of living adequate profit making organization (NGO). for their health and well being The organization was formerly including food, clothing, housing and known as Women Advancement Trust medical care and necessary social (WAT) and had to change its name services”. The Istanbul Declaration in 2005 in response to comments and the Habitat Agenda of 1996 made by WAT Stakeholders and other together constitute a new social members of the public that the name contract towards improving human was portraying that the organization settlements conditions in the world’s was for women only and did not cities, towns and villages. Target 11 reflect the work done by WAT for of the Millennium Development Goals both men and women (gender) in the is on improving the lives of at least development and improvement of 100 million slum dwellers globally. human settlements. The United Republic of Tanzania is a signatory to all these declarations. In Since its formation, WAT has been 1967 Tanzania stated in the Arusha advocating gender equality, equal Declaration that housing is one of the rights in access to land, property basic needs like water and clothing. ownership, adequate housing, Consequently Tanzania Mainland inheritance and other related issues passed a National Land Policy of 1995 through training and education using and a National Human Settlements booklets, fliers and brochures and Development Policy of 2000 to guide encouraging self reliance among the country in the development and women. WAT is also actively involved improvement of human settlements. in the fight against HIV/AIDS. The overall goals of the National Human Settlement Policy are: To WAT’s overall goal is: To empower promote development of human low and middle income communities settlements that are sustainable and particularly women to participate 100 fully and effectively in all aspects of most of the labour in productive Human Settlements Development. activities, they have little access to the income generated as men continue to The vision of WAT is: To see a society dominate decision making not only living in improved human settlements within the household but also at the as a result of its activities in low and national level. As well, the low level middle income areas by 2025. or lack of education contributes a lot to the problems that face women in WAT’s Mission is: To promote Tanzania. adequate and affordable shelter with secure tenure of low and middle Women were and to a great extent still income earners particularly women are today, un aware of their rights. All through: too frequently women were and still are often denied their rights to land • Community mobilization and and housing ownership. The second sensitization reason why WAT is actively involved • Awareness creation in improving living environment is • Empowering individuals, housing because unplanned and groups and cooperatives unserviced settlements are growing • Capacity building through very fast due to various reasons provision of technical support, including the rapid population lobbying and advocacy increase of up to 4.5% per annum as a result of rural urban migration and WAT has chosen to voice the hopes natural increase, change of urban and concerns of low-income groups, boundaries including rural fringes particularly women, with regards without providing services, shortage to access to secure tenure of land of surveyed and serviced plots, land and affordable shelter, towards all speculation and lack of capital for the other stakeholders because of the majority of urban residents as a result following reasons: of poverty. Settlements of this nature are very dangerous for people’s lives. The first reason is that, in Tanzania despite the fact that women are Human Settlements the major actors in productive and reproductive activities, they are poorer Human Settlements refers to areas than men. Of the total population where organized human activities 51.6% are women and they comprise take place, and they are not simply about 54% of the economically active housing or merely physical structures population in rural area. Customary of a city, town or village. They are an laws, traditional values and the integrated combination of all human multiple roles women play have activity process – residence, work, hampered the advancement of women education, health, culture, leisure in different fields of development and etc. and the physical structures have also perpetuated poverty among that support them. (Global Report women. Although women contribute

101 on Human Settlements 1986-by Architectural Studies in 1995 under HABITAT). the Urban and Housing indicators programme indicate that nationally In Tanzania, like in other East Africa about 70 percent of the urban housing states, urbanization is a big challenge, stock is found in these settlements. not only because of its social and Dar-es-Salaam city has about 70- economic significance but also 75% of the total City population and because of its high rate of increase occupy more than 10,000 hectares. (averaging 8 percent per annum) and The unplanned and unserviced lack of effective mechanism to manage settlements exist in different locations its outcomes. A typical example where some are located within 2 to is the pressure on urban services, 10 kilometers from the city centre. infrastructure (water, sewerage and These accommodate the majority drainage) and housing brought about of low-income households like by fast urbanization. The 1978 Mwananyamala, Hanna Nassif, and 1988 national census and the Manzese, Keko and Jangwani. Some population census of 2002 show that are located on marginal lands such a bigger share of urbanization is a as valleys, quarries, waste dumping result of rural urban migration as well areas and steep slopes that are as high rates of natural population subject to periodic floods (Kironde increase. Most of the migrants, and Rugaiganisa 2002; Kombe and including incumbent urban dwellers, Olima 2002) these settlements live in un-serviced parts of towns include Mtoni, Vingunguti, Kunduchi, with environment conditions which Mburahati, Jangwani, Kijitonyama threaten their own life and health. Kwa Ali Maua, and others are found along the Msimbazi river valley. Yet Attitudes and policies which more others are located around the perceived urbanization as an city sub-centres of Julius Nyerere inevitable process, impact in the International Airport ( Kipawa) process and thus provide not only Ubungo (Mabibo and Kimara) challenges but also opportunities to Mwenge (Mlalakuwa) and Namanga many stakeholders including central (Msasani bonde la Mpunga). and local governments, bilateral Additional unplanned settlements are and multilateral donors, civil society located in the city peripheries like organizations and local communities Kunduchi, Tegeta Ukonga, Kigamboni as well as individuals. and Kawe. These accommodate the majority of medium and high-income Growth of unplanned settlements households. (Cities Without Slums Workshop Papers 2007). The inadequacy of shelter delivery systems to cater for the urban population has led to an extensive development of squatter or unplanned settlements. Studies conducted by the University College of Lands and

102 Dar-es-salaam City: Informal Settlements – light grey colour

Major challenges appearing in all • Urban and rural management urban centres and rural settlements deficits brought about by weak in Tanzania include: institutional arrangements ac- companied with weak institu- • Prevalence of urban and tional arrangements and fur- rural poverty in a situation of ther more accompanied with unprecedented urbanization and insufficient resource for shel- widening gap between demand and ter provision in urban centres supply of services. For example, one of the outcomes from the • Inadequate and deteriorating high growth rates is the challenge infrastructure services is among of meeting demands for shelter the most pressing and difficult in both urban and rural areas problems facing housing development in Tanzania.

103 Causes of Informal Settlements housing in urban areas in 1998 was estimated to be more than 1,500,000 Causes of informal settlements in units. It is currently estimated to Tanzania include: Lack of effective be above 2,200,000 units (National and comprehensive housing policy, Human Settlements Development scarcity of surveyed plots, high cost Policy, 2000). of building materials, high building standards and regulations, distance The proportion of urban population from work place, bureaucracy in in unplanned settlements varies both central and local government, from 40 to 75 percent depending a hundred percent tolerance by on the size of the urban area. The government and municipal officials. shortage of surveyed plots on which Poverty is said to be just one of major to build residential accommodation causes of informal settlements. is the result of the rising population and the inability of the government Challenges for women to clear third party interests in the areas earmarked for plot survey. To As stated above many women are not solve this problem the government aware of their rights. In addition to surveyed more than 32,000 plots this there is lack of transparency at between 2002/2003 – 2005 /2006, family level; participation in decision (Workshop Paper by Sarah Kyessi making is still very minimal for most of Ministry of Lands Housing and families. Discriminatory laws for Human Settlements). However, nearly example laws of inheritance including all these plots have already been laws and practices based on religion allocated to developers. as well as traditional attitudes. Gender issues in the Dar-es-Salaam Other challenges for women living in 20,000 Plots Project informal settlements include lack of basic services such as water, sanitation, My organization made a follow up to drainage, health outbreaks such as see how women faired in the allocation cholera, typhoid, and tuberculoses of the 20,000 plots according to gender. and overcrowd ness in the house. Lack The results are very encouraging as of roads for accessibility is another it was found out that the project has big challenge for women living in excelled in creating an environment in informal settlements. All these need which land can officially be allocated immediate attention to save women to women. It has paved the way for from all these problems. operationalisation of the Land Policy of 1995 and the new Land Act No. 4 Formal Housing supply and 5 of 1999 which stipulate that land allocation should not discriminate on There is a big gap between the supply the basis of gender/women. So far, and demand for housing which the available statistics show 32% of has been widening with time. The all the plots have been allocated to demand for units of conventional

104 women as displayed in the following chart. Gender Analysis for the Whole Project (20,000 plots)

Source: Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements Development

Housing Finance contributions from friends, relatives and from inheritance. Tanzania has no credit facility particularly for low and middle WAT started mobilizing groups to form income facilities. Tanzania Housing a WAT savings and credit cooperative Bank (THB) collapsed in 1995 due Society (WAT – SACCOS). The main to: Operational and managerial objective when the SACCOS started problems, poor capital base and poor was to facilitate provision of small funds mobilization strategies. loans for housing to low and middle income communities. WAT – SACCOS Currently there are only two has grown in number of membership, commercial Banks that have provide savings and loans. Membership mortgage lending since 2002: Azania stands at 5,68 members out of whom Bank Limited and United Bank of ,108 are women and 2,406 are men. Africa. Low and middle income There are also 54 women groups, 6 families use non loan sources such as groups of men and 6 institutions. salaries, informal incomes,

105 WAT Role and Positioning mentation and monitoring of the National Strategy for Growth and WAT has worked and will continue Poverty Reduction (NSGPR) ensur- to work with low and middle ing that adequate and affordable income communities and grassroots housing remain a priority in the organizations, local governments, implementation of the strategy central government, academic ii) The second sub-objective is and research institutions, and on informal settlements which international organizations to fight reads: To assist communities in against discrimination and improve the informal settlements achieve communities’ living standards, secure tenure and improve housing alleviate poverty among members of conditions and environment our groups with a special focus on iii) The last sub-objective is on women for reasons mentioned above. housing finance which states: Other civil society organizations that Saving and credit services which work in housing development include are self reliant in relation to Habitat for Humanity, and Tanzania housing improvement Women Land and Environment (TAWLET) In implementing the three sub- objectives, WAT uses different WAT - Rolling strategic plan (2006 strategies such as mobilizing - 2008) housing coops/groups and organizing exchange visits, providing education/ In order to achieve our mission a training on construction skills, housing second strategic plan was prepared rights, policies and affordability, by WAT management team and was strengthening coalitions and alliances approved by the Board of Trustees as well as providing technical in 2005. WAT involvement in the assistance for building materials and improvement of Human Settlement construction. is stated in the first objective of the Rolling strategic plan which reads: Strategies used in upgrading informal Human settlement improved. The settlements include mobilizing and objective has three sub-objectives: creating awareness on security of tenure, and ensuring the regularization i) Housing cooperative sub-ob- procedures laid down by government jective which is: are followed. Also communities are To empower low income commu- mobilized and sensitized on waste nities, particularly women and management as well as in housing up youth, to build and improve their grading. living conditions by providing education, training, technical as- Strategies for housing finance include sistance on land rights, adequate undertaking studies to determine and affordable housing construc- group/cooperative level of affordability, tion through self-help approach establishing a mechanism on housing and to participate in the imple- facilities for loan disbursement,

106 putting in place savings and loan Forum Tanzania successfully lobbied monitoring mechanism and lastly, for shelter issues to be included in the training housing cooperatives/groups Strategy for Economic Growth and before and after loan disbursement. Poverty Reduction. Shelter was not mentioned in the previous strategy. A participatory approach is used for all groups whereby all interested stake Other achievements include five holders engage themselves in policy housing cooperatives/groups that formulation and implementation have been formed namely: i.e. community members give final decision on the projects to be carried i) Nala Makazi housing group out and on their communities’ role which is in Nkhuhungu West, during the implementation stage. Dodoma. The group has 114 Local government officials make members; 67 women and 47 sure that the project is implemented men. It is engaged in construction according to the laws and regulations of residential houses for that are in force in the area they themselves. 42 houses are under cover. Municipal councils and central construction. government make approvals and make ii) Bandari housing cooperative sure that laws and other procedures has 82 members, (26 women and are followed and ensure that basic 56 men). They were allocated 80 services are provided as stipulated in government plots, 40 of which various policies. Funding partners also are located in Tuangoma and the have a big role to play particularly in other 40 plots are in Chamazi. giving financial support. WAT-Human The two areas Toangoma and Settlements get financial support Chamazi are in Dar es Salaam, from two funding partners, Rooftops Temeke Municipal. They have Canada and the Norway Federation built ten houses up to lintel level of Cooperatives Housing Association and have produced ten thousand (NBBL) of Norway. WAT is very bricks for housing construction. grateful to its funding partners. iii) Magohe Housing cooperative which is in Kinondoni Municipal Main achievements of WAT to-date cooperative is one of the oldest groups that WAT has been One of the achievements was when working with. It has 18 members, WAT successfully lobbied for the right 13 women and 5 men. Their of women to acquire and own land. objective is to build residential This was done jointly together with houses. They bought a piece of the Gender Land Task Force that was land from a land lord and paid for formed for that purpose and WAT the survey work. They borrowed was a member of the Task Force. money from Shelter Loan This is now clearly stipulated in the Revolving Fund for which they land laws of 1999. Another general finished repayment of the loan achievement happened in 2005 when they took. The group has 26 plots WAT together with members of Habitat and has produced 1,000 bricks

107 at the site. Three members are factory in Kinondoni Municipal eager to start construction. The and the remaining 13 plots are majority of the members are of in Mwanagati which is in Ilala very low income thus very slow in Municipal. Seven houses are starting implementation of their under construction. Two core project. houses have been constructed iv) Makazi Bora Housing group. It at Mivumoni in Kinondoni has 50 members, 35 women and Municipal and another one is 15 men. The group is composed being constructed at Mwanagati of formal and informal workers. in Ilala municipal. These are used They were allocated 39 plots as model houses to show case in 2004, 26 of which are in how houses can be built stage by Mivumoni near Twiga Cement stage.

A core house (phase one of a bigger house) built by a member of Makazi Bora group with technical assistance from WAT. Photo taken by WAT.

108 Achievements in upgrading to speed up survey work WAT informal settlements collaborated with Property and Business Formalization Program Hana Nassif which is in Kinondoni (MKURABITA) where WAT Municipal, 4 kilometers only from borrowed some funds to pay the the city centre. Two projects are surveyor. The contributions from being implemented by WAT in Hana the house owners is collected and Nassifu: paid back to MKURABITA. i) Regularization and security of tenure and Mkuhana group. The group is in Hana ii) Housing improvement. A needs Nassif and was asked if they would assessment was conducted in like to start upgrading their houses 2003 to find out the pressing needs while the exercise of regularization of the residents in upgrading their was going on. 24 members, 10 settlement. The needs assessment women and 14 men agreed to form report showed that community a group called Mkuhana. WAT helped members preferred formalization the group to assess their houses to and security of tenure projects to establish cost of upgrading for each be conducted before improvement house. 9 out of 24 houses have been of houses. Thus layout plans upgraded. The group members who were prepared by experts from have finished upgrading their houses University College of Lands, are now getting higher house rent Architecture and Surveys (UCLAS). compared to what they were getting The plans were then submitted to before. Besides house owners will be Kinondoni Municipal authorities able to use their houses as collateral and later on to the Ministry of when borrowing money from banks Lands for approval. The approval once they get their title deeds. was obtained in May 2006 and survey work started in August Shelter Loan Revolving Fund: The 2006 to December, 2006. The fund was created by WAT in 1998 with survey work was conducted by financial assistance from Rooftops a private surveyor. Each house Canada. The main objective was owner is supposed to contribute to set up a housing loan facility for Tshs. 30,000/= for survey work. housing cooperatives/groups which To date community members are mobilized by WAT. have paid Tshs. 17,500,000/= out of 30,000,000/= currently Since 2003 Norwegian Federation identification of plot owners is of Cooperatives Housing Association in progress. This exercise will (NBBL) and Rooftops Canada have lead to community members been contributing towards this fund getting title deeds for their plots through basket funding. Currently and thus attaining security of the fund stands at Tshs. 50 Million tenure. We expect title deeds (US $ 40,000). The total amount loan to be issued to house owners disbursed to-date is TSh. 70,145,655 before the end of 2007.In order million equivalent to US$ 55,103.

109 The number of beneficiaries is 67 • Lack of basic services: water, individuals and 3 groups. electricity, access roads etc, • Lack of borrowing and repayment Why is WAT in the lending culture among most of the low business? and middle income earners, • Lack of a continuous monitoring WAT has engaged itself in the lending system, business because it mobilizes low • Very few civil society organizations and middle income communities to are engaged in the field of human build adequate and affordable shelter. settlements improvement. These people cannot get access to credit through existing commercial Lessons learnt banks because the banks believe that low and middle income people are Working in human settlements with not worth lending to. low and middle income groups has many challenges. One of the challenges WAT gives loans to organized groups is that it is difficult to produce quick and individuals who have been results because of their financial low mobilized by WAT. WAT shelter Loan capacity. Housing delivery is expensive Revolving Fund Lending policy is to and it takes a long time. give small loans. Tshs. 3 million being the highest amount that one can Communities need technical support get. Interest rate is 1.5% monthly on to facilitate effective housing declining balance. Terms vary with the development. For all categories size of loan and repayment capacity of of the market, there is a need borrower. WAT provides group loan for technical support to facilitate as first loan with a maximum term control over site and house plans, of one year. Deposit required for all financing, the construction schedule loans is 25% saved over 3 to 6 months. and procurement methods. Thus Collateral includes 25% deposit, two technical support for WAT is highly guarantors for individual loans and recommended. lodging a title deed with WAT. Surveyed plots are still not readily Challenges: available in spite of the 32,000 plots which were surveyed by government • Scaling up work of improving in recent years. More affordable plots human settlements needs should be surveyed for low income huge commitments from all communities. Sufficient high density stakeholders, plots of 300 square meters should • Inadequate financial and technical be surveyed to cater for demand by capacity, people who can not afford to pay for • Lack of capacity in local big size plots. authorities for carrying out human settlements improvement effectively,

110 Future plans Conclusion

WAT needs to scale up provision Improving Human Settlements is a of its services. The organization is huge task which needs concerted currently planning to start working efforts by many stakeholders. WAT on a housing estate at an area called will be very grateful to get more Kibada which is in Dares-Salaam, support from both central and local Kigamboni, where we expect that 120 government. WAT will certainly houses will be constructed by housing appreciate to get financial and cooperatives and individuals. We technical support from the donor also plan to start working in another community based in Tanzania and area of informal settlement known from abroad. A call is also made as Midizini in Manzese area, Dar-es- to civil society organizations to Salaam. WAT is seeking for guarantee participate fully and effectively in the funds which the organization can use development and improvement of for building capital formation and human settlements for the low and build capacity for lending to clients. middle income earners so that their Awareness creation will be conducted living conditions may be improved continuously on all aspects of human and poverty levels reduced. settlements improvement.

Notes

111 4 - Women

WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP IN TANZANIA - THE ROLE OF GENDER ACTIVISTS By: Mary J. Mwingira, Tanzania Non-Governmental Organizations (TANGO), Dar es Salaam

INTRODUCTION Women’s empowerment at interna- tional, regional, sub-regional and Among the critical issues of concern national levels. At the international in as far as gender equality and equity level they include the United Nations is concerned is the issue of the par- Human Rights Charter, the Conven- ticipation of women leadership and tion on the Elimination of all Forms decision making positions. Accord- of Discriminations Against Women ing to the Beijing Platform for Action (CEDAW) the Beijing Platform For Ac- the political empowerment of women tion of 1995 and previous UN Women was one of the twelve critical areas Conferences declarations. At the re- that member states of the United Na- gional level Tanzania has signed the tions including Tanzania, made com- AOU Charter on Human and Peoples’ mitments to implement. It is also a Rights and the Gender Parity decla- fact that for many enlightened people, ration in which member states have gone are the days when we used to committed themselves to make sure think that the best place of women is that there is 50% representation of in the home and that they are just “to women in leadership and decision be seen and not to be heard”. Article making positions. At the SADC level 3 of the Constitution recognizes that Tanzania is a signatory to the SADC both women and men have the right Declaration on Gender and Devel- to participate in leadership at all lev- opment. In 2005 before the General els. The Gender and Women develop- elections, Tanzania ranked 3rd in the ment Policy of 2000 states that Tanza- number of Women representation in nia values human rights and equality the Parliament. as enshrined in the Constitution of the United Republic of 1977 as amended THE SITUATION ANALYSIS in 1984. Under article 3 the freedom of both women and men is recognized The General Elections of 2005 result- and the need for the nation to safe- ed in a considerable increase in the guard equality and participation in number of women’s representation public activities and national leader- in Parliament. There are more than ship is stressed. 97 women MPs in the current Parlia- ment which includes 75 Special Seats Tanzania is a signatory to a number members. Of these 6 were appointed of Charters, Declarations and Con- full ministers and 10 deputy minis- ventions on Gender equality and ters. At the regional commissioners 112 level there were 3 women and 18 men resentation under affirmative action 4 - Women in 2006 compared to 2 in the pervi- in the Union Parliament reveals that ous year. This shows that there is still there were 37 women special seats much to be done in this area even to in 1995 out of 267 , 47out of 285 in reach the 30% target. 2000, and 75 in out of 322 in 2005.

According to the Gender and Women THE ROLE OF GENDER ACTIVISTS Development policy it is acknowledged IN PROMOTING THE ELECTION, that Tanzania has not fully utilized the NOMINATION AND EFFECTIVE freedom and opportunities offered to PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN increase the number of women rep- LEADRESHIP resentation at various levels and in- troduce inclusive policies in different Specific Areas of Involvement sectors. There are still elements of gender discrimination in the proc- The involvement of gender activists in ess and non-supportive attitudes and Tanzania is herein discussed in eight practices. Because of such a situation specific areas. These are: women do not adequately contest for leadership positions and do not par- ticipate effectively in decision making v Building the capacity of women at the different levels in society. Rural contestants in assertiveness women of Tanzania who constitute 80% of the labour force and about v Advocacy work especially through 60% of food producers are excluded the production of peoples mani- from deciding on the products of their festos before General Elections labour because they are under-repre- which also place high priority in sented in various development com- ensuring equality and equity in mittees. Causes for the under repre- leadership at village, ward, dis- sentation include lack of experience trict and national level and the in the political sphere especially the placing of women in key decision tactics, lack of finances since most making sectors and ministries women do not have economic and fi- nancial power, lack of confidence and v Empowering women and men negative cultural attitudes. In the past through their various networks also the leadership positions granted and organizations to overcome to women were more in the tradition- traditions that continue to dis- ally accepted sectors like community criminate against women and development, women and children’s attitudes and behaviours that affairs, and other social welfare sec- perpetuate the consideration of tors. However for Tanzania it is jus- political and other leadership as tifiable to say that Tanzania is now a men’s domain. taking the right steps towards the attainment of the political empower- v Engaging in civic education on ment of women. An analysis of the in- gender sensitive elections espe- crease in the number of women rep- cially stressing the right of both

113 men and women to equally par- and tactics for fighting gender ticipate in contesting for elections violence in elections form other through constituencies, wards places and countries. and local government at all levels. Gender activists are also engag- v Providing legal empowerment ing in denouncing discriminatory and support to women leaders and dehumanizing language to- with limited capacity in this field wards women contestants during and providing human rights edu- campaigns and by elected as well cation. as appointed leaders during the course of leadership. v Fighting against stereotyping and negative judgment especially on v Auditing and monitoring the the performce of women in lead- progress of the commitment by ership positions, and commend- the political parties to include ing them for good work. women in top positions in their respective parties and in parlia- THE MAIN ACTIVISTS ment, and local government. It is important to recognize that there v Supporting women contestants at are various activists engaged in the national and sub-national levels above mentioned activities at both in accessing financial resources, national and sub-national levels. other resources for campaign However in here we will discuss the work and with the necessary in- role played by the following organiza- formation on best experiences tions:

Organization Activities and areas of involvement 1 Feminist Activist Coalition Preparation launching and dissemination of People’s Manifestos (Fem Act) on Elections including presentation of strong position on gender equality and equity in leadership processes and interventions 1995, 2000, and 2005 Support to women constants in campaigning (Financial and material resources) especially in 2000 elections 2 Tanzania Gender Networking Training of Women contestants on assertiveness and confidence Programme (TGNP) building. Training of Trainers for Intermediary Gender networks leaders on gender and political empowerment. Technical support to the Ministry of Gender and Development on the attainment of gender parity in leadership Commissioning research and producing advocacy information to lobby decision makers (Key Advocacy Issues emerging from Beijing +10 Asseesment) 3 Tanzania Media Women Media Advocacy and awareness creation on the importance Organization (TAMWA) of Women’s participation in leadership and the elimination of gender violence in electoral and other processes. Training of contestants on confidence building and how to overcome gender related barriers.

114 Organization Activities and areas of involvement 4 Taaluma Women Group (TWG) As an organization of Professional Women working with grassroots women and youth in communities Taaluma Women Group has been involved in Civic education for women and communities both before the 2000 and 2005 General Elections. In 2000 TWG had a special programme of training women aspiring for local government elections to get the positions of village leadership and ward council membership. In collaboration with TEDG they participated in Civic Education programme with specific focus on women empowerment in political leadership In 2005 TWG was one of the Civil Society organizations which succeeded in securing funding from the basket fund coordinat- ed by UNDP for Civic Education in Kilindi and Mbinga Districts TWG also supported one of their members to conest for the special seats under the affirmative action. The TWG supported candidate got the highest votes at primary nominations done by NGOs in 2000 although later on the relevant party decided to give the position to the candidate who was the fourth in the primary nominations. In its training and follow up activities in the regions TWAG undertakes continuous civic education for the outreach groups and communities. 5 The Legal and Human Rights The centre is more involved in legal literacy but as a member of Centre (LHRC) FemAct, LHRC was the lead organization in the constitutional review process. The work included identifying gender gaps and proposing a more effective implementation of the constitutional provisions including that of non-discrimination in political par- ticipation and other types of leadership LHRC is also one of the three NGOs which took up and won the case of abolishing hospitality in elections by contestants, a prac- tice which was breeding corruption in elections and somehow inhibiting women to contest because of their limited financial capacity and decisions 6 Women Legal AID Center As an organization which provides legal assistance WLAC also (WLAC) supports cases of women who are unfairly treated in elections. It also prepares shadow reports on the progress of implement- ing the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and other commitments thus alerting government to take action on CEDAW and the implementation of Governments commitments including placement of women in leadership positions. 7 Tanzania Ecumenical Dialogue Tanzania Ecumenical Dialogue Group TEDG is a think tank Group (TEDG) group for the churches and in particular the Tanzania Episcopal Conference (TEC) and the Christian Council of Tanzania (CCT). The issues of democracy and political awareness are among the priority agenda. The main work is advocacy and in all the three multiparty elections TEDG has been among the very active organizations in civic education on free and fair elections. TEDG facilitates church leaders in issuing statements emphasiz- ing fairness and equity and in 2005 TEDG produced khangas and other campaign material reminding voters to also vote for women.

115 Organization Activities and areas of involvement 8 Christian Council of Tanzania The Women’s wing of the CCT has a special program of advo- Gender Desk cating for women’s effective participation in leadership. Several women have come up to contest in the 2005 local government and General elections especially at the village and ward levels. Testimonies by those women who tried showed that the terrain is not so conducive for the women but all the same the CCT Gender desk continues with assertiveness training as part of its empowerment programme 9 The Leadership Forum This is an organization that encourages and trains young women and men to build confidence in holding leadership posi- tions. Gender equality is one of its core values. 10 Tanzania Association of NGOs As an umbrella organization TANGO’ role is to support the (TANGO) other activists groups. TANGO does so by participating in The Fem Act activities. TANGO also works with its District and regional NGOs partners supporting them to do continuous civic education. In collaboration with CARITAS Tanzania Women and Develop- ment section, and TGNP, TANGO has had a six years programme focusing on enhancing gender awareness at district level. This training process has resulted in a number of women contesting and some of them being elected as councilors and Members of Parliament. In the 2000 elections TANGO was the coordinator of the proc- ess which led to getting the special seat MP under the NGOs.

Motivated by the Beijing Platform for local government, increased number action and other declarations and con- of women ministers and deputy minis- ventions on women’s empowerment, ters in key ministries, the appointment these organizations have since then of Tanzanian women high positions included the political empowerment at the United Nations like that of the of women in their programmes by Under Secretary to the UN and lead- undertaking both joint and individual er of UN Habitat and the increasing steps in advocating for the increased number of women Permanent Secre- and enhanced participation of women taries and those occupying Executive in leadership at various national and positions in Government agencies and international levels. That is why we NGOs. This can partly be attributed to are now witnessing at the moment the struggles led by gender activists in increased representation of women in the country.

116 Paralegal Members Selected to Decision Making Bodies

Paralegal Paralegal Member Sex Post Status of Unit the Post Arusha Grace Soka F Councilor Special Seat Mbeya Florence Kyendesya F Member of Parliament Special Seat Shinyan- Joyce Masunga F Member of Parliament Special Seat ga Ester Makune F Councilor Special Seat Kigoma Mashavu Mabula F Councilor Special Seat Sakina Kabeza F Division Secretary Appointed Tanga Johari Shaaban F Councilor Special Seat Mwanza Maria Hewa F Member of Parliament Special Seat Maimuna Yusuph F UWT Chairperson Elected Hamisa Abasi F CCM Branch Leader Elected Salum Bala M Councilor Elected Kibaha Mohammed Kiaratu M CCM Chairperson Elected Mtoro Katele F Councilor Special Seat Lindi Zena Mwizagu F Councilor Elected Mtwara Verena Mahundu F UWT Regional Chair- Elected person Songea Devotha Likokola F Member of Parliament Special Seat Fatma Missango F Councilor Special Seat Siwajibu Gama F Councilor Special Seat Dodoma Dodoma F Councilor Special Seat Sarah Mgoli

Source: Women’s Legal Aid Centre, Dar es Salaam, August 2007

117 5 - Youth

BUILDING A BETTER TANZANIA: Perspectives and Demands of Youth in Tanzania under the Fourth Phase Government

By: Godfrey Emiliano Sansa, University of Dar es Salaam

Introduction Prelude to the Fourth Phase Gov- ernment Tanzania like many other developing countries has a fairly youthful popu- We learn from the history of Tanzania lation comprising of more than 40%. that the youth have been a very po- Indeed, it is also estimated that the tential group in socio-economic and youth comprise of more than 60% of political development of the nation. the Tanzania’s total workforce. It is The role and significance of the youth a mixed group of population found in can be traced, as far back as 1950s rural and urban areas, employed and and 1960s, during the struggle for unemployed, of those without formal independence. Youth participated in schooling, dropouts, primary school the struggle for independence as in- leavers, form four and form six as dividuals and as leaders or members well as college and university gradu- of various social, economic, cultural, ates.a The concept of youth varies political and other civil organizations. from -one community ‘to another de- Many leaders and members of vari- pending on customs and traditions, ous organizations in Tanganyika and social behaviour and their location. In Zanzibar were youths.d They tirelessly this discussion youth will connote any devoted themselves individually and person (man and woman) with both civic directed their respective associations and political rights to participate in politi- or groups in seeking freedom, rights cal processes falling between the age of 15 and justice from the colonial govern- and 35 years.b Youth constitute an im- ment. They later formed and or joined portant segment of Tanzanian Society political parties and ultimately fought and very often people speak of them for political independence. There is as the pillar of the nation and poten- no dispute that, it is from the contri- tial resource (workforce) for develop- bution of the above leaders who were ment.c It is therefore the single most less than 35 years then, that nearly potent force on Tanzanian political more than 35 million Tanzanians to- scene which no leader, political party day, are proud of living in a peaceful or government can have the courage nation. We are not suggesting that el- to ignore! ders have done nothing in as far as Tanzania’s development is concerned, but we are insisting on the fundamen- tal role that the youth have historical-

118 ly been playing in the -development of Generally, the post independence so- 5 - Youth this country. cio-economic and political processes reconstructed the youth as “subject” The period between 1961 and 1965 citizensf. They were economically, was the transition and turning point politically and socially marginalized in the status, role, position and scope and excluded from the mainstream of participation of the youth in the development processes. Economically development processes in Tanzania. the youth were dispossessed of own- During this period, the then ruling ership and control of resources from party (Tanganyika National Union family level to state level. Politically -TANU) and its government, faced they were confined to party-wings and great challenges from various civil reduced to mere political instruments organizations following its failure to of the party, political leaders and the fulfill the demands and interests of state. They were not considered as these organizations as promised dur- potential agents of social, economic ing the struggle for independence. Is- and political change and often called sues like employment, good pay and “taifa la kesho” meaning “the nation the working environment, Africaniza- of tomorrow” as opposed to the pur- tion of the civil service and the like ported “taifa la leo” (the nation of to- are said to be the source of the chal- day) which was composed of the el- lenges. In fear of losing position and ders! Therefore anti-youth socio-eco- legitimacy, TANU and its government nomic and political institutions and decided to do away with all indepen- structures were created to respond to dent and challenging civil organiza- that unfortunate stereotypical ideol- tions by co-opting them, transforming ogy, making youths’ socio-economic and replacing them with state created and political marginalization an order organizations or proscribing them. of the day. Among the groups which suffered from that action were youth associa- From late 1970s to mid 1980s Tan- tions, such as University Students As- zania experienced an unprecedented sociations and even young people in and severe socio-economic and politi- various civil organizations like Work- cal crisis. The crisis was associated ers Associations. The youth became with, among other things, govern- affiliated to the party under the TANU ment’s poor management of resourc- youth league and later Chama Cha es and public affairs severed by unac- Mapinduzi (C.C.M) youth organiza- countability, corruption and excessive tion. Maximum controls of civil as- exclusion of citizens in mainstream sociations were reached after de-jure development processes. Due to that adoption of one party political system and pressurized from both internal in 1965.e Other associated socio-eco- and external forces, the Tanzanian nomic reforms like nationalization of government was forced to initiate major means of production and villa- economic and later political and so- gization affected the status and role of cial liberalization which began in the the youth in development too. mid 1980s and took momentum in early 1990s.g

119 Therefore, after almost 27 years of processes in the country. The adoption what may be characterized by some of plural politics in 1992 marked the as authoritarian monoparty regime, end of de-jure mono party regime and the youth like other categories of peo- provided the youth with alternative ple in the country expected things to avenues through which they could ex- change. They expressed their desire press their demands and feelings to- to the introduction of multiparty sys- wards the government and its devel- tem which was expected to widen the opment policies, strategies and plans. opportunity and create enabling en- In other words, the role and status of vironment for them to participate in the youth were slowly beginning to political processes. According to Nya- change. Taking advantages of cracks lali commission’s results on the deter- and vacuums (political, economic and mination as to whether the country social spaces) created by those trans- should go multiparty or remain single formations, youth gradually started party, large part of the 20% of respon- moving towards socio-economic and dents who preferred multiparty sys- political centres demanding full rec- tem were relatively the youth aged ognition as agents of social change. between 18 and 35 years. They were ready to push for the reform process- In general youth started demanding es with the intentions of leading the for economic reintegration (especially new political system.h issues of sustainable employment), the social reintegration (access to qual- Table 1: Age group category of the ity education and recognition of their respondents who supported the in- agency and potentiality as drivers of troduction of multiparty politics in social change) and political reintegra- 1992 tion (through greater participation in policy and decision making processes) Age Groups Total and in leadership of the country. They (Years) percentage (%) were demanding the right and accep- 18-30 33.1 tance as equal agents in social eco- nomic and political changes as well 31-40 29.6 as entitlement to the benefits arising 41-55 22.0 from those changes. Over 55 15.7 Source: Mmuya(1998) Tanzania political reforms in Despite the fact that , these eco- Eclipse. pp. 30-31. nomic political and social brought some economic, social and political These changes opened up again a achievements the new regimes, often space for various actors including the failed in meeting the youth demands youth, who were previously silenced and expectations that had been one by the mono party regime, to reorga- of the prime reasons for the econom- nize and come out openly to criticize ic, social and political liberalization the government. This was the begin- processes, that is, “promoting youth ning of the rejuvenation of the youth civic engagement and effective par- agency in socio-economic and political ticipation in leadership and other po-

120 litical processes, employment oppor- Further more, the Structural Adjust- tunities, quality and accessible educa- ment Programmes (SAPs) of the eight- tion, drug abuse and protection from ies and subsequent reforms which in- infectious deceases. For instance, not sisted on the shrinking of the already much attention was paid to the youth inadequate public services have left until 1996 when for the first time, a legacy of massive youth migration the government adopted the first Na- from rural to already overcrowded, tional Youth Development Policy aim- under-resourced and under-serviced ing at promoting youth development urban areas in search of better lives, and alleviation of their problems public facilities and livelihoods. This through participatory approach (i.e. wave of rural-urban migration partly by including them in planning, policy instigated also by lack of provision of and decision making as well as policy public services and limited or lack of implementation processes).Very little economic opportunities in rural ar- by way of policies and other socio- eas. This phenomenon has persisted economic and political development to date, with more youth leaving rural strategies were adopted for youth de- locales in search of ‘greener pastures’ velopment.i in cities like Dar es salaam, Arusha and Mwanza. Although there is the right to em- ployment, many youth who complete As discussed earlier, just like in the their studies at various levels, are not era of mono party political system, given access to it in the formal sec- the late 1990s and early 2000s of tor because of the weak economy. multiparty politics saw youth continu- It is also- difficult to work in the in- ing being used as community mobili- formal sector due to problems in se- zation for the government activities curing capital, work implements and and political mobilization vehicles work premises. In addition, some for their respective political parties. of the youths who work in domestic Actually they have continued being places, and those who are employed by confined to party youth wings as pre- private enterprises e.g. in bars and paratory camps for future leadership in restaurants are lowly paid despite positions in the party and govern- the long working hours (more than 8 ment. More seriously, very few fe- hours a day) thus denying them the male youth emerged as leaders or right to earn appropriate wages. Ac- representatives in decision-making cording to MKUKUTA it is estimated organs. that among the unemployed people in the country more than 60% are the For example, after the 2000 Local youth. Interestingly, unemployment government elections in Dar es sa- is worse among the youth, including laam Municipal councils, among the the educated ones. There is also an 97 both elected and special seat coun- increase in HIV and AIDS prevalence cilors, only 3 (3.1%) were youth. And among youth, limited access to higher interestingly, no youth councilor was education and political leadership po- elected or nominated in TEMEKE and sitions.j KINONDONI municipal councils.k

121 Table 2: Councilors in Dar es Salaam city after the 2000 Local government elections M u n i c i p a l No. of Councilors Sex Age Category Council Elected S/ Seat Male Female 15-35 Over-35 Temeke 24 8 22 10 0 32 Ilala 22 6 18 10 3 25 Kinondoni 27 10 25 12 0 37 Total 73 24 65 32 3 94

Source: Municipal councils’ statistical records

Therefore, despite of their potentiality It is from the realization of that mar- and centrality to societal interactions ginalization that the youth started and socio-economic and political looking for the opportunity to express transformation, the youth were often their demands and feelings to the placed at the margins of the public government and society in general sphere and major political, socio-eco- and for the first time in the history of nomic and cultural processes even multipartism in Tanzania, the 2005 after 1990s and early 2000s reforms. general elections whether planned This situation continued making them or unplanned provided that histori- helpless and vulnerable to political, cal moment. At least one would say, economic and social development youth got the opportunity to express tribulations. Thus, the modus ope- their demands and feelings as well as randi of (manipulated) negative youth re-define their perspectives over the participation in formal political and government and the government and decision-making processes hardly political leaders recognizing the value changed significantly in the past one of youth in their political comings and and half a decade. The youth were goings. mobilized when they are needed and subsequently returned to their eco- Youth and the Fourth Phase Gov- nomically and politically marginalized ernment: Change or Continuity? positions, especially in post-election contexts, where old generation lead- Youth Perspectives ers negotiate post-election privileges A perspective of a particular category for themselves and the youth are left of citizens of any country is partly a to become subjects of the regime in function of one of the dimensions of power. Given the above situation, the political culture called political feel- youth were negatively perceived as ings. Feelings towards the govern- threats to old generational leader- ment entail among other things, ship, rather than equal and potential political perception of the impact of agents of socio-economic and political that government to the demands and development of the country. problems of the citizens concerned.

122 l The citizens may have negative or ment) affected them much than any positive perception toward the gov- other section of the society, hence ernment depending on the impacts of forcing them to associate the govern- the government’s decisions, policies, ment with cause for their sufferings. and strategies over the daily lives and This youth negative perspective over future of those citizens. When citi- the government seems to have domi- zens feel no any positive impacts the nated the first decade of multiparty government can make towards fulfill- regime in the country.m ing their demands and solving their problems or that, policies and actions Generally, because of the unfortunate of the government affects negatively socio-historically constructed and per- their lives and compromise their fu- ceived stereotypical image of youth as ture, they will have negative perspec- liabilities to socio-economic and polit- tive towards that government and feel ical development and victims of policy themselves “subjects” of all govern- neglect, the youth seemed to have lost ment development initiatives. When trust to the past governments. The the opposite is the case, citizens tend 2005 general elections rejuvenated to have positive perspective towards their trust and used as an opportunity the government and feel themselves to see the situation changing in favour “citizens” who are responsible and of their demands. part of all government development initiatives. The 2005 general elections and the youths’ demands According to the Baseline Survey of Tanzania’s political culture conduct- It was very clear from the minds of ed in 1994 that was meant to test, leaders of both opposition and rul- among others, the citizens feelings ing party (CCM) that the youth were towards the government, over half of at the center of any success to 2005 the respondents interviewed (about general elections both to individual 54.8%) who were youths aged be- candidates and to political parties. tween 18 and 35 years expressed Recognizing that potentiality, almost negative feelings. According to that all political parties put the youths’ de- survey the negative feelings was due mands at the forefront of their elec- to the problems youth faced such tions’ agenda. unemployment, bare education, [po- litical exclusion] and abject poverty. For instance, while addressing del- Those problems forced them to brush egates of the CCM’s extraordinary against the government, which was presidential nomination confer- considered of having no mercy on ence on May 4, 2005, at Chimwaga them and made them victims of the – Dodoma, the then party chairman system. Secondly most of the youth President Benjamini Mkapa urged the were predominantly rural engaged in ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi to open agriculture and pastoralist activities. up for young leadership. Acknowledg- The deterioration of these sectors (due ing the generational leadership gap to government economic mismanage- in the government and in the party,

123 president Mkapa insisted the need “…….at least 50 CCM Members of for the party to adapt to the changing Parliament lost, some badly in the circumstances and hence asking the nominations that took place between delegates to nominate a young party 1st – 3rd and 4th – 6th August, 2005. contestant who was popular with the Among them were few ministers and young generation in the country. He influential long-serving Members of insisted further that, although CCM parliament ……..some won in a very was the oldest party (in terms of years small margin…..”q of leadership in the country and lead- ership composition) the party was There might be different opinions on supposed to bridge the existing lead- the reasons for the failure of these ership generational gapn. He was re- elderly contestants. But no one can ported to have said: dare to ignore the contribution to that rejection made by the youth whose “…….Chama cha Mapinduzi should agenda was to see pro- young or march with the times by deliberate- young generation leadership in the ly opening up its leadership to new fourth phase government and who blood. If we recycle ourselves, elec- had massively registered as voters. tion after election our young people It was an expression of their demand will loose faith in us, believing the for leadership change. generation gap cannot be bridged and hence try their luck with opposition The CCM party recognizing the de- parties….”o mands and the youth feelings towards the fourth phase government nomi- He insisted again that it was neces- nated Mr. Jakaya Kikwete (considered sary to appreciate the composition of to be a young leader) its presidential the electorate in Tanzania which is candidate. Jakaya Kikwete identified dominated by young people: himself as a young leader and associ- ated with youth problems. The youth “Let us ask ourselves what young in the ruling and opposition par- Tanzanians want from their leaders. ties associated themselves with him. If we give them what they want or Many accompanied him in campaigns what will give them hope for the fu- and attended his campaigns in multi- ture, they will continue voting for our tude. His political slogan of “new zeal, party and candidates. If not, they will new vigor and new speed” reflected drift to the opposition.p the need for young leadership and symbolized young generation and The admonition given by President new blood who considered being able Mkapa was revealed during Intra- and ready to cope with new social Party nomination processes in which economic and political changes both about 50 former CCM members of nationally and internationally. parliament lost some badly and some won in a very small margin. As it was In campaigns all political parties reported: promised to address the problems facing youth in the country. For ex-

124 ample, CCM promised to create Pro-youth initiatives in the fourth 1,000,000 new jobs within the peri- phase government od of five years and CUF promising 500,000 new jobs every year. Individ- From what can be seen as recognition ual presidential candidates expressed of the youth support in putting the their concern for youth problems too. Fourth Phase Government in power The CCM candidates Mr. Jakaya Kik- and as obligation to fulfill the prom- wete, had his campaign mainly cen- ises made during the campaigns, the tering and focused on various issues government leaders have made some including creating employment op- changes which seem to reflect youth portunities for the youth both in for- demands. One example is that there mal and private as well as informal is now quite a number of youth mem- sector, expansion of the enrolment in bers of parliament. Other examples education system and revamping as include: appointment of young dis- well as developing industrial sector. trict commissioners, appointment of NCCR-Mageuzi presidential candidate young deputy ministers, expansion Dr. Sengondo E. Mvungi promised to of health and education employment, address problems of youth employ- setting one billion Tanzanian shillings ment and education, the same was to for youth development in each region Prof. Ibrahim Lipumba a CUF presi- and initiation by the Ministry of La- dential candidate, Freeman Mbowe of bour, Employment and Youth Devel- CHADEMA and others.r opment, of youth community based volunteering camps as a mechanism In general, the 2005 General Elec- for mobilizing youth and encouraging tions were peculiar in the way they them to engage in community devel- reflected the aspirations and con- opment activities. On the other hand, cerns of the youth in the country. It the ruling party CCM and many op- was indeed the turning point to the position parties have youth wings and history of youth agency in Tanzanian have appointed youth into leadership politics and the leadership propensity positions in their respective party or- to youth problems and demands. The ganizations. youth perceived the fourth phase gov- ernment a “pro-youth government” However, there are still many inci- and they have been very free to ex- dences which indicate that the issue press their likes and dislikes unlike of solving past problems of the youth in other past governments. It is dur- is very difficult than one would ex- ing and after these elections, when pect. For instance very few youth one may argue, that youth started were nominated and elected during to have positive feeling towards the the 2005 general elections .In Dar government. The here is whether the es salaam Region, out of 417 people fourth phase government will be able who contested for councillorship in to maintain the positive feelings and 72 wards, only 152 (36.5) were youth trust it has gained. aged between 21 and 35 years. In Dodoma Region contestants were 423 in 143 wards but youth were 65

125 (15.2%) only. But what is interesting contestants who fell between 21 and here is that, opposition parties nomi- 35 years of age. Again all young con- nated many youth than the ruling testants from opposition parties lost, party. But many young contestants except for Kigoma North Constituency from the opposition lost as compared where Mr. Zitto Kabwe from CHADE- to the ruling party. MA Party won. Again all young con- testants from the ruling party CCM Table 3: Number of young chancellor- won the elections indicating that lega- ship contestants representing their cies of monopartism and insular par- political parties in the 2005 general ty-partisanship still dominant among elections for Dodoma and Dar es Sa- the youth and the Tanzanian society laam Regions in general. This persued some to ar- (Source: The National Electoral Commission, gue that the multiparty system does 2005) not favour the political advancement of youth. Party REGION Dodoma Dar es Salaam No. Young Total con- Percent- Young Total con- Percent- contes- testants age (%) contes- testants age (%) tants tants 1 CCM 4 148 2.7 4 72 5.5 2 CHADEMA 14 66 21.2 22 57 38.5 3 CUF 21 100 21,1 12 72 16.7 4 DP 9 22 49,9 1 3 33.3 5 FORD 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 JAHAZI 0 0 0 14 28 50 7 D-MAKINI 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 NCCR-M 3 12 25 4 19 21 9 NLD 0 0 0 8 14 57.1 10 NRA 0 0 0 0 1 0 11 OOT 0 0 0 2 3 66.6 12 SAU 3 7 42.8 6 18 33.3 13 TADEA 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 TLP 10 64 15.6 14 26 58.8 15 UDP 1 4 25 7 24 29.1 16 UMD 0 0 0 8 12 66.6 17 UPDP 0 0 0 10 21 47.6 18 CHAUSTA 0 0 0 40 47 85.1 Total 65 423 15.3 152 417 36.5

In the parliamentary elections young contestants were below 20% of all contestants from all political parties. Participation of the youth in the par- liamentary elections was very mini- mal. It is only 17.5% out of 1226

126 Table 4 Number of young parliamen- shillings allocated by the government tary contestants representing their to each region for youth development, political parties in the 2005 general indicates the possibility of change in elections the seemingly initial positive feelings No. of Total Percentage S/n Party Young contestants (%) contestants 1 CCM 10 232 4.3 2 CHADEMA 27 145 18.6 3 CHAUSTA 20 61 32.8 4 CUF 30 213 14.0 5 DP 7 46 0.1 6 FORD 1 11 9.0 7 JAHAZI ASILIA 7 55 12.7 8 DEMOKRASIA MAKINI 9 16 56.2 9 NCCR-MAGEUZI 10 71 14.0 10 NLD 10 29 34.5 11 NRA 9 27 33.3 12 PPT-MAENDELEO 7 16 43.7 13 SAU 20 53 37.7 14 TADEA 10 34 29.4 15 TLP 14 116 12.0 16 UDP 11 38 28.9 17 UMD 1 21 4.7

Source: The National Electoral Commission, 2005

Furthermore, the destruction by ur- of the youth towards the fourth phase ban authorities of various areas used government .The question we are by the youth for informal small busi- asking is whether the fourth phase ness in cities of Dar es salaam, Mwan- government will change the situation za and Arusha in 2006 on the claim or continue to commit the same his- that these areas were illegally used torical sin! for business and which was strongly protested by the youth to the extent Conclusion of forcing the Prime Minister Edward Lowasa to stop the exercise for six In this article we have tried to dem- months and which continues to be onstrate that though the youth have the source of conflict between the ur- been considered the pillar of the na- ban small business youths and the tion and important resource for social government ; the university students’ economic and political development, strike against the cost sharing policy they were often placed at the margins of the higher education between on of the public sphere and major politi- April 15-16 , 2007; and the contro- cal, socio-economic and cultural pro- versy emerged on the processes of cesses, which led them to have nega- youth application for the one billion tive feelings towards the past three

127 phase governments. Youth were not participation of youth in the country considered as potential agents of so- must go beyond political rhetoric, cial, economic and political change electioneering, community volunteer- and often called “taifa la kesho”. The ing and superficial inclusion of youth socio-economic and political reforms in some few leadership positions, to undertaken so far are yet to produce addressing the more fundamental is- undutiful results indicating a danger sues which relates to the nature, no- that the youth in Tanzania will con- tion and architecture of Tanzanian tinue to play a marginal role in eco- socio-economic and political systems nomic political and social develop- which continue to marginalize them. ment processes. For example, while much emphasis Although we saw the youth coming has been rightly paid to the politi- very strong during the 2005 general cal dimensions of the problem, more elections as voters who constitute a attention is equally needed on the significant force which can have an economic and social front. There is impact on the election results, they an added challenge of transforming have not fully appreciated their nu- anti-youth tendencies and division of merical strength and power to in- youth on parochial party interest ba- fluence and make a difference in sis. Young leaders in Tanzania, like development policies and decisions many others in Africa, feel the plau- making processes. They have re- sibility and possibilities of political mained divided and easily manipulat- futures diminishing because of lack ed by their respective political parties of appreciation of their leadership or individual elderly political leaders value, threats from their own political parties and leaders and the limited For the fourth phase government, entry points into economic and politi- it important to note that, the youth cal space, often due to their illiquidity, demands and aspirations cannot be institutional bottleneck, nomadic life- achieved without providing them style and age. with civic and political space for them to positively and substantially partici- It should be warned that, to continue pate in mainstream decision-making marginalizing this vast majority of and related activities in the political, Tanzania’s population from shaping economic and social spheres. The call their and the future of their societies, for “bringing-the-youth-back” can not will be to further undermine or post- be achieved through simple emotion- pone prospects for the durable and ally pleasing slogans. It requires scru- sustainable socio-economic and polit- pulous regime reconstructions which ical development of the country which offer opportunities for transforming Tanzania has so desperately searched Tanzanian society and its economic for and so urgently needs. and political institutions and pro- cesses so that they can reflect youth concerns and demands. However, the challenge of effective and mainstream

128 ENDNOTES for the degree of Master of Arts (Political Sci- ence and Public Administration) in the Univer- a sity of Dar s Salaam (unpublished) URT (1996); The National Youth Develop- h ment Policy Mmuya(1998) Tanzania Political Reforms in b Eclipse. pp. 30-31. 2 Sansa, Godfrey (2002) Youth Participation i in Decision making Bodies , Local councils in URT (1996) The National Youth Development Tanzania : A dissertation submitted to the Fac- Policy ulty of Arts and Social sciences in partial ful- j URT (2005): National Strategy for Growth fillment for the requirement of undergraduate and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP or com- degree in Political science and Public adminis- monly called MKUKUTA) tration of the University of Dar es salaam c Ibid,, k Sansa , Godfrey (2001), ibid., d It is argued that, Mzee Rashidi Kawawa start- l Liviga, A.J. “Feelings towards the country, ed playing the role of a leader when he was still government and politics” in Mushi S.S, Mu- a student and t the age of twenty-seven he was kandala R, & Baregu, M.L (eds)(2001) : The among the leaders of the Tanganyika Federa- Tanzania’s Political culture : A Baseline sur- tion of Labour and on the 22nd January 1962 vey. Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam. University he was sworn in as prime minister of Tangan- Press, p 82 yika. In 1954 the person who Tanzanians have m Ibid. pp 86-90. come to honour as “the Father of the Nation” n TEMCO (2005) A Report the Preparation of a (Mwalimu J. K. Nyerere) led the Tanganyika Af- Permanent Voters’ Register for Tanzania Main- rican Association (TAA),” a political organiza- land for 2005 General Elections See also The tion that eventually changed its name into Tan- Guardian , May 5, 2005, pp.1&2 and Mtanza- ganyika Africans National Union (TANU) when nia; May 5, 2005, p 4 he was 32. ln Zanzibar, first president Sheikh o Ibid., Amri Abeid Karume led a small but dynamic p Ibid., labour movement among dockworkers when q The Guardian, August 8, 2005 pp. 1&2 and he was 33 years old. Former President Aboud Mwananchi August 10, 2005. pp.1&2 Jumbe became a leader of Zanzibar National r NEC (2006): The 2005 Presidential , Parlia- Union also at the age of 33. The late Ahmed mentary and Councilors’ Elections Report See Abdulrahman Babu began active politics at the also TEMCO (2006) Election Monitoring Re- age of 35. Retired Organization of African Unity port for 2005 General Elections and Chama (OAU) Secretary General Dr. Salim Ahmed Sa- cha Mapinduzi (2005), Mafanikio ya Serikali lim was a diplomat in his late teens. ya Awamu ya Tatu (1995-2005) na Utekezaji e Lionel Cliffe (ed) (1967) One Party Democ- wa Ilani ya Uchaguzi ya CCM ya Mwaka 2000. racy: The 1965 Tanzania General Elections, Makao Makuu ya CCM, Dodoma. African Publishing House , pp.10-11 f Subject citizens are those citizens with subjec- tive or passive political culture. They have very wear orientations towards self recognition as potential actors in the system .This occurs be- cause of the historical and other associated socio- economic and political constructions of their identities and roles in that system. In general, subject political culture tends to em- phasize obedience and obligations over compe- tence and rights. See also, Mushi, S.S. “Back- ground to the Survey and the Civic culture method” in Mushi S.S, Mukandala R, & Baregu, M.L (eds)(2001) : The Tanzania’s Political cul- ture : A Baseline survey. Dar es salaam, Dar es salaam University Press, pp 4&5 g Sansa, Godfrey (2004) The Mode of Transi- tion to Democracy and its Impact on Multipar- tiy Poltics in Tanzania: A dissertation submit- ted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

129 YLTP; HOW TO PARTICIPATE IN THE LEADERSHIP TRAINING

YLTP is an acronym for the Youth least 40% should be females. Since Leadership Training Program (YLTP) the inception of the program the which in a nutshell, is a leadership number of female trainees has been training program organized by the increasing at a steady rate. It should Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES). It be noted that since 2005 to date both trains youth from different socio- males and females share an equal cultural and political backgrounds representation of 50%. in Tanzania. The youth are brought together and trained on various The main objectives of the Program aspects of Leadership. The YLTP are; program was launched in 2000 with the intention of contributing to the • To equip the trainees with efforts towards the creation of good, leadership skills and knowledge capable and reliable leaders. Now we through education and training are implementing YLTP VII! so as to build their capacities and sharpen their principles in order Each program runs for one year and to become capable and reliable draws participants from different leaders. institutions. A large number share of the trainees are recommended • To create a networking by institutions that are directly atmosphere among the trainees dealing with youth matters; the other and the institutions from which trainees are usually selected from they come. partner organizations. Generally the trainees who participate in the • To support efforts towards the training program are from political promotion of good governance parties, government institutions, non within the institutions and at governmental organizations (NGOs), national level. trade unions, religious organizations, students’ organizations and media YLTP is a multi disciplinary training institutions. The program also draws program based on the idea of participants from disadvantaged participatory learning. The program groups. focuses on themes drawn from Politics & Public Administration, Political Regarding the male and female Economy & Business Administration, representation it is policy that at Media & Communication Skills, 130 Administrative Law, Research It is the primary goal of the FES to Methodology, Management Skills unlock the skills, nurture and enable and Facilitation Skills. On aspects of young leaders to discover and make Gender and HIV/Aids, the program use of their potential in order to be able explores these concepts as cross to face the contemporary leadership cutting issues linked to these other and management challenges in their themes. respective organizations and at the national level. Apart from the thematic areas the program also puts emphasis on: In order to achieve this and to knowledge relating to a variety of smoothen the running of day to day disciplines in the global context activities, the secretariat introduced a because a leader has to be widely Code of Conduct which young leaders informed; it also puts emphasis had to adhere to. The code of conduct on a good leader’s techniques and aims at shaping the behaviour and instruments; a leader needs to attitude of the trainees. It is the belief work efficiently and productively. of the Foundation that with a pool of The training addresses also critical qualified trainers and tutors, a detailed aspects of leadership and promotes curriculum and a comprehensive the need to inspire leaders to view code of conduct, a contribution to themselves as servants. the preparation of knowledgeable, socially committed, accountable and The program is privileged to have a reliable leaders would be made! wide range of highly qualified trainers and tutors from prominent academic For more information about the institutions as well as civil society. program visit the Friedrich-Ebert- The pool of trainers and tutors use Stiftung (FES) website http://tanzania. a diversity of teaching and training fes-international.de/ or consult the methods. They use also standard YLTP secretary via email: amon. training methods of instruction such [email protected] as lectures, seminars, role plays, case studies, video shows etc.

Notes

131 6 - Economy

Capital, Economic Growth and Poverty Alleviation in Tanzania

By: Robert Mhamba,University of Dar es Salaam

Introduction Human Capital Accumulation in Tanzania Tanzania is now implementing a Na- tional Strategy for Growth and Re- Human resource development, or duction of Poverty (NSGRP) or Mpan- human capital, is important for the go wa Kukuza Uchumi na Kupunguza development of the country gener- Umasikini Tanzania (MKUKUTA) in ally, and, in particular, for checking Swahili, which is aimed at promot- the intergenerational transfer of pov- ing economic growth and poverty erty in poor countries like Tanzania. alleviation in the country. However, The provision of adequate and good the literature shows that economic quality education and health servic- growth and poverty alleviation can es is of particular importance. The only be achieved if there is adequate accumulation of capital is realized accumulation of capital. Capital ac- by building the capabilities of the cumulation is an important engine people through investments in edu- of growth around the world. The cation and health care. build-up of human, financial, for- eign, and social capital promotes in- Theory and empirical evidence sug- tensive growth for given real capital gests that education is important for (Gylfason 2002). The aim of this pa- growth in the sense that it improves per is to examine the nature of hu- the labor force and thus enabling man, financial, foreign and social workers to use existing capital more capital build-up in Tanzania and its efficiently. More and better educa- potential role in promoting economic tion tends to speed up the rate of growth and alleviating poverty. The technological progress, which spurs question this paper seeks to answer growth (Gylfason 2001; 2003). Apart is to what extent does the aforemen- from promoting economic growth, by tioned assets for growth contribute improving human capital, and physi- to that growth and poverty allevia- cal capital through technological tion in Tanzania. The paper takes a progress, more and better education normative approach and relies pri- financed by public expenditure re- marily on documentary analysis and duces inequality in the distribution secondary data obtained from vari- of income and thus promoting social ous studies and reports. capital (Gylfason 2003:577).

132 Enhancement of Tanzania’s competi- pleted primary education respective- 6 - Economy tiveness in the knowledge based high ly. Only 5 percent of the population technology global economy, crucially, have completed secondary educa- depends on having a well-educated tion and higher. Furthermore, data labour force. Apart from increased shows that there is generally very low enrolments and completion rates share of value added accruing to the at various levels of education in the educated labour (finished secondary country, the quality of education of- education and higher) in the econo- fered in the country’s education sys- my in Tanzania. Only 0.5% of value tems is crucial for economic growth added by labour accrues to educat- and global economic competitive- ed labour in the primary activities, ness. 6% in the industrial activities and Furthermore, apart from improving 16.3% in the services sector (Levin the labor force, having an educated and Mhamba, 2005). Investing more labor force is a necessary condi- in quality education to enhance the tion for the migration of labor from country’s human resources capital is low-paid work or self-employment indispensable if Tanzania is to real- in agriculture to better paid jobs in ize its economic growth and poverty manufacturing, trade, and services. alleviation goals. The historical experience shows that successful industrialization is a sine The education sector budget has fluc- qua non in economic development. tuated over the last 12 years between While Tanzania’s services sector is 15.3% of total budget in 1995/96 to expanding rapidly, its manufactur- 19.8 percent in 2006/07 and has ing sector has remained stagnant at remained below 4 percent of GDP around fifteen percent of GDP since with the exception of 2002/03 and the adoption of market reforms in 2003/04 when the education budget the 1980s. This means that labor is was 4.0 and 4.3 percent respectively. moving from agriculture to services The largest proportion of the educa- without making a stopover in manu- tion sector budget goes to primary facturing, as is common in the devel- education (over 60 percent), followed opment process of many countries by tertiary education, which receives (Mhamba 2003). However, the Tan- around 20 percent of the education zania population is not sufficiently sector budget (Figure 1). Apart from equipped to work in the booming suffering poor quality, the education service sector due to education limi- system suffers from inadequate re- tation. Consequently, most of the pri- sources and unmotivated teachers. mary school leavers moving to urban This is mainly because some critical areas end up in the informal sector inputs to ensure sustained provision and mainly in petty trading. of quality of education lag behind the increasing enrolment. The focus The 2004 Demographic and Health so far has been on quantity of edu- Survey shows that only 27.7 percent cation; however, anecdote evidence and 29 percent of the Tanzanian fe- shows that the quality of education male and male population have com- offered is low in the sense that chil-

133 dren learn much less in school than tion, policy makers in Tanzania have the curriculum states they should to make strategic choices between learn. This low quality is not entirely focusing on primary education, vo- surprising because the rapid expan- cational training, secondary and sion of primary and secondary edu- tertiary education. Trade, and other cation has strained the countries’ services like fi nancial services, and fi nancial and human resources. The telecommunications, which contrib- budget allocated for training teach- utes the largest share of GDP in the ers is relatively low compared to the services sector, requires a literate la- budget allocated for other activities bour force. Tanzania stands a better in the education sector (Figure 1). chance to compete within East

Figure 1: The Distribution of the Education Sector Budget

Tanzania is experiencing a shift in Africa and within the Southern Af- production structure from traditional rica Development Community SADC agriculture into services (Table 1.1). countries if the country’s labour force Though the services sector like agri- could be provided with good quality culture is labour intensive, it howev- education to enhance its capabilities, er requires a semi-skilled and skilled which is a crucial requirement in the labour force. In order to compete in development of the services and the the modern technology driven global manufacturing sectors. economy, apart from quality educa-

134 Table 1.1: Percentage of GDP 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1 Agriculture 49,1 48,9 48,2 48,0 47,5 46,7 46,4 2 Mining 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,5 2,7 3,0 3,2 3 Manufacturing 8,4 8,3 8,3 8,3 8,4 8,6 8,8 4 Construction 4,3 4,5 4,6 4,8 5,0 5,2 5,5 5 Trade, Hotel 15,9 16,1 16,4 16,5 16,6 16,8 17,0 and Restaurant 6 Transport 5,3 5,4 5,4 5,4 5,5 5,4 5,4 7 Other services 14,8 14,7 14,8 14,5 14,3 14,2 13,7 All Services 36,0 36,2 36,6 36,4 36,4 36,4 36,1 (5+6+7)

Source: Bank of Tanzania Annual Report 2004/05

The main challenges facing the edu- health care delivery system. The cation sector is to increase the num- health system in Tanzania has two ber of people in the country who major components; the public and the have completed primary education private health care systems. The pub- and those who have completed sec- lic share is 56%, the private share is ondary education. Furthermore, the 44% (which includes Faith Based Or- provision of quality education in the ganizations (FBOs) 30% and private country is of paramount importance for profit 14 %). The system works at if the country is to be in a better posi- four levels; the community where we tion to take advantage of the modern find village health posts, the ward economy in a globalizing world. Hu- where we have a dispensary serv- man capital development is also cru- ing approximately 10,000 people and cial for the consolidation of democ- a health center at the division level racy in the country. Limited human serving approximately 50,000 people. capital development in Tanzania is The district hospital serves between one amongst the major constraints 250.000-300,000 population and as in the consolidation of democratic we move further to the regional level tendencies, good governance, eco- we have a regional hospital serving nomic growth and consequently pov- approximately 1,000,000 people. At erty alleviation. the zonal and national level are the consultant/ refferal hospital. Cur- Apart from education, the capabil- rently in Tanzania there are a total ity of the labor force depends on the of 4,679 dispensaries (public and pri- health of the country’s population. vate); 481 health centres; 219 hospi- Tanzania has a fairly well developed tals divided into 74 district hospitals, 17 regional hospitals, 8 Consultant/  Anecdotal evidence shows that, vote trading has Refferal hospitals, the rest are FBO become a common practice during elections. Poor people exchange their rights to vote for the right (75) and private (45) hospitals. Giving political candidate for money, a small gift or a bottle of beer. 135 a total of 5,379 health facilities as at HIV/AIDS is high in the areas that are the end of 2005. contributing a significant propor- Despite these developments in the tion of the GDP; this includes: Dar es health care system, ill health is till a Salaam that contributes the largest major constraint to economic growth proportion of GDP from manufactur- and poverty alleviation in Tanzania. ing, Mbeya and Iringa, which are the The Health facility based data com- major producers of food in the coun- piled in the Health Statistics Ab- try. Most likely HIV/AIDS intensified stract in 2002 shows that the leading by increasing the mobility of people 5 killer diseases among the popula- in the process of marketing agricul- tion aged 5 years and above were tural products following the liber- malaria (22%), clinical AIDS (17%), alization of agricultural marketing. tuberculosis (9%), pneumonia (6.5%) HIV/AIDS prevalence rates are low in and anemia (5.5%). Life expectancy areas, which in general are relative- at birth stands at 51 years and the ly backward economically and par- infant and child mortality rate (per ticularly in agricultural production, 1000 live births) stands at 153. which is the mainstay of the Tanza- Tanzania mainland is estimated to nian economy. have about 1.2 million people living The combination of illiteracy and with HIV/AIDS with a prevalence sexuality may limit the effectiveness rate of 7% (THIS report, 2003/04). of all the measures in place to curb The same data source shows high the spread and impact mitigation of prevalence among the economically HIV/AIDS in the country. Curbing active population and among the the spread of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania educated and wealth quintile of the is crucial for maintenance and for en- population. HIV prevalence among hancement of the Human Resources the general population aged 15 – 49 Capital of the country. Priority areas years stands at 7% which is equiva- on HIV/AIDS responses should not be lent to the national average. Preva- foccused only on impact mitigation. lence also varies by residence (10.9% More efforts needs to be focssed on among urban and 5.3% among rural rising awareness and HIV/AIDS in- populations), by education (5.3% for formation to the people especially those with no education to 8.2% for the youth. In this respect, offering those with secondary education or quality education to the Tanzanian more), by wealth (3.4% in the lowest population is more than likely to of- wealth quintile to 10.5% in the high- fer significant contribution to the est quintile), and by region (from 2% prevention of HIV/AIDS. in Manyara and Kigoma to 13.4% in Iringa and 13.5% in Mbeya). Further- more, Prevalence is relatively higher  According to the THIS youth tend to have multiple among women (7.7%) than that in partners. The average age of sexual debut is im- men (6.3%) and among young women mediately at puberty, but often before +/- 13 years for aged 15 to 24 years is 4% compared girls and +/-14 years for boys and 20 % of all girls have had intercourse by age 15 and 68 % by 18 ; 30% to 3% among young men. of primary school pupils, 60% of secondary school  Results from the Tanzania HIV/AIDS Indicators students and 70% of out of school youth are sexually Survey (THIS), 2005, active. 136 Water and santation are important Realization of this goal urgently re- determinants of health especially quires putting water resources con- in the sub Saharan African coun- servation measures in place now. tries. Statistics from the government Unfortunately, this is an area, which reports shows that accessibility to is not adequately addressed through water in the country is increasing. concrete policy measures. However, despite the fact that sta- In addition to that, evidence from the tistics in show encouraging achieve- former Ujamaa villages shows that ments towards access to tape water, the provided water supply facilities access to tape water in Tanzania does by the government through bilateral not necessarily guarantee access to support from the Swedish Interna- clean and quality water. Taped wa- tional Development Agency SIDA, ter in Dar es Salaam city for instance have either been left un-maintained is always brown with a significant or vandalized by the members of the amount of mud. By 2025, Tanzania community and are currently not wants all people to have access to working. This again is an area where clean and safe water. However, due the development of the country’s hu- to population pressure, per capita man capital through provision of water availability (cu m) shows a de- quality education to build people’s creasing trend over time (Table 1.2). capabilities becomes an important undertaking.

Table 1.2: Water Availability per Per- son in Tanzania and SADC Total Annual Per Capita Water Water Scarcity Renewable Availability Index* Fresh Water (cu m) Available (cu km/yr) 1995 2000 2025 1995 2000 2025 Tanzania 89 3,134 2,745 1,587 2 2 3 SADC 1,784.8 10,151 8,922 5,449 1 2 2 * Water Scarcity Index 1 Adequate 2 Quality and dry season problem 3 Water Stress Source: SADC, IUCN, SARDC, World Bank and SIDA (2002); Tables 2.1 page 25 and 2.2 page 26

Financial Capital and Investments

The role of financial development on Government of Tanzania has created investments and economic growth is a good investment climate to attract widely acknowledged in the theoreti- foreign investors. Steps taken to en- cal and empirical literature. The courage foreign investment include

4 Water sector Public Expenditure Reviews (PER) for various years Bencivenga, V.R., and Smith, B.D., (1991); Shaw,  Among others includes, Odedokun M.O., (1998), E.S., (1973); Galbis V., (1977). 137 creation of an attractive package of has increased following the increase incentives for investors and easing in gold mining in the country. Cur- bureaucratic requirements. As a re- rently the export share of minerals sult, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is more than 52 percent while that of in Tanzania has increased steadily agriculture is less than 40 percent. in the last five years. Tanzania is Manufacturing contributes around 7 formally open to foreign investment percent of the value of export earn- in all sectors, although a successful ings. investor must overcome many proce- Historical experience however shows dural barriers. that for most countries that are rich The aggregate level of investment and dependent on minerals and other in Tanzania has increased in the natural resources, economic growth early 2000s by over 3% (Table 1.3). over a long haul tends to be slower Contributions to this increase have than in other countries that are less proportionately taken place both well endowed. The mining sector through public and private invest- employs only a small proportion of ments. Within, the private sector, the country’s labor force. It therefore as indicated in Table (1.1) most of contributes very little to households’ the investments are taking place in factor income earnings and thus to the mining sector and construction poverty alleviation. The government industry which are showing an in- receives insignificant revenue from crease in terms of share in total GDP the mining sector. The current presi- and in growth rate (Table 1.4). dent of Tanzania has often aired the Tanzania is still dependent on natu- need to renegotiate the mining con- ral capital in the production of export tracts. goods. The bulk of export goods from Furthermore, foreign investments in the country constitutes of agricultur- trade, especially wholesale and retail al products and minerals. Most of the trade is destroying the local Medium foreign direct investments coming and Small Scale Enterprises (SME), into the country concentrate in natu- which in addition face difficulties ac- ral resource extractive activities i.e. cessing credit from the domestic com- minerals, fishing and forestry. This mercial credit markets. Over time the phenomenon is changing the export import of finished consumer goods pattern of Tanzania from primarily from China, Dubai and South Africa cash crops, which for decades have has been on the increase, and is pos- been the major export commodities ing a stiff competition to the locally of the country, to minerals and fisher- ies products. The export of minerals  Government of Tanzania, 2004, Economic Survey, Presidents Office, Planning and Privatization. Dar es  The Tanzania Investment Center (TIC), established Salaam. by the Tanzania Investment Act of 1997, is a focal  For OPEC as a whole, GNP per capita decreased point for all investors and performs all liaison work. by 1.3 percent per year on average during 1965-1998 The TIC provides certificates of incentives on ap- compared with 2.2 percent average per capita growth proved projects that have a minimum investment of in all lower- and middle-income countries (Gylfason US $300,000 if foreign owned and US $100,000 if 2001:848). locally owned. In 2004, TIC registered 454 invest-  See the African Newspaper January 1, 2006; Daily ment projects (worth over US $1 billion), up from 372 News January 20, 2006; Sunday News July 7, 2006, in projects in 2003. Dairy News July 11, 2006. 138 produced goods10. Apart from fuel- ing unemployment especially among the unskilled and semi-skilled labor force, the trend jeopardizes efforts to reduce poverty among the house- holds, as it is increasingly difficult to diversify from agriculture to local consumer food processing and other non-agricultural production activi- ties in both rural and urban areas. Table 1.3: Tanzania Mainland: Savings and Investment Relationship (1999-2004) at Constant 1992 Prices Tanzanian Shil- lings (Million) 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Total In- 263,760 315,529 322,546 385,902 451,224 481,260 vestment Govern- 52,735 107,983 105,893 152,837 179,002 176,300 ment In- vestment Private In- 211,025 207,546 216,653 233,065 272,222 304,960 vestments Savings 90,675 197,716 220,668 279,792 305,900 296,485 Savings- -173,085 -117,813 -101,878 -106,110 -145,324 -184,775 Investment Gap GDP (at 1,697,338 1,792,562 1,897,846 2,013,451 2,134,521 2,286,364 market price) Total In- 15.5 17.6 17.0 19.2 21.1 21.0 vestment Govern- 3.1 6.0 5.6 7.6 8.4 7.7 ment In- vestment Private In- 12.4 11.6 11.4 11.6 12.8 13.3 vestments Savings 5.3 11.0 11.6 13.9 14.3 13.0 Savings- -10.2 -6.6 -5.4 -5.3 -6.8 -8.1 Investment Gap Data Source: Bank of Tanzania Annual Report 10 The emerging South African Super Markets (Shor- 2004/05 (Computation by Author) prite and Game) in Dar es Salaam city for instance, and the Chinese wholesale and retail traders in the city area of Kariakoo which are stocked with products from mainly South Africa, China and other Asian countries is the illustrative case. 139 Table 1.4: GDP Annual Growth Rates by Economic Activities 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 GDP 4.0 4.7 4.8 5.8 6.2 5.7 6.7 Agriculture 1.9 4.1 3.4 5.5 5.0 4.0 6.0 Mining 27.4 9.1 10.9 16.6 15.0 18.0 15.6 Manufacturing 8.0 3.6 4.8 5.0 8.0 8.6 8.6 Construction 9.9 8.7 8.4 8.7 11.0 11.0 11.0 Trade, Hotel 4.7 6.0 6.5 6.7 7.0 6.5 8.0 and Restau- rants Transport 6.2 5.8 6.1 6.3 6.4 5.0 6.2 Other Services 3.0 4.0 5.4 3.6 4.9 4.6 3.4

Source: Bank of Tanzania Annual Report 2004/05

Besides, the privatization of com- (R&D) and have to import new tech- mercial Banks has resulted into the nology, embodied in capital goods, allocation of credit on commercial from the world market (Yin and Yin: basis, which consequently, has at- 2005). Trade is increasingly becom- tracted commercial bank lending to ing characterized by rapid product activities with relatively better re- development, new product technol- turns. This has worsened availabil- ogy and strategic market alliances. ity of credit for agricultural produc- However, most of the sub Saharan tion and marketing. The availability African countries have been by- of credit for agriculture has been passed by the opportunities gained further worsened by the collapse of in the globalization process. Ujamaa villages, as well as farm- While other countries especially the ers’ cooperative societies and unions Asian countries, are diversifying which acted as collateral for farmers their economies into high technol- (Mhamba, 2004). Generally, the poor ogy production of goods and services people in the country are bypassed in order to take advantage of oppor- by the investment opportunities ush- tunities offered by the globalization ered in by market liberalization. process, Tanzania is getting spoilt by “mother nature” i.e. relying on what The Potential Role of Trade and is offered by the natural environ- Foreign Capital ment. The study by Gylfason (2004 (b)), in which a number of countries Trade is one of the necessary con- are analyzed, shows that natural re- ditions for the developing countries source dependence tends to crowd to achieve potential for economic out foreign capital, social capital, growth. Developing countries have human capital, physical capital and limited research and development

140 financial capital thereby impending and among the poor people in urban economic growth. areas12. Human capital development There is a great scope for Tanzania could also be enhanced through al- to benefit by increasing investments locating such resources to promote in capital and modern technologies research and development (R&D) in in the transport and communication the country’s higher learning insti- sector11. Tanzania enjoys a compar- tutions, which is another neglected ative advantage to other East Afri- area. can countries in transport and com- munication as it is surrounded by Social and Political Capital Role in 6 landlocked countries i.e. Uganda, the Process of Economic Growth in Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Tanzania Republic of Congo; Zambia and Ma- lawi. Further improvements in air- The continuing deterioration in the ports; cargo handling facilities at cultivation and growth of national- the ports and improvements in roads ism and the spirit of altruism that and railways connecting to these was cultivated from the mid 1960s countries could enhance earnings to to the mid 1980s weakens the contri- the economy and stimulate further bution of social capital to economic increase in factors earnings from the growth and poverty alleviation. In- primary sectors generally. creasingly individuals are loosing Investing in the generation of electric the spirit of nationalism, which has power is another potential areas with for long being the main source of na- respect to investments in physical tional heritage of peace and social capital to stimulate economic growth cohesion. Self-interest and liaises and poverty alleviation. Besides fre- fair in the part of politicians and quent power cuts and power ration- high ranking government executives ing, the slow pace in the growth in is one of the contributing factor to manufacturing sector in Tanzania is the deterioration of the social fabric also contributed by higher electric that has held the nation together for power tariffs. Investing in generat- a long period of time13. ing electric power from coal, which is readily available in the country, One of the most characteristic fea- could reduce higher power tariffs tures of economic development in and thus contribute to the increase Tanzania under structural adjust- in the share of manufacturing to the ment has been the upsurge in so- country’s GDP. called informal sector activities Human capital development in Tan- (Wuyts 2001:424)14. In an informal zania is one of the most neglected in the world. Potential benefits to eco- 12 Access to essential medicine in the country is constrained by the introduction of cost sharing on the nomic growth and poverty alleviation health sector amid poverty. For more insights on this, could also be realised by allocating see among others (Mhamba et. al. 2006). such resources, for instance to free 13 This is evident for instance from the dubious min- healthcare services in rural areas ing contracts, that the president in January 2006 or- dered the responsible ministry to have them reviewed. 11 See Levin and Mhamba (2005) for a detailed 14 The informal or second economy is usually defined analysis as consisting of economic activities that are unregis- 141 economy, transaction costs are high sultative process, the effectiveness due to information asymmetry, lack of consultative workshops, which of trust and cumbersome enforce- are currently the main modus ope- ment of contracts or business trans- randi in policy formation processes, actions15. Besides, such environment is however, very questionable. Green creates incentives for both politi- (2003:135) points out some of the bot- cal and economic agents to renege, tlenecks of the stakeholders’ work- shirk, steal, or cheat. Apart from shops in informing policy in Tanza- constraining production and access nia as follows: to essential goods and services es- i) Limited power of participants to pecially among the poor people, this influence: To influence workshop environment reduces the potential outcomes, participants need to benefits of trade in promoting econ- be in a position where they have omy growth. authority to influence, and to Democracy, good governance and the be conversant with the skills of rule of law are some of the important manipulating discussion and its elements that constitute political representation. Unfortunately, capital. Democracy is an important stakeholders workshops in Tan- ingredient in fostering economic zania’s development culture as- growth and reduction in poverty as sume a particular institutional it increases social cohesion and with form and are conducted in a fairly it economic efficiency and growth. standard ways, in lime with the Democracy is an important ingredi- professional expectations both of ent in the glue that holds society to- the development facilitators who gether and keeps it working well and specialize in their operation and smoothly (Gylfason 2004 (a)). of the category of what might be Tanzania is one of the countries referred to as professional partic- in sub Saharan African countries, ipants, those employed in profes- which have enjoyed significance de- sional capacities in development mocracy and peaceful replacement agencies and the public sector of governments. It has, so far, held and whose work in maintaining three general multi-party elections aid-dependent administrations and three times Chama cha Mapin- involves participation in work- duzi (CCM) has emerged the winner. shops (Green 2003:132). However, there is little evidence that ii) Skewed representation of par- shows that these achievements in the ticipants: even where represen- democratic front, has been trans- tatives of beneficiary groups lated into increased capacity of the are present in a workshop set- Tanzanian people to challenge self- ting, they are likely to be fewer interest in political decisions mak- in number than the professional ing and contribute to development groups and, given the etiquette policy evolution. Though policy-mak- of hierarchy and power in Tan- ing process is done through a con- zania, will be less likely to speak tered and exist outside state regulations (Engberg-Pe- critically before those represent- tersen et al., cited in Wuyts 2001:424) 15 See North, (1991). 142 ing themselves as government ital through increasing the number and donors. of those who are completing qual- iii) Workshops as inherently imitat- ity secondary education and tertiary ed platforms for output manage- education. This is important to en- ment: the tight organizational hance Tanzania’s competitiveness in structure of facilitation and the the global economy. Apart from en- construction of workshops as a hancing efficiency in the production site for the management of out- of goods and services, investments in puts ensure that workshops pro- quality education, will increase the duce highly limited visions. returns of the current efforts to re- duce the spread of HIV/AIDS and the Despite all these constraints, Tan- incidence of death due to the other zania still is in a better position to killer diseases. realize rapid economic growth and A radical change needs also to take poverty reduction. What is needed place in the way foreign capital gen- is the political will to systematically erally and particularly government address elements of self-interest be- borrowed foreign capital is used. havior among the decision makers Public investments from this source and government executives and en- of capital should be focused on put- suring that the spirit of altruism is ting in place new investments in real created and maintained in the young capital and in maintaining the exist- generation through the education ing ones. Besides investments in edu- systems. Besides, purposeful efforts cation and research and development must be put in place to ensure that (R&D) to enhance the accumulation further development of the informal of quality human capital, potential economy is constrained. areas for investments in this respect should also include investments in Conclusion physical capital especially the port facilities, transport infrastructure, The major challenge that politician and power generation. and policy makers in Tanzania have Further investments are needed in to address in order to achieve the en- the strengthening of rules and regu- visaged economic growth and pov- lations and mechanisms to enforce erty alleviation in the MKUKUTA, is them. This is important for facilitat- to remove all the major constraining ing the development of social capital factors to the accumulation of the dif- and political capital as these play a ferent types of assets highlighted in decisive role in reducing transaction this paper. Improving the quality of costs in the economy as well as the human capital in Tanzania is indis- enhancement of democracy and good pensable if the country is to tape the governance in the country. opportunities offered by the modern global economy in achieving rapid economic growth and poverty alle- viation. Efforts need to be focused on enhancing the quality of human cap-

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TOWARDS THE END OF THE EPAs NEGOTIATIONS: Prospects and Challenges for Tanzania

By: Agnes G. Mwakaje, University of Dar es Salaam

Introduction • Reform of financial cooperation. Negotiations towards the new recip- The ACP-EU Partnership Agreement, rocal Economic Partnership Agree- known more commonly as the Coto- ments (EPAs) and other alternative nou Agreement, is a comprehensive trade arrangements commenced on aid and trade agreement signed in 27 September 2002, and are sched- Cotonou, Benin on 23 June 2000 be- uled to be concluded in the year 2007 tween 77 ACP countries and the EU. when non-reciprocal preferences will Its central objective is to reduce and be withdrawn. The EPAs are mandat- eventually eradicate poverty in the ed to enter into force from 2008 until ACP countries while contributing to 2020. sustainable development and to the gradual integration of ACP countries In Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) countries into the world economy. EPAs negotiations are taking place The Cotonou Agreement provides the under their regional integration bod- framework for the negotiation of new ies which are: reciprocal and WTO-compatible trad- • Economic Community of West Af- ing arrangements between the EU rican States (ECOWAS), and the ACP. ACP countries are able • Southern African Development to enter into such arrangements indi- Community (SADC), vidually, or as part of a group where • Common Market for Eastern and the latter building upon regional in- Southern Africa (COMESA) and tegration schemes. The agreement is Central African Economic and centered on five ‘pillars’: Monetary Community (CEMAC).

• Comprehensive political dimen- These regional bodies have their own sion integrative blueprints. However, one element that is common in them is a • Participatory approaches vision of facilitating greater intra-re- gional trade through the development • Strengthened focus on poverty re- of a free trade area (FTA), which will duction allow the free flow of goods through- • New framework for economic and out the region. trade cooperation Tanzania is under EPA-SADC configu- ration. The other members are Ango-

146 la, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, The EC has proposed that the devel- 7 - Trade between EU & ACP states Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland and opment assistance it provides to the South Africa. SADC launched their ACP countries through the European negotiations with the EU on the 8th of Development Fund (EDF) be inte- July 2004, in Windhoek, Namibia. grated with the EPAs trade reforms in order to build ACP competitiveness As we are approaching towards the to trade as the market opening takes end of these negotiations there are place. In addition, the EC has also those who hold the opinion that EPAs proposed to keep EPA-related assis- will be detrimental to the economies tance under constant review in order of ACP States while, on the other to assess its effectiveness in building hand, there are those who hold the the supply capacity of the ACP coun- opinion that EPAs could be a useful tries, as EPAs are being negotiated mechanism for accelerating the eco- and implemented. nomic development and regional in- tegration of the ACP regions (Pearson Tariff and Non-Tarriff Barries (NTBs) 2004). This Article presents the pros- reduction and elimination in other pects and challenges for Tanzania. member countries e.g EAC or SADC will have positive impact on agricul- tural and non-agricultural intra ex- Prospects ports. Within the region this will mean increased agricultural GDP, produc- EPA is deepening Regional integration tion and change in trade pattern. towards custom union which theoret- This outcome will enhance integra- ically is good for the economy of the tion of trade in the SADC/EAC econo- ACP countries. Trade has been a key my. This will also mean enhanced in- and constant component in the long- ternational integration and enhanced standing relationship between the economy growth. Overall, this may European Union (EU) and ACP. Trade lead into improved living standards can improve the allocation of domes- of tanzanians. tic resources, increase the efficiency On the other hand, Tariff and NTBs re- with which they are used, help bring duction and elimination may lead into new technology, increase incomes and less tariff revenue i.e reduced govern- increase investment. To benefit from ment budget income and affects the these, Tanzania and many other ACP GDP of the country. Again there might countries have been involved in trade be reduction in production that may reforms, reform of export oriented affect further the economy of Tanza- policies aiming at enabling competi- nia. tive and stable exchange rates, and outward oriented regional integration Challenges and a cooperative/consultative rela- tionship with the private sector. Suc- The eventual outcome of EPA negotia- cessful implementation of such poli- tions, and how EPAs will benefit from cies is likely to boost Tanzania’s trade these negotiations will depend to a in the SADC region and with EU. large extent on how well prepared the

147 Tanzania side in ACP-EPA negotia- Thus, the EPA will place European tions are and how well they conduct imports as a major competitor against these negotiations with the European domestic production as well as put Commission (EC). One of the big chal- EU imports at an advantage relative lenges is about the shortage of capac- to non-EU trading partners. More im- ity in trade policy formulation and ports from EU than exports are likely evaluation, shortage of knowledge of to worsen the balance of payment (if the technical issues which underpin necessary measures are not taken) of world trade today and shortage of countries like Tanzania. negotiators skilled in trade matters among Tanzania players’ regional economic groupings and private sec- Tanzania like many ACP countries tor organisations. suffer from a wide range of supply constraints which include poor trans- port, electricity and telecommunica- SADC has a heterogeneous economic tions infrastructure, weak institution- structure with three categories of eco- al capacity (e.g. customs and policy- nomic development levels; Least De- making bodies) and a shortage of hu- veloped Countries (LDCs), non-LDCs man resources. These factors are the and a developed country. South Africa hindrances in the expansion of ACP as a developed country accounts for exports to the EU in response to the 75 % of the regional GDP, thus the re- support provided by preferences. cently signed EU-South Africa TDCA poses great challenges to these cat- The extent to which each group can egories as pertaining to the regional contribute to the negotiations agenda negotiations. Tanzania being not only depends on two main factors, i.e. the one of the least developed countries degree of institutionalization of NETT in the region, but also too, with inad- and the ability of the group (to mo- equate negotiations capability is likely bilize information and analyse issues, to have no influence on the negotia- formulate its position, participate in tions process. Rather it may remain a national consensus building meet- decision-made taker. ings, participate in actual EPA negoti- ations, etc.). In Tanzania the proposed One of the implications of the reci- and adopted negotiations structure procity condition in the EPA is that contained two levels, i.e. the Nation- the SADC countries will have to open al EPA Technical Team (NETT), and up their economies to imports from the National EPA Steering Committee Europe. It is reasonable to say that (NESC). Together, NETT and NESC the trade effect of the EPA on SADC formed the Tanzania EPA Negotiating would be felt more on the import side Team (TENET), which was supposed than exports. This is because most to mobilize/disseminate information of the countries (including Tanzania) through consultative/dissemination already have unutilized trade pref- workshops, stakeholders interviews, erences with the EU mainly because etc. Moreover, it was anticipated that, of the rules of origin of the EU side. at the national level, NETT, the na-

148 tional TNF responsible for WTO ne- countries if the real trade between the gotiations, and NESC would work un- two blocks is to be realized. This ca- der a common framework. However, pacity should focus on Human, Struc- structures to properly manage such tural, Finance and Technical aspects. negotiations are a problem. Because of the inadequate development of the national trade negotiating institu- ACP countries need to develop their tions, the role of Tanzania’s NSAs in human and institutional capacities contributing to the SADC-EPA nego- in order to be able to secure the best tiations has been sub-optimal. In this possible terms in negotiations. Train- respect Tanzania is likely to partici- ing is crucially needed for ACP offi- pate as recipient of others decisions cials involved in or working with the in the region. ACP negotiating teams, with regard to general policy analysis and nego- Tanzania has a dual membership, the tiating techniques, and specific topics SADC and EAC. It is not clear how the and issues to be negotiated with the agreement of Kenya and Uganda in EU. Training is to be seen in terms of EAC will affect or complement to the direct backstopping for the negotia- Tanzania’s negotitions in the SADC. tions and in relation to the develop- Tanzania has developed its own Po- ment of trade capacity building in the verty alleviation strategy (PSRP) or longer term. Mkukuta, it is not clear to what extent would the negotitions with EU-ACP There is need for a coherent approach address these PSRP/Mkukuta inititi- to WTO assistance and capacity build- ves goals. ing in particular. To this end, capacity building activities should go beyond Other Challenges workshops capacity building pro- gramme in support of the prepara- How to manage the expected losses of tion of Economic Partnership Agree- fiscal revenue if Tanzania happens to ments. The principal objective of the be a loser in the EU-ACP countries; Programme is to provide support to ACP countries, regional integration How to cope with more competition organisations and private sector or- expected to be entailed under the ganisations and other non-state ac- principle of reciprocity of the EPAs; tors in their preparations for the ne- gotiation of EPAs with the EU. What should be done? There should be harmonization of ACP exports to the EU are hindered agreements between the different by a range of non-tariff measures in- sub-regional blocks (EAC, COMESA, cluding Sanitary and Phytosanitary SADC). For example ESA & SADC measures (SPS), standards and rules countries’ should harmonize areas of of origin. Since EU cannot change its divergence in their EPA negotiating rules of origin to trade with ACP, EU positions. may need to build capacity in the ACP 149 ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENTS: European Union and EAC reach historic agreement on market access

By Douglas Carpenter, Counsellor, Economic Affairs, EC Delegation in Tanzania, 27 November 2007

The European Commission and the global economy. The negotiations East African Community Partner will continue next year, with a view States (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, to concluding a comprehensive EPA Tanzania and Uganda) concluded not later than July 2009.The Parties today the negotiations of a framework have agreed to work together to agreement, which will guarantee duty define and address the development free and quota free access to the EU needs associated with the EPA in for goods exported by EAC States order to promote sustained growth, with the only significant transition strengthen regional integration and arrangements being for sugar and foster structural transformation rice. Hon Basil Mramba, Minister of and competitiveness to increase Industry, Trade and Marketing, signed production, supply capacity and value for Tanzania. addition of the EAC.

In order to ensure that the agreement In a separate development, the EC has complies with both Parties’ also today announced the signature of commitments in the World Trade an agreement with EAC and COMESA Organization, the EAC States will to introduce a Regional Integration also gradually open their markets to Support Mechanism, worth €78 goods from the European Union over million. This mechanism will help a period of 25 years. After 15 years, countries to deal with fiscal losses 80% of the exports from the EU will arising from tariff reductions and enter the EAC market free of duties. will also be used to address some key This covers mainly industrial inputs non-tariff barriers to trade. The EPA and capital goods. About one fifth of process will not end with the signature EAC trade will be completely excluded of market access agreements. It will from any market liberalisation continue with intensive discussions requirements. on the “supply-side” constraints such as transport and energy, and on trade- The agreement is a first step related issues such as investment and towards a full Economic Partnership services which are crucial to growth Agreement (EPA), which will establish and development. EPAs need to build a strategic trade and development a solid trading platform for traders partnership with the objective of and investors, and in so doing for promoting regional integration and development. also the integration of the EAC in 150 Background issues global level, upon creating economies of scale, and at the same time upon 1. The negotiations addressing some critical constraints, For the last few weeks, following notably in infrastructure, services an agreement of ministers of all five and institutional capacity. East African Community countries, EAC has been preparing a proposal 2. Funding on future market access conditions There has been a clear call for for European goods entering EAC substantial resources to accompany markets. Tanzania has played an the EPA process. Relevant funding active role in these discussions. issues are as follows:

The EC/EAC market access talks th were held in line with World Trade • The 10 European Development Organization rules and are intended Fund (EDF) has increased by to provide the centrepiece of an nearly a third compared to the Economic Partnership Agreement ninth. There has been a huge (EPA). EPAs form a key pillar of the increase of regional envelopes Cotonou Agreement signed by EU within it to a total of €1.78 billion. and African, Caribbean and Pacific These will help to support the countries: their primary purpose is to widening and deepening of EAC link trade and development, through and other regional organizations. managed liberalization in line with • The EC focuses on addressing World Trade Organization standards, quality issues: capacity-building, and also through addressing those fiscal losses, trade facilitation and supply-side constraints which Sanitary & Phyto-Sanitary (SPS) restrain competitiveness and (eg health and safety norms), as growth (transport, health and safety well as infrastructure. In other standards, etc). words, helping ACP countries to produce products that can The EC and the EU Member States compete on both quality and continue to believe that EPAs will put price. EU-Africa trade relations on a firm, modern, structured and sustainable • The European Commission is footing. Nowhere are the potential already the largest donor of trade benefits greater than for EAC, an related assistance globally. The economic centre of gravity and a European Commission will raise rare functioning Customs Union in its overall spending on aid for sub-Saharan Africa. EAC’s growth trade to €1bn annually by 2010. potential depends upon marketing EU Member States have committed its existing degree of integration at a to match that annual €1bn target by the same year. These funds are 1 The talks do not cover access to EU markets: this is because, with the exception of Kenya, EAC countries used to help develop the capacity already enjoy duty-free quota-free access to the EU for to trade in partner countries by almost all their goods. providing training and technical

151 assistance, supporting private from the EC and Member States, sector development, meeting while the EIB agreed to mobilise health and safety standards for up to €250 million in loans. export, and facilitating regional market building. Half of the 3. The Regional Integration Support €1billion per year from 2010 that Mechanism – a new instrument of Member States have committed €78 million from the EDF to give to aid for trade will go to The objective of the programme is ACP. to alleviate poverty in the Eastern and Southern Africa/Indian Ocean • Locally, the Tsh 900 billion region (ESA/IO) by supporting the national programme of EC support economic integration process through th to Tanzania under the 10 EDF, the consolidation of the COMESA which will be launched in 2008, Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and the is heavily focused on trade issues. implementation of the COMESA and Around 90% of the programme is EAC Customs Unions, by assisting dedicated to macroeconomic aid, them in meeting their regional support to the transport sector integration commitments. and a trade and agriculture focal area aimed at pro-poor growth. The mechanism should particularly This demonstrates the long-term assist in the fiscal adjustment process commitment of the EC to form an of those EAC and COMESA countries enduring partnership with the who liberalise their tariffs vis-à-vis Government of Tanzania, civil other member countries joining the society and the private sector in two areas, and those who adopt or the growth and competitiveness move towards the Common External cluster of MKUKUTA. It is Tariff of a regional Customs Union and also evidence that EPA and are prepared to make commitments to development funding go hand in eliminate an agreed list of non-tariff hand. barriers over the course of a defined period. • The Regional integration Support The project is based on the 9th EDF Mechanism (see below) Regional Indicative Programme for • Finally, the EU (Commission and the Eastern and Southern Africa and Member States) supports the Indian Ocean Region, which includes development of infrastructure in EAC. The Programme states that a Africa for around €2 billion per number of countries in the region year and has launched an EU may find themselves in a situation Infrastructure Partnership for in which they are willing to continue Africa to develop interconnectivity. to implement economic reform It also set up, on 24-25 October, an measures, but are not able to do so, Infrastructure Trust Fund with the for reasons of short-term budgetary European Investment Bank (EIB). constraint and other adjustment In its initial phase, the Trust Fund costs resulting from the contraction will receive grants for €87 million of import-competing and/or export

152 sectors faced with loss of trade • The reduction of the list of preferences. The project aims exactly exemptions and sensitive at cushioning these short term trade products of countries within a and custom’s revenue losses and shorter period than if no support at improving in the medium/longer is provided; term more competitive productive structures. • Reduction of Non-Tariff Barriers encouraging trade within the The project is complementary region to increase noticeably; with other on-going programmes by supporting EAC and COMESA countries in pursuing their trade The cost of the project amounts to liberalization programmes while €78 Million from the EDF with a minimizing their transitory budgetary contribution from the ESA-IO member constraints resulting from budget States of €7.7 Million. The estimated revenue losses. implementation period is 5 years (of which 3 years for budgetary support). The major expected results of the The implementation mechanism project are: is a Contribution Agreement with COMESA and a Memorandum of • The reduction of internal tariff Understanding with the EAC. barriers among all ESA-IO Member States;  The list of Non-Trade Barriers (NTBs) identified by COMESA are categorised in eight groups: quantitative • The application of Common restrictions, export and import licensing, foreign ex- External Tariffs; change licensing, stipulation of import sources, prohi- bition of imports, advance import deposits, conditional permission for imports and special charges for acquir- ing foreign exchange.

Notes

153 Why are the EPAs an Issue for Trade Unions

By: Hezron J. Kaaya, Researchers, Academicians & Allied Workers Union (RAAWU), Dar es Salaam

On 20th to 21st September 2007 the The Government has not been National Executive Committee of the transparent about the Cotonou Trade Union Congress of Tanzania Agreement, (for this matter EPA (TUCTA) thoroughly discussed the negotiations) to civil society negotiation stage reached on trade organizations and citizens in general. agreements between ACP and EU Only that the Ministry of Trade has countries. The committee discussed being taking the negotiations forward the issue following the presentations leaving out of the picture the views of made by Cotonou Agreement experts the main stakeholders including the basing on the following areas: Trade Unions.

• The whole concept of the then It was further noted that about 76 new Cotonou Agreement as ACP countries which are known to deliberated on and signed in be the poorest in the world (including 2000, with Tanzania being one Tanzania) are under pressure to sign of the countries that signed the free trade agreements with Europe, agreement. facing threats of tariff increases if an agreement is not in place by 31st • Participation of Non- December 2007. Governmental Organizations including the trade unions as The TUCTA committee noted that stipulated in the agreement. Europe has rejected the alternative proposals tabled by the developing • The stage of negotiations that countries, and that this is a typical sign has been reached since its of the undermining of the principle of commencement in 2002. partnership. Instead, Europe insists that if an agreement is not signed by • The stand of ACP countries 31st December 2007 tariffs will be especially members of East raised on exports from developing African Community (EAC) towards countries, jeopardizing jobs and the signing that agreement on income for farmers and workers. 31st December, 2007. The TUCTA committee concurred with In the course of discussion on the the expert’s opinion which shows that above areas, the TUCTA committee many of Europe’s current proposals realized that: would be detrimental to development 154 in developing countries. Some China on world markets, have put examples were cited, including;. even further pressure on workers in EPZs, most of whom are women! The • Proposal to cut tariffs will women are the primary victims of the undermine food security and local exploitation that characterizes EPZs. manufacturing. The exclusion by governments of EPZs from national labour legislation, • New intellectual property rules as well as other forms of privileged will limit developing countries treatment for export production, access to educational materials, is a distortion of WTO principles technology and even seeds for as it means that production for farmers. domestic market is taking place on less favourable terms than that for • New competition rules would work exports. in favour of large corporations, suppressing the local initiatives. Further more, the tariff reductions are likely to lead to company closures • New rules on services could and unemployment if they are reduce poor people’s access to implemented too fast and thus the critical services such as banking level of imports rise suddenly. The and telecommunications and current state of the global clothing make developing countries more and textiles industry is an example of vulnerable to financial crises: this.

• New rules on government Trade liberalization increases the procurement would hinder openness of competition. This poses governments of developing more pressure on workers and can countries from using their aggravate working conditions in the expenditure to stimulate local form of lower wages, trade union development. repression, longer working hours and unsafe work places. This makes it Why is “EPA” an issue for Trade necessary for trade unions to influence Unions the content of trade liberalization Trade Unions are typically concerned (e.g.EPAs) in the short term and about employment, the quality of fight for a different development jobs, wages and working conditions friendly approach, based on a human including working hours, Safety and development agenda in the longer Health at work, job security etc. term.

At the last WTO Ministerial Conference RECOMMENDATIONS BY THE in Cancun, Trade Unions highlighted COMMITTEE the plight of workers in Export After the thorough discussion the Processing Zones (EPZs). Since then, Committee came up with the following a combination of factors such as the recommendations which also took end of the Agreement on Textiles and into consideration the view of other Clothing (ATC) and the dominance of 155 social organizations in East Central • Trade Unions are opposing the and Southern Africa, as well as pressure being put on ESA and academicians and other institutions SADC governments to sign an which sympathize with poor countries incomplete agreement simply in the world. to avoid losing existing market for their products in the EU but a) Resource Development not because the agreement to be • Trade Unions feel strongly that signed is generally good for their if EPAs are to benefit the EAC, countries. SADC or ESA regions for that matter, it is vital that supply-side • Trade Unions feel strongly that constraints are dealt with so that more time is needed for the society producers can be empowered to to be enlightened on EPAs and enhance their capacity to trade. especially Workers Organizations, Parliamentarians and the Society b) Coherence with regional at large. integration policy

• The national and regional (block) d) Moving the process forward development strategies of the • In the event that a comprehensive EAC, SADC or ESA countries EPA is not agreed upon at the should be central to determining end of the calendar date, TUCTA the substantive details of EPAs. is of strong concern that trade may be disrupted and therefore • This is together with observing implore upon the EU to extend ILO conventions and the Labour the negotiations without bringing laws of particular states. down the preferences currently enjoyed by the ESA and SADC c) Signing of EPAs by December 31st exporters in the EU market and 2007 undermining the substance of the negotiation. • Given that the scope and details of EPAs are not yet agreed, e) Signing of EPAs the Committee noted that comprehensive EPAs may not • Trade Unions are of the opinion be concluded by 31st December that EAC countries should reunite 2007. Trade Unions are therefore by harmonizing both SADC and proposing that a phased approach ESA- EPA templates into forming for, conclusion of EPAs be pursued an EAC-EPA Text for the region to starting with market access and agree with the EU. We therefore development by then deadline and support the decision by the sixth then the other remaining parts Summit of EAC Heads of state within a period of 6 to 12 months. for deeper exploration of how The Everything But Arms (EBA) to operationalise the EAC- EPA. should be part of the negotiations We noted that EAC -EPA is not and be legally binding. possible without the political will 156 and hence ask EAC governments to agree to an EPA which will be and Trade Ministers to show the truly developmental. highest political will to positively take forward the Summit’s h) Decent work principles i.e. decision. • Labour standards, social protection, productive • TUCTA also recommends the employment and social dialogue formation of a cumulative group must be included in such trade to urgently further the decision agreements. by the Summit and address the practical issues towards CONCLUSIONS developing EAC- EPA. Given the short-time period remaining and the remaining problems with Europe’s proposals it is impossible to f) Development Benchmarks reach an agreement that addresses the needs of developing countries by 31st • The development benchmarks December 2007. To prevent a rushed must be integrated in both EPA conclusion that would undermine Texts with specific provisions development, it is crucial that Europe allowing for periodic monitoring changes its approach, and respect and reviews of EPA implementation the ACP alternative proposals. Trade and taking of corrective measures Unions have challenges to build up should EPAs not deliver on the technical knowledge, learn to speak agreed goals, measures which the language of trade negotiators may include complete derogation and to identify sensitive sectors and of liberalization commitments. products in terms of employment and development. Since there is a • The development benchmarks lack of impact studies that analyse should include a provision on the effect of trade on the quality of the EPA negative impacts for employment, trade unions need to mitigation measures to address, voice their views on these agreements for instance, revenue loss by EAC to make sure that they do not contain governments. too many restrictions and ensure the right protections. Since it is true g) Alternatives that not many trade unions took the • The TUCTA committee noted that issue of EPAs seriously, workers are such options as Everything But to be enlightened on EPAs for them Arms (EBA) and General System to articulate their views on these of Preferences (GSP+), are not agreements. only appropriate alternatives for LDCs and non-LDCs respectively but play an important role of taking off the current pressure to conclude an incomplete agreement by giving both parties ample time

157 8 - Regional Integration

THE GENERAL OPINION OF THE PUBLIC IN TANZANIA TOWARDS THE FAST-TRACKING PROCESS OF THE EAST AFRICAN FEDERATION (EAF)

By: TumainiMungu Peter, University of Dar es Salaam

Introduction report of the same was submitted to the President of the United Republic An impressionistic picture on the of Tanzania on the 9th of July, 2007. general opinion gathered from the Tanzanian public on the Fast-tracking The impressionistic picture presented process of the East African Federation herein are based mainly on reports (EAF) is hereby presented. Fast-Track from two studies conducted in this EAF was put forward and endorsed at year, 2007, on EAF, namely, the the Special Summit held in Nairobi in Tanzania’s Presidential Committee August, 2004. That Summit resolved study report mentioned above and to expedite the process of integration the Steadman group report as will be so that the ultimate goal of political described below in the methodological federation is achieved through a fast- section. tracking mechanism. Following that proposal, national committees were Background to the idea of Fast- formed in the three EAC member tracking EAF countries by then, namely Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda with the goal It is important to note that the of collecting public opinion on fast- proposal regarding the need to fast- tracking EAF. track the EAF has not come abruptly. Historically, the background for the In Tanzania, a Presidential Committee EAC goes as back as 1947, during was appointed to conduct public colonial period when the East opinion poll and the instruction from African High Commission which was the President was that they should constituted by an Order in Council of complete and submit the report of the the British Government. That history results of the poll by the end of May, remained alive and evolved in the pre- 2007. As per the terms of reference independence era when nationalist for conducting the public opinion poll, leaders from Kenya, Tanzania and the national committee in Tanzania Uganda supported the inauguration and in other respective countries of the East African Common Services had to gather views from a cross- and pressed for a political federation. section of all stake holders, including Indeed, the late Mwalimu Nyerere, ordinary citizens, NGOs, politicians the first President of Tanganyika and and academicians. That task has been later on Tanzania is affectionately accomplished in Tanzania and the remembered for offering to delay the 158 prior independence of his country in development, in June 2007, two other 8 - Regional Integration 1961 until Uganda and Kenya gain countries, Burundi and Rwanda, independence on the same date so as fulfilled the necessary conditions and to facilitate the establishment of the were officially admitted to the EAC. EAF right at independence. Meanwhile, the possibility of other countries in the Great Lakes Region But it was not until 1967 that the joining the community has been left EAC took off with the three newly open as the fast-tracking process independent states, namely Kenya, proceeds. Tanzania and Uganda. Even though soon after the EAC began to function, Methodology for the public opinion it became apparent that ideological tracking differences between its leaders would bog it down. By and large, historical Newspapers reports in the Daily News, record shows that prospects of an the Citizen, the African, Mwananchi, EAF began to fade fairly rapidly as Majira and Tanzania Daima are relied Uganda and Tanzania realized their upon in the discussion on sources of increasing in-ability to keep pace opinions presented and the opinions in development with Kenya, where themselves. The selection criteria for nearly all international companies those newspapers were purposefully chose to locate their East African based on their significant and serious branches. It is important here to note coverage of the public opinion polls in that, such practice was an obstacle continuous series during all the time inherited from the past colonial of the opinion- tracking process. development pattern which favored Kenya greatly at the expense of the It is also important to note that the other two EAC member countries. reports from the mass media which were covered by those newspapers Consequently, in 1977, the uneven were mainly from two main studied benefits from the operation of EAC on EAF fast-tracking process which as well as differences among the were conducted in the year 2007. leaders, lack of political goodwill and These were first, the Tanzania’s other factors compounded to break Presidential Committee public the EAC. Despite the collapse of the opinion poll which was for the period EAC by then, the integration debate of six months and the second was the continued to resurge. That led to the East Africa social, political, economic signing of the mediation agreement and cultural barometer, which was for the division of EACs assets and conducted by the respected Steadman liabilities in 1984, under which the group and it only, took one month. three member states agreed to explore The main difference between the two areas of cooperation. Ultimately, sources of the public opinion polls those efforts led to revival of the EAC are important to note namely that, with the signing of the new treaty in while the Tanzania’s Presidential 1999 in Arusha, Tanzania, creating Committee focused its study on a formal regional bloc. In another Tanzania only, the Steadman’s group

159 studied all the three EAC member Steadman’s group were asked to state states. Also in terms of sample size, if they knew of the EAC, whether they Tanzania’s Presidential study covered supported its formation and if they a large study sample of 65,000 and were also receptive of Burundi and the study area that covered all the 26 Rwanda joining the community. The regions of both Tanzania Mainland results of the survey as released on 6th and Zanzibar, while the Steadman’s July, 2007 indicated that a significant group had a study sample of 500 figure of 46 per cent of Tanzanians people from each EAC member states did not even favor the EAC despite of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda talks of transforming the bloc into a selected from only the main capitals of fully fledged political federation. That those countries namely Nairobi, Dar is notably a bigger number in relation es Salaam and Kampala respectively. to only 16 per cent Ugandans who do not favor the bloc while in Kenya only The general public opinion on EAF 10 per cent were against the idea. fast-tracking idea Likewise, 41 per cent of the The general results of the Tanzanian respondents in Dar es Salaam said public opinion on fast-tracking they were strongly opposed to the EAF as gathered by the Tanzania’s EAC and another 5 per cent indicated Presidential Committee shows they were a little bit not in favor. The that the proposal to speed up the Steadman’s group report notes that: federation has been discouraged by “In Kampala 13 per cent were strongly the majority of people in Tanzania opposed and another three per cent with the opposition particularly open were still unconvinced. Kenyans were in Zanzibar. the most enthusiastic about EAC with just nine per cent strongly opposing Statistically, the Tanzania’s Presidential the arrangement and one percent Committee findings revealed that 76 less unconcerned”. “The report per cent Tanzanians are found to be further observed that even before the against fast-tracking EAF while about results of the exercise to collect public 21 per cent Tanzanians supported the views on the fast tracking of the EAC idea for various political, economic federation was yet to be revealed, it is and social reasons. It was also thought that a majority of Tanzanians reported that 3 per cent Tanzanians would shoot down the idea as opposed were totally opposed to the idea. to those in Kenya and Uganda”1.

Similarly, with differences in the figure Although the opposition to the idea of of the percentages, which seems to fast-tracking the EAF was supported result from the relative differences by various political, economic and in study sample size and study area, social reasons, other views were the Steadman’s group public opinion also given strongly criticizing such polls results revealed the same opposition. Among such views was findings as the Tanzania’s Presidential the observation that the whole process Committee. Those interviewed by the towards EAF has been misled by

160 political power ambition by leaders. about many foreigners who are either One of the prominent and respected Europeans or Indians who dominate academicians in Tanzania Professor EAC local economies and other EAC Issa Shivji, in an exclusive interview members states that are willing to by Majira Newspaper of 15th July provide their land for mercenaries for 2007, was reported arguing that the imperialist from capitalist countries founding fathers of the idea of African but worry about fellow citizens from Unity, the late Kwame Nkrumah EAC who are their neighboring of Ghana and Mwalimu Nyerere of brothers and sisters. Tanzania, when talking about African Unity were guided more by the belief Concluding remarks that Africa should be one. African nationalism and brotherhood were By and large, the findings revealed the top priority and they believed in a by Tanzania’s public opinion polls on more political federation as a means to fast-tracking EAF may be interpreted strengthen Africa in the fight against as confirmation of concerns raised by neo-colonialism and imperialism the Tanzanian public on areas where than by the economic benefits of such they still have little trust in their fellow unity. neighbors within the community. The fact that the fast-tracking idea has not Professor Shivji emphasized that worn the support of even 50 per cent Mwalimu Nyerere believed first in of Tanzanians out of all 26 regions African brotherhood than in economic of Mainland and Zanzibar cautions benefits, thus complaining that decision makers in Tanzania and currently there was no EAC leader other EAC members not to undermine who took the view that Pan-Africanism or disregard such concerns raised at should be the foundation of EAF, since any costs. all of them are emphasizing more on the prospective economic benefits For instance, the findings that 75 which according to Professor Shivji, percent of Tanzanians interviewed in are not the foundation of the EAF if the Mainland did not favor the fast- motivated by African mentality and tracking idea while 79 percent of perspective. Tanzanians interviewed from Zanzibar also opposed the idea need to be given Professor Shivji argues that, a due respect and consideration. But consequently, members of the public, the most significant point to note from following suit in terms of the dominant the results of the public opinion polls mentality are also against EAF basing in Tanzania is the fact that 80 percent themselves on arguments relating of all those interviewed were reported to economic reasons such as loss of to have had a good awareness of the local employment positions to the meaning of a federation. citizens from other EAC members. In opposition to that mentality Professor Meanwhile there no doubt that Shivji, poses the challenge on why historically the majority of Tanzanians are the same citizens not worried have demonstrated a steadfast and

161 overwhelming affection and support goal. There is no doubt that such a of both EAF and African Unity at challenge remains the immediate task large, the fundamental concern which ahead towards EAF now. clearly remains to be an important agenda to resolve by coming up with ENDNOTES realistic means to achieve that goal and definite clear indicators justifying 1. The Citizen newspaper; front page lead story, 9th of July, 2007 “EAC least popular the time bound span to realize that in Dar.

Notes

162 9 - Special Event: Party Congress of CCM

Strengthening our party relationship between SPD and CCM

Speech by the Representative of the SPD, Honourable Bruni Irber, MP at the CCM-Party-Congress in Dodoma, 3rd of November 2007 (Excerpts)

Hon. Chairperson , Dear Friends, strong commitment to a political and It is a great honour and a personal economic partnership and fair North- pleasure for me to represent the Social South cooperation and relationship is Democratic Party of Germany – SPD – exemplary. Their standing for solidarity here at the Chama Cha Mapinduzi Party as a basic human value and their fight Congress in Dodoma. The Chairperson for social justice give us enormous of the SPD, Hon. Kurt Beck, and moral responsibility in following their the board of members of our party steps. congratulate you on this event and send . all of you cordial greetings of solidarity We - Social Democrats - want to and best wishes for fruitful and vibrant empower and enhance the European discussions, to prepare CCM to face social model. The European way may the challenges of globalisation and to be a good model for a peaceful and contribute to a socially and economically fair globalization and the politics of the balanced society to all Tanzanians. We European Union could be a meaningful also encourage you to continue with precursor. We understand Europe in the politics of peace and understanding this sense: a peaceful powerhouse that that have contributed significantly to uses its great economic importance and stability in the region. its growing political influence for more fairness in the process of globalization. The purpose of my visit is to contribute The international economic competition to the growing relationship between SPD should not lead to a worldwide negative and CCM. Let me therefore recall the impact on wages and worsening working founders of the international liaison of conditions, smaller social benefits and our parties, your “Father of the Nation”, lack of environmental norms. The Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere and our international capital should not elude “founder-father” of the unified Germany, itself from its social and ecological Willy Brandt. Their political friendship responsibility and its tax liability. was established in the 60’s, while Willy Therefore we want to strengthen the Brandt was Germany’s Chancellor and mandate of the European Parliament, Julius Nyerere Tanzania’s President. which must be able to decide in all fields of European politics. Our two internationalists are We want a social EU with a labour extraordinary politicians and perceived law that regulates standards for, as as icons. In the 80’s and 90’s they examples, minimum wages and the have developed a vision of politics freedom to strike. Workers’ participation that was based on democratic and in companies operating in Europe has socialist values and on humanity. Their to be guaranteed and further developed. 163 We - Social Democrats in Europe - part of a rich country in the face of violent strive for a standard minimum taxation conflicts and global challenges. We, the of European corporations. Thus we can Social Democrats, strive particularly for prevent a downward spiral of competing a globalization with a “human face”. low taxes and unfair competition due to We try to shape globalization socially. the search for the cheapest business We push towards the enforcement of location. workers and employees’ rights and To enable developing countries to have ecological standards. We want fair a fair share in international trade we trade and an increase of development want the industrial countries to open cooperation values to 0.7% of our GDP their markets and to abolish many of by 2015 and a further poor countries’ their subsidies. These steps have to be debt relief. coordinated and standardized. For that, We support all efforts to make African we need a global body for economic, States equal partners on a global scale social and environmental politics to (within the UN, WTO, World Bank, be operating under the auspices of the IMF). UNO. In this context, the G-8 summit in We see African states more confident, Heiligendamm/Germany in 2007 has dynamic and optimistic. The continent marked a significant step forward: Due sees its importance and relevance in to our efforts Africa was set in the very the international scene growing as new centre of the summit agenda. Of course regional solutions to regional challenges we are aware of the fact that no single succeed. conference ever will be able to solve the Social democratic Africa-politics has a problems of a continent with nearly 1 long tradition in partnership, dialogue billion inhabitants. But Heiligendamm and quest for common interests on the has shown that the 8 industrialized basis of freedom, justice and solidarity. countries are ready to act and willing to We Social Democrats continue to keep their promise to double the funds support this tradition and your efforts for development cooperation in Africa toward a policy of self-sufficiency. Our until 2010. And so Germany is planning German Minister of Foreign Affairs to increase its share of development and the Minister for Development cooperation funds from 4.5 billion up to Cooperation consistently support this 5.25 billion Euros in 2008. approach, aiming at a fair partnership in We want to stress the importance of a framework of self-reliance. Examples the African continent for Germany and of that are the development partnership Europe, because Africa’s development NEPAD, the building of the African is also fundamentally aligned with our Union – AU - and the strengthening of own development. We Germans or African regional organizations. A further Europeans are your closest neighbors mutually promising political perspective and we depend on each other. We – SPD in the same direction could be a strategic and CCM – have a common interest partnership between the AU and EU. in those social democratic principles. Such partnership could encompass AU Wherever we differ, we should discuss peace missions, AU human rights court, and debate to find or work out solutions the Pan African Parliament, NEPAD and for our common benefits. Let us keep the G8 Dialogue. this in mind, when we meet again for We support these efforts and we the EU-Africa Summit in Lisbon! acknowledge our own responsibility as The Tanzanians trust Chama Cha 164 Mapinduzi to address the national Social Democracy, and is based upon problems and contribute to face common values of freedom, justice and international challenges in the interest solidarity. We can only shape social of the people and of social balance. democracy together, in a strong alliance The last elections have proven that of progressive powers. people want CCM in the leading role. The friendship between our two parties Honorable Chairperson, Dear is of great importance for the German Comrades! Asante sana!

Re-Visiting the CCM 8th National Congress in Dodoma

By: Wilman Kapenjama, Dar es Salaam

The Chama Cha Mapinduzi had its 8th who are contesting for party positions National Congress in Kizota, Dodoma, offered bribes to the voters so as to get from the 3rd to the 5th November 2007. elected. This situation was cause of The major objectives of this congress grave concern because people who are were a) to elect the party’s national rich increase their possibility of being leadership for the tenure of 2007-2012; elected, regardless of their ability to b) to amend the party’s constitution; lead. President Kikwete also mentioned c) to discuss the party’s past five year- that giving priority within the party to development report and d) to analyze those who have money was not only the reports on the implementation of unethical but it was and indeed it is also the 2005 CCM manifestos for the Union threatening in-party democracy, as well Government and the Government of as causing fragmentation in the party. Zanzibar. This could eventually cause the party Over 1900 delegates from all over to loose the trust of the voters, which the country attended, as well as could lead to an end of the party or the representatives of 15 sister political party unity. parties from Eastern and Southern Africa Other critical aspects of Tanzania’s (such as ANC, MPLA, FRELIMO, ZANU- development were also addressed by PF, NRM, UPC); Asia (the Communist the national Chairperson and by other Parties of China, Vietnam, and Korea), speakers from sister parties. Among Latin American and Caribbean (the those were the uncontrolled exploitation Communist Party of Cuba) and Europe of natural resources in the country, (Germany’s SPD). especially minerals. There was emphasis The message from the Chairperson of on the need for national strategies and the party, H.E President Jakaya Kikwete, policies regulating how Tanzanians focused on major social-political could encourage the mining investors aspects of the party’s activities and of while letting the population to benefit national development in Tanzania. more. The Chairperson highlighted the Great emphasis of his speech was about need to address other environmental corruption during the party’s internal challenges in the country. elections. The Chairperson said he was Other relevant topics mentioned by the sadly surprised by the new unethical speakers during the Congress were the tendencies in the party where those need to promote women’s participation 165 in senior leadership positions in the Central Committee 2007-2012 government and the party and the imperative need to improve social 1. Hon. Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete services delivery, such as the availability 2. Hon. Pius Msekwa of antiretroviral therapy for HIV/AIDS 3. Hon. Amani Abeid Karume and the corresponding increase in 4. Hon. Yussuf Rajab Makamba the number of people who undergo (MP) 5. Capt. (Rtd) George Huruma counseling and testing for HIV. The Mkuchika (MP) party mentioned these as priority areas 6. Hon. Salehe Ramadhani Ferouz in its health policies. 7. Dr. Ali Mohamed Shein Further issues addressed were the 8. Hon. Edward Ngoyai Lowassa need to extend the water supply and (MP) the roads’ network both in rural and 9. Hon. Shamsi Vuai Nahodha urban areas, and the need for primary (MHR) and secondary education quality 10. Hon. Ali Hassan Mwinyi improvement. CCM also proposed the 11. Hon. Benjamin William Mkapa privatization of the railways for better 12. Hon. Rashid Mfaume Kawawa services delivery. 13. Dr. Salmin Amour 14. Hon. John Samwel Malecela (MP) 15. Capt (Rtd) John Zephania At the end of the Dodoma Congress, 85 Chiligati (MP) members were elected to the National 16. Hon. Amos Makala 17. Hon. Bernard Kamilius Membe Executive Committee, of whom 20 were (MP) men from Tanzania Mainland, 20 men 18. Hon. Kidawa Hamid Saleh (MP) from Zanzibar; another 20 were women 19. Hon. Samwel John Sitta (MP) (of whom 7 were from Zanzibar and 13 20. Hon. Pandu Ameir Kificho (MHR) from the Mainland), yet another 10 were 21. Hon. Anna Abdallah (MP) from the CCM’s parents’ association (of 22. Hon. Rostam Aziz (MP) whom 6 were from the Mainland and 4 23. Dr. Mohamed Gharib Bilal were from Zanzibar). They also elected 24. Hon. Pindi Hazara Chana (MP) 15 members from CCM’s Youth League 25. Hon. Andrew Chenge (MP) (of whom 9 were from the Mainland 26. Dr. Maua Abeid Daftari (MP) and 6 from Zanzibar). 27. Hon. Samia Suluhu Hassan The Congress elected H.E Jakaya (MHR) Kikwete as the National Chairperson 28. Hon. Mohamed Seif Khatib (MP) for the coming five years together 29. Hon. Haji Omar Kheri (MHR) with two Vice Chairpersons, Hon. Pius 30. Dr. Abdallah Omari Kigoda (MP) 31. Hon. Abdulrahman Omari Msekwa for Tanzania Mainland and Kinana Hon. Abeid Amani Karume for Tanzania 32. Hon. Anne Semamba Makinda Zanzibar. After these elections, the (MP) National Executive Committee met and 33. Hon. Fatuma Said Alli Mchumo nominated the members of the Central 34. Hon. Zakia Hamdan Meghji (MP) Committee of the CCM for 2007-2012. 35. Hon. Omar Yussuf Mzee (MP) Below is the new Central Committee of 36. Hon. Emmanuel John Nchimbi CCM: (MP) 37. Hon. Ali Ameir Mohamed (MP) 38. Hon. Yussuf Mohamed Yussuf

166 10 - Useful Tools

167 Internet and e-Mail punctuation and spaces (there are no spaces in electronic addresses), and are The Internet normally written in lower case. This is a computer network that joins other networks together e.g. those of academic Search engines and websites and government institutions, schools, When you are looking for information libraries and corporations, making them you might already know the website to seem to be just one network to the user, look in and its address. If you do not who sits in front of her / his computer know where to look, then you will have at home, in the office or at an “internet to use a search engine. A search engine cafe”. The Internet provides access to helps you find information. To access the informationstored in different computers search engine you write http:// and the all over the world and it also provides the name of the search engine, opportunity to engage in discussions and e.g. www.google.com OR www.altavista. to share ideas and research with people com OR www.yahoo.com. These connected to the network. addresses open the websites of Google, To access the Internet you need a Altavista and Yahoo. When you access a computer with the adequate software, a search engine, you will have to type some telephone-line and a modem (modem = key words in the space provided. The contraction of modulator / demodulator) search will be based on those words you to link your computer with the telephone. chose as the most important ones. Here is You also need to subscribe to an “internet the secret: what sort of key words should provider”. you use, and how to combine them?

World Wide Web (www) 1. Be specific! Through the Internet, you can access The more specific your search is, the the www. This is the name given to the more likely you will find what you want. apparently seamless “web” of many For exapmle if you want to know how geographically separate sources of many international treaties Tanzania information. The mass of data available has signed, you should write “Tanzania is overwhelming. There is no guarantee international treaties signatories” or you that it is acurate, up-to-date or even should even write “how many treaties meant to be helpful. Anyone with access Tanzania has signed?” You will be to the internet can publish her / his surprised at how often this works! own material and make it accessible on the web. Internet users must therefore 2. Use the symbol + to add approach websites with a very critical If you want to be sure that the pages you mind. will find contain not only one or another A web is distinguished by the prefix word you typed, but all of them, you http:// in its address, which you should should use the symbol +. For instance, write on the top of the page of your you want to find pages where there are “browser” software (e.g. Netscape, references to President Mkapa togther Internet Explorer, ...). Each website has a with references to Mwalimu Nyerere. You unique address, known as URL. The FES should then type: +Mkapa+Nyerere. You Tanzania address is http://tanzania.fes- can narrow down your search by adding international.de more specific words. Take care when writing the web addresses for they are sensitive to 3. Use the symbol - to substract

168 If you want all the pages related to those • Ananzi.com key words but not the ones referring to a • Zebra.co.za specific subject, you can use the symbol • Siftthru.com -. Using the above example, you want • Searchenginewatch.com to reference to President Mkapa and • Fishboo.com Nyerere, but do not want reference to Ujamaa, you can type: +Mkapa+Nyerere- E-Mail Ujamaa. This refers to electronic mail as opposed to airmail or surface mail (today popularly 4. Use quotation marks to keep known as “snail mail”). You can send expressions together messages to anyone with an Internet If you want to find references to a special account, and it can include not only combination of words, you will have to text, but also pictures and spreadsheets. write those words in quotation marks. For Incoming messages are stored in your example, if you type +President+Mkapa, mail-box on your internet provider until you will get sites that make reference to you access it. E-Mail is delivered very fast, those words together or separated. But in a matter of seconds or a few hours. if you write “President Mkapa”, you will This depends amongst other things on get only the reference where both of the the amount of data being transferred and words appear in that same order. the quality of telephone lines and that of your modem. The cost of sending e- 5. Combining all of it mail depends on the amount of data and Try to use the different signs to be specific. therefore the length of time it takes to For example: send it from your computer to the local +”President Mkapa” server. It is relatively cheap: sending e- +”Mwalimu Nyerere” mail to the other side of the globe is not +development more expensive than sending one to a -”international cooperation”. computer next door. Here are the names of a few search To send and receive e-mails you will need engines: a dedicated program, such as Outlook • Google (www.google.com) Express, Microsoft Outlook, Eudora, • Altavista (www.altavista.com) Pegasus and others. You will have your • Yahoo own electronic address and will send • Lycos your message to another address. If you • AskJeeves have a connection to an internet provider • HotBot you will receive an address which is • InfoSeek composed of two parts: your-login-name • MSN + the symbol @ + the mane of the internet provider. FES Tanzania´s electronic You can also enter a search engine and address is [email protected] search for specific search engines, for example, +”search engines”+Africa. Chatting and conferencing Some of the specific search engines for The Internet provides the possibility of Africa are: communicating directly with others “on- • Mosaique.com line”. In other words the people chatting • ClickAfrica.com or holding conference are at their • Orientation Tanzania computer and are on the internet at the • Woyaa.com same time.

169 How to Buy Desktops for If you’re working with video or large Your Business graphics files, however, you’ll need a little more power in your system. In addition By: Vipul Shah, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania to lots of memory (512MB is a minimum for graphics applications), you’ll want a Shopping for computers for business use, larger hard drive, FireWire and USB 2.0 is a far different experience from shopping connectors, and a separate graphics card for a PC for your home. When you’re with its own memory as opposed to one buying a home system, you try to get the integrated on the motherboard. fastest, biggest, and best of everything, adding on features, peripherals, and Necessary extras software until you run out of cash and the bank will not lend you anymore. But Regardless of the applications you’re when you’re buying PCs for business, the running, there are a few features you’ll question quickly becomes, how much want in any business PC. An integrated can you live without? In other words, Ethernet adapter for networks is a must- you want a desktop that has everything have, and you’ll be hard-pressed to find a you need and nothing that you don’t at a desktop nowadays without one. competitive price. We also recommend opting for a TFT The basics LCD monitor rather than a CRT monitor. These flat panel monitors are increasingly Most of the buying decision is a game of popular because they use only a small specifications, with processor, memory, amount of desk space, display sharp and hard disk size being the most images, and are easy on the eyes. The prominent. Don’t fall into the trap of price on TFT monitors is relatively high paying for too many megahertz. The because of limited production and rapidly latest Pentium 4 processors, which boast increasing demand. If your budget speeds in excess of 3GHz, are overkill for doesn’t allow it, opt for a good 17 -inch the vast majority of business applications. CRT display instead. In fact, many business users will get by just fine with a slower Celeron chip, even though these (along with AMD If your business needs upwards of processors) tend to be less popular in 20 desktops, you should consider a business. You’re better off investing in managed PC such as the HP Compaq Evo, extra memory and upgrading to 256MB the Dell OptiPlex, or the IBM NetVista. or even 512MB of RAM. These desktops include several features designed to make them easier and less Home PCs need expansive hard drives expensive to deploy and manage. They because they rapidly become cluttered use similar hardware and software, which with MP3s, digital photos, and home lasts for long periods of time, minimizing videos. But at work, a standard 40GB the need to upgrade. The components drive offers plenty of space for most are designed so that you can swap them users. Don’t believe us? Look at it this out quickly and easily. And they can be way: you could prepare a different 10MB monitored and managed remotely using PowerPoint file every day (we know some included software. Many managed PCs managers who have tried), and you’d still also come in small form-factor designs- have plenty of room after five years. perfect when space is tight.

170 Buying advice is buy them all at once and get them from the same vendor. (If you can get As important as what you buy is how servers, printers, and displays from the you buy it. The PC market changes at a same source, all the better.) Even better, blistering pace, so don’t worry too much purchase identical desktop models. Not about model numbers. Instead, buy from only will you get a discount, you’ll have a vendor you trust. The best thing you interchangeable components when can do when purchasing multiple PCs something falls apart down the road.

Basic system maintenance

By Carl Vancil 2. Delete temporary files from your hard drive

Temporary files are usually the files left over after installing a program and can One of the most common questions I be safely deleted. have been asked has been, “Why is my computer so slow?” This has been 3. Clean your internet browser cache followed closely by, “What can I do to speed up my computer?” Cache files are those left over from your browsing experience. They mostly The answer can be as varied as the consist of images that your browser had number of computers with the problem. to download in order to display on a web The solutions can range from some page you are viewing. simple maintenance to hardware repair/ upgrades or even a combination. Here 4. Defrag the files on your hard drive are some common things you can do to improve system performance. Defrag arranges the files on your hard drive so that they can be accessed more 1. Run a thorough scan disk efficiently. This has two advantages. One, your system operates more efficiently. Errors in the files on your harddrive can Two, your hard drive will last longer reduce performance as can a hard drive because it will not have to work as hard that is developing physical errors. Scan to access files. disk will repair many of the file errors on your hard drive. Running the thorough 5. Perform a virus scan scan disk will also check the hard drive for physical errors. Remember, depending on Many viruses use so much of your the size of your hard drive this can take system’s resources that they will greatly a lot of time and you cannot do anything degrade performance. Some will even else at the same time. The best time to crash your system completely. Make sure run scan disk is when you do not need to your virus definitions are up to date and use the computer. run a complete virus scan of your system. This should be done weekly.

171 6. Check your system for spyware / be then a few more things can be tried. adware Many utility programs will perform deep checks on your system’s registry as well Many websites install spyware/adware as look for missing shortcuts and even on your system without your knowledge. missing Windows files. These can be as simple as cookies that track where you surf to actual programs Another possibility is that there are too that give others access to your computer. many programs starting when you turn There are many utility programs that you on your computer. In Windows 98SE or can download to scan for these files. XP (both home and pro) this is easy to check using the msconfig utility. From 7. Clean the dust out of your computer the ‘run’ command type ‘msconfig’ and hit the enter key. This will bring up the It seems too simple but just having a Windows Configuration Utility where you dirty computer can slow it down. If can check what is starting with Windows there is an excessive buildup of dust and it gives you the option of turning off inside your computer, it will cause a heat the auto startup of many programs. In buildup. This heat buildup will degrade other versions of Windows (95, NT, 2000) performance as well accelerate wear and it would be best to have someone with a tear on the parts inside your computer good working knowledge of the Windows which can lead to the premature failure Registry service your computer. of a critical part. Remember to unplug your computer before opening the case. If all this fails then you may need to Also, remember to NOT bump any of the reformat your hard drive or upgrade internal parts with the vacuum to prevent hardware. Remember too that you always damage. have the option of taking your system in to a qualified service technician. Sometimes These steps are something that we can spending a little extra money will save all try if our system is running slow. If you hours and hours of headaches or these do not get the performance of your worse yet, the loss of data. system back to where you think it should

HOLDING A WORKSHOP, • The time frame SEMINAR OR CONFERENCE • The organisational style (conference, lectures, working groups) Planning and Budgeting • How much time is needed for the various elements, not forgetting recreation 1. Develop the idea • Who will act as resource persons Identify: • Whether or not to seek media coverage • The main objectives of the event • The target group Try to involve participants in developing • The intended outcome the program. Write the outline. 3. Calculate the budget 2. Develop the program • Preparatory meetings Decide: • Hall charges • Which topics • Catering

172 • Refreshments during sessions • Explain how these fit in to the • Accommodation overall objectives and program for the • Travel workshop • Stationery • Discuss the desired method of • Secretariat/organising team presentation • Reception (if necessary) • Give information about the venue and the facilities / equipment provided for 4. Income and expenditure the workshop Record all income - donations, • Request a written paper and or hand- participants’ fees etc. outs if they are considered necessary Record all expenditure, remembering to • State the terms of payment for the keep receipts for each item persons services Try to hold preparatory meetings with Organising resource persons.

1. A checklist Implementing • Book the venue & accommodation • Hold preparatory meetings 1. Arrival • Prepare PR (public relations) activities Organisers should be in place well if relevant before the participants • Make agreements with resource • Check the venue and the technical persons facilities needed • Prepare the invitations • Give resource persons a final briefing -State the objectives clearly • Prepare for the registration of -Give information about the program, participants venue, dates, resource persons and • Display the program and other participants documents, if relevant -If participants have to do homework beforehand, make this clear 2. Registration -Explain financial and other conditions clearly 3.Welcome • Make the necessary travel Explain: arrangements • Subject of the meeting • Hold a joint session with all resource • Who are the organisers and sponsors persons • Objectives • Prepare the necessary materials, • Logic and timing of program forms, documents • Methodological approach -Stationery • Expected outcome -Registration forms -Claims forms for allowances 4. Holding the sessions -Printed program • Handle transport claims -Papers and teaching materials etc. during tea breaks only -Workshop documentation 5. Departure 2.Terms of reference for resource Collect all that is necessary before persons people leave • Discuss subject, objectives and • Signed registration forms/list of duration of their input participants

173 • Signed allowance claims 6. After the event • Original detailed invoices and receipts As soon as possible take care of for venue, food, drinks, accommodation, • Accounting travel, stationery etc. • Report writing • Any other follow-ups needed

Notes

174 8 TIPS ON HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY 5 CHAIR A CONFERENCE Preference should be given to open 1 questions (W-questions: who, why, where, when, etc.) and information It is the conference chairperson’s questions. Closed questions (which responsibility to see that the can only be answered with a “yes” atmosphere during the discussion is or “no”) can be fatal to a discussion. always friendly, communicative and fair. 6

2 Should a discussion peter out it is up to the chairperson to get it moving The conference chairperson again by means of (open) questions, introduces the topic in an objective thought-provoking remarks and a and informative way. He/she summary of the proceedings so far. formulates the discussion goals for each item on the agenda. During a 7 discussion, he/she must not initially express his/her own opinion or The chairperson should make interim assessment as this would bias the summaries to emphasize the thread discussion. of the discussion. At the close, the chairperson gives a general summary 3 and his/her evaluation as to which of the goals formulated at the outset The chairperson speaks as little as have or have not been achieved. possible in order to give maximum time to the conference participants. 8 Conference chairmanship principally entails raising questions and giving At the end of the conference, it is also the word to different speakers. up to the chairperson to formulate and delegate tasks to individual 4 participants. Nobody ought to leave the conference without precisely Questions from the chairperson knowing: should always be designed to a. what has been achieved in today’s stimulate dialogue and consequently discussion, should never be answered by the b. what is my specific assignment chairperson himself/herself. until the next conference/meeting, c. where and when is the next conference/meeting? Source: Schulte, Carla (1997) Talking Politics (and being understood), Kampala: Fountain Publishers. 175 HOLDING EFFECTIVE in question and therefore extend INTERNAL MEETINGS the meeting, or whether to stop the AND PLANNING SESSIONS discussion and continue it at an agreed time. Starting the meeting 2. Never move on to the next issue 1.Who is chairing the meeting? before making a decision on the one (It is best to have agreed on this in being discussed. advance.) Closing the meeting 2. Who is going to write the minutes? 1.Quickly repeat the decisions that have 3. If the agenda has not been prepared been made. in advance, then the chairman, (you), should collect the issues that need to be 2. Decide when and how the minutes discussed from the participants. They will be distributed. should be written up on a board or a flipchart, so that everyone can see them. 3. Decide who will chair the next Remember the issues that might have meeting. cropped up at the previous meeting. 4. Close the meeting at the agreed time. 4. In collaboration with the participants decide how much time it will take to discuss each issue. Confirm at what time the meeting has to close. Ask if anyone has to leave early.

5. Then ask participants which issues they wish to concentrate on at the meeting and which ones can be postponed (if necessary). After that ask which issue should be dealt with first, second, third and so on. This should not take more than five minutes!

During the meeting

1. Follow the agreed agenda, discussing the issues in turn. The chairperson or moderator must see to it that the agreed time frame is adhered to. If this proves difficult, then the group must be asked to decide whether to continue the discussion of the issue

176 PROJECT OUTLINES

Should be short, Explain briefly aims, clear and promi- general objectives, sing. former projects!

Those who really Title of the Project Convince the know what they reader of the need want can usually do • Name of proposing for this project! with 2-3 objectives. Explain the idea Be as concrete as agency of the project and possible. • Address and contact how you want to person fulfill the objecti- Who takes interest • Short presentation of ves, describe the in this project? your NGO Impact! Who shall be invol- • Objectives ved? Who profits • Justification for choo- Do you need to from the project contact other per- and how? sing the project sons to fulfill your • Target group objectives? Specify Detailed list of • Know-how from out- their capacities or expected expen- side needed? know-how! ditures (personnel • Budget material, travel, • Scedule / program Be precise about etc.) • Feasibility the venue, dura- tion, methodology! • Sustainability Do you foresee any • Intended follow-ups prohibitive difficul- Which further ties or problems? • More info about your impact does it NGOs background, have? Any workshops work done so far etc. about maintenance (optional) By whom? List and organisation of names. the project?

¸ Practical advice • use white, clean sheets of A4 - paper • present your project in a typewritten version if possible • write on one side of the paper • make sure you have a clear structure • attach a covering letter 177 THE STRUCTURE OF YOUR SPEECH

The aim of a discursive is to convince MAIN BODY the listeners of the correctness of the (max. 20 minutes) speaker’s opinion on the subject in question. Such speeches should not last • Discuss the current situation/the facts/ longer than 30 minutes. the problem. • Discuss a variety of possible solutions. How do you most effectively structure • Discuss the pros and cons of these such a speech? solutions. • Present your own evaluation. AUDIENCE RELATED INTRODUCTION • Prove the accuracy of your assessment. (max. 1 minute) SUBJECT-RELATED CONCLUSION • Create the right atmosphere for the (max. 4 minutes) speech by referring to the audience, the venue, the occasion, etc. • Summarise the main argument in a maximum of three points. SUBJECT-RELATED OPENING REMARKS (max. 3 minutes) AUDIENCE RELATED CONCLUSION (max. 1 minute) • Begin with a provocative proposition, a rhetorical question, a current event, etc. • Close your speech by, for instance, thanking the audience for their PREVIEW THE MAIN POINTS OF YOUR attention. SPEECH (max. 1 minute) Source: H. Hess: Party Work in Social Democratic Parties

ARGUMENTATION • If you are interrupted, insist on the TECHNIQUES right to finish what you were saying. • Anticipate your counterpart’s Good argumentation techniques are arguments by including them in your always beneficial. Your chances to win own argumentation. others over are higher if you can: • Use the persuasive power of examples. Ask your counterpart to provide • present effective arguments and concrete examples of how to apply his • refute your opponent’s arguments. theories. • Expose generalisation and PRACTICAL TIPS inaccuracies. • Stick to the facts of the issue. • Try to understand the position of your • If somebody evades the issue, return to counterpart first, then react to it. the subject. • If your counterpart’s argumentation is weak, repeat your own good arguments. Source: C. Schulte, 1997,Talking Politics (and being understood): Kampala, Fountain Publishers 178 Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere during an interview with the German magazine “Der Überblick” in Hamburg in April 1999.

HOW TO USE BLACKBOARDS AND FLIPCHARTS

Blackboard

Useful in gatherings of up to 25 people. Flipchart + It is easy to write information & easy to correct it. Useful in gatherings of up to 35 people. - Information is wiped off, it disappears + Sheets can be prepared in advance. and it is hard Information can be displayed for a long for participants to retrieve. period by removing sheets from the flipchart and posting them on the wall. TIP If the chalk squeaks - this always TIP Useful for a wide range of information makes participants uncomfortable - break e.g. displaying the day’s agenda, the chalk and continue writing using the important overviews, central statements, broken end. flowcharts, participants’ contributions.

179 • Do not write down too much: concentrate on key issues only. • Give the audience time to copy the contents of the presentation OR give it to them as a hand out afterwards. If you intend to distribute a handout, tell the participants so. Otherwise it is likely that they will spend time making unnecessary notes. • Do not talk with your back turned to participants (e.g. while writing on the blackboard or flipchart). • Do not stand in front of your presentation - the participants will get irritated at not being able to read what is written.

General rules

THE CHECK LIST FOR GOOD IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITIES

1. Important: plan step by step.What 6. Hire assistants, delegate, mobilize should be done first? people.

2. Consider all improbabilities, and plan 7. For seminars & workshops, check alternatives. everything in advance on loco.

3. Fix deadlines for you and for your 8. Take care of the documentation (dates partner. of receipts, use of materials, tasks of people involved ...) 4. Follow-up the results before the deadline. 9. Support partners in the learning process. Sell the idea “on-the-job learning”. 5. Keep an eye on the indicators to be achieved. 180 10. Take care of the financial settlement 12. Write a reminder for following-up and reporting as soon as possible. the results sometime later. Document it.

11. Evaluate with the partners 13. Keep your colleagues informed and the achievement of objectives and updated. indicators. Write recommendations. File documents. Release important Source:Workshop Report Management Skills for papers. Inform other related institutions. Decision-Makers - August 1999

TWELVE STEPS TOWARDS CONFLICT RESOLUTION

1. Understanding the conflict 5. Determining the mechanism of • its type resolution • its sources • The actors/agents • its intensity - States • its impact - NGOs - Individuals: Eminent personalities 2. Identifying the parties to the conflict - Inter-governmental organizations • whether bilateral or multilateral conflict 6. Determining the venue and dates for negotiation 3. Identifying the issues involved 7. Negotiating rules of procedure 4. Determining the method of resolution • Conflict prevention: Preventive 8. Setting the agenda diplomacy • Conflict resolution: Negotiation 9. Launching the substantive - Direct negotiation between the negotiations conflicting parties. - Assisted negotiation: Use of a third 10. Reaching a compromise agreement party. Mediation/Facilitation 11. Implementing the negotiated Conciliation settlement Good offices Arbitration 12. Guaranteeing and monitoring the implementation of the agreement

181 TIME MANAGEMENT - SELF • Review your appointments and MANAGEMENT deadlines regularly, informing those implicated in good time if you want to Most people bristle at the idea of becoming change them. a slave to time: “The Swiss have clocks, • Plan your week: Make the “things but we have time”, said a wise old man in to do” list, get an overview over your Bhutan. A certain degree of time and self- appointments and deadlines. management is nonetheless necessary if • Plan your day. you wish to be effective and to achieve • At the end of each day and at the end your goals. of each week make a review. Did you Many people rely on their memory as do all that you had planned to do? Did their management tool, but most find you meet your deadlines? Did you attend that at some point their memory lets the scheduled meetings? Were you late? them down. “Sorry, I forgot” is not Why? an uncommon statement. This is not necessarily a catastrophe, but in some RULE 2: Be realistic about what you can instances forgetting can have unfortunate manage to do consequences. You might lose an • Do not get overloaded: you have to be important contract, you might lose your realistic about what you can overcome in job, you might even lose your husband/ the given amount of time. wife to-be! • Prioritise: decide what are the most important issues. RULE 1: Write things down - use a diary • Say no, if the task is beyond what you and a calendar, (e.g. the FES diary/ are capable of doing. calendar) • Remember to make time for your • Keep a “things to do” list. private life - family, friends, hobbies and • Enter all your appointments and your own relaxation. This is where you deadlines, putting in a reminder maybe a renew your energy. week before the deadline falls.

WHAT IS PUBLIC RELATIONS?

Public Relations (PR) is about relations atmosphere at its public meetings and between an organization - be it a press conferences, its transparency and business enterprise, a political party or its accountability. an NGO - and the public. Such relations exist, whether we want them to or not. The traditional “tools” of a public relations It is therefore wise to consider what officer are: image you wish the public to have of your • press conferences • publications • organization and to work consciously on leaflets • posters • press releases • public the promotion of that image. events An organization manifests itself to the These tools must be used carefully. A public in many ways. It can be through its public meeting held without being well propagated political aims, the behaviour prepared or a badly designed and written of its representatives and members, its publication may do more harm than public statements and activities, the good!

182 PREPARING AND RUNNING A PRESS CONFERENCE

A press conference is an event to folder that includes the most which members of the press are important statements, a report and invited for a briefing by the host background material. organisation or personality. The briefing is followed by an opportunity Invitation for the journalists to ask questions. Often press conferences are held • The headline must clearly indicate when the subject matter is intricate the host organisation, the name of and further questions from journalists the person responsible and how to are expected and desired. contact him/her. If the information/news to be given at • State the subject matter clearly. the press conference is not sufficiently (Who did/does what, when, where, interesting, relevant or “meaty” for why and how.) the invited media’s readers/viewers, • Provide information about the then it is likely that the journalists speakers. will not show up. • Provide details about the venue, time and date. Preparation • Send out/deliver the invitation at least a week in advance. • Are the objectives clear and is the • Send out a reminder one or two topic well defined? days before the event. • Which media are to be invited? Remember,TV & radio may have Running it special needs. • Is the time/date well chosen and • Ask journalists to note their names convenient for journalists? Does it and which media institution they allow them to meet their deadlines? represent on a prepared list. This is Does it coincide with other important useful information for making follow- events? ups. • Who will chair the conference? • Make the written handouts available • Who will act as the organisation’s for journalists when they arrive. spokesperson/s? • The chairperson opens the • Is the opening statement well conference and introduces the prepared? speakers and subject. • Are the major arguments well • The key presenter makes his/her supported in the written handouts? statement clearly and concisely, and • Check the venue: make sure that relates them to the handouts. there are enough chairs, tables and • The chairperson moderates the lights. question and answer session. • Have handouts ready, e.g. press • Answers must be brief, clear and release.You might prepare a press concise. It is good to give practical

183 examples to illustrate the message friendly and forthcoming even when you want to give. provoked. • Speakers must remain relaxed,

A PRESS RELEASE

This is one of the most useful HOW TO WRITE IT mediums through which an organization can make itself and • The headline must state clearly the its views known to the public. The name of the organization issuing the contents might be: release and the subject matter. • Statements on pertaining issues. • State the most important themes • Reports on activities or events you first. have organized. • Make clear why you are issuing • Announcements of forthcoming the press release at this particular events. point in time. • Reactions to statements made by • The journalist must be able to pick others. out relevant information easily and quickly. PROS AND CONS • Use a typewriter or word processor, double-space and use Issuing a press release is a relatively only one side of the page. cheap way of creating awareness • Give information about how to about one’s stand. However, badly contact the person responsible: written press releases and those name, address, telephone, e-mail dealing with unimportant issues will address. annoy the recipients and may create negative feelings towards your organization.

184 Participatory Impact Monitoring should include those people, Monitoring and who are involved in the project, because Evaluation they know their situation and problems best. Since people may be biased because By Constanze Pfeiffer, Freiburg, Germany they are too close to the project, outsiders can additionally come in.

What is Impact? 1. Why is it so important? Impact means mid- and long-term It is not only important to implement changes attributed to a certain factor activities but also to learn about the or intervention. Impact can be positive perceptions of and the consequences for or negative, intended or unintended, those people involved in the interventions. planned and unplanned. Through participatory impact monitoring and evaluation you find out if your What is Evaluation? project is still on track or if things need to be changed. More importantly, you learn Evaluation is based on the information not only what people think about your discovered during monitoring. Data from activities but if your work has initiated monitoring formats are summarized, any changes, and if so what kind of compared, analysed and interpreted. changes. Evaluation can be internal or external. This means evaluation is done either by a member of your organisation or by an 2. What are the key terms? independent person who is an outsider to your organisation. Both approaches What is Monitoring? have advantages and disadvantages. During internal evaluation the evaluator Monitoring is a repeated observation, can use his/her insider knowledge and reflection and correction of activities. It avoid misunderstandings, however, this allows us to observe change in order to might lead to biased reports. External get a better picture of what is happening. evaluators are more neutral but they There are two main types of Monitoring: need to backstop results with all people involved, in order to make sure that there 1. Monitoring of activities: Involves the are no misunderstandings. observation of activities with regard to the intended project activities, for What are Indicators? example workshops or production of training materials. Indicators are “pointers”, “signs” or 2. Monitoring of impacts: Impact “markers” which are “related to” certain Monitoring is done to find out changes and which can be felt, seen and whether a project initiated changes, questioned. which contribute to achieve the project’s objective. Impact Monitoring Quantitative Indicators: is crucial since it investigates further They use measuring or counting (e.g. than monitoring of activities what number of people that took part in the has been achieved. training) and give us exact numbers

185 Qualitative Indicators: It tells you what needs to be covered. They describe in words only (e.g. First, you should be clear about your participants of the training find the objectives and your expected impact; trainings useful and apply their knowledge then decide on appropriate methods, accordingly) and therefore give us the interview partners and those who descriptions about opinions, experiences will collect information. One example: A etc. monitoring matrix focusing on a women’s rights project. 3. What to consider when monitoring and evaluating?

When planning monitoring and evaluation, a matrix is a very helpful tool.

Broad objectives Training of paralegals

• Communities will access information of their rights Expected impact and if needed claim their rights

• Number of trainings conducted • Number of participants trained Indicators • Cases recorded by paralegals at community level • Clients feel satisfied with paralegalsand use their services

• Interviews/Focus group discussions Methods • Records Who can give • Paralegals information? • Communities Who can collect • Paralegals information? • Project management unit

4. What tools to use in order to divided by sex and age) and comparing learn about changes? them over time.

There are two types of methods: Questionnaires quantitative and qualitative ones. It is Questionnaires consist of open (describing highly recommended to use a combination in own words) and closed questions of both methods. (choosing given answers/categories) focusing on a specific topic. They start 4.1 Quantitative methods with information on the interview partner (e.g. sex, age, economic and educational Statistics status) before proceeding with questions Record keeping is very helpful to track related to the addressed topic. down changes by collecting numbers (e.g. number of the participants of a workshop

186 4.2 Participatory qualitative methods is why questions: -Need to be clear, simple and relevant Introduction -Need to consider the target group (e.g. In order to learn from local people gender sensitive) about their conditions, experiences and problems, a set of participatory data Focus group discussions collection methods named “Participatory Group discussions often provide a useful Rural Appraisal” (PRA) was developed. addition to the information gathered Up to now, new methods are still being in one-to-one interviews. Instead of added to the list of participatory data interviews, discussions are held with collection methods. PRA can therefore groups on various topics, e.g. whether the be understood as a growing tool-box of project has led to any changes and if so participatory methods. PRA is based on what kind of changes. several very important principles: • Learn from the locals at the site, face- Before/after comparison to-face in the local context This method compares situations and • Be relaxed and not rushed, listen and conditions before the beginning of a do not lecture project with the current situation. In • Use the different PRA methods in a this context, it is important to find out flexible and innovative way whether the situation has changed since • Use several methods and compare the project began and if so, why. their results in order to look at findings from different angles Case studies Case studies of individual women and men Gender perspectives in the target group provide information on During planning- and implementation their lives and on changes that resulted stage, Gender aspects need to be from the project. covered in order to learn about different perceptions of women and men (e.g. Observations additionally broken down by social and The intention is to observe the lives of age group). Depending on the cultural the target group and to gain a better setting, the discussions should take place understanding of their perspectives, in either single-sex or mixed groups. experiences and problems.

Tools Diagrams Most of the PRA methods use visualisation Often, some people in the target group techniques which allow for visualising are illiterate, and it has therefore proved conditions, problems and experiences of useful to illustrate certain aspects by local people. Useful tools are: using visualisation techniques. Hereby, diagrams are a helpful tool. During Qualitative interviews meetings with the participants, processes Qualitative interviews play a key role are initiated that enable them to discuss in the PRA approach. There are several certain issues and to illustrate these by ways of conducting an interview with using diagrams. For example, to obtain systematically or randomly selected: information on specific consequences of - Groups of women and/or men an intervention or action, so-called flow - Individuals charts can be used. Interviews rely heavily on questions. That

187 Example : Fighting in the family Chief can solve the conflict

Consulting the chief Chief can not Fighting in solve the conflict; the familiy Consultation of religious institu- tion

Ignoring the problem

Ranking techniques Ranking techniques can help to reveal certain aspects of the target group’s problems and preferences and what criteria apply to their choice. The aim is to discuss various aspects and to rank their importance. Hereby, participants assign values (e.g. 5 = most important, 1 = least important). The aspects to be assessed when using ranking technique are best collected during brainstorming sessions ______or interviews held beforehand. Source: Germann, Dorsi & Gohl, Eberhard (1995): Role exchange Participatory Impact Monitoring. Eschborn: Here, men analyse the situation of Gate/GTZ. women and vice versa. This method can serve to open people’s eyes on both sides. Juliane Osterhaus & Constanze Pfeiffer (2003): A change of view often enables men to Monitoring – Guidelines for partner organisations perceive for the first time how live is for of the GTZ sector project ‘Strengthening Women’s women and vice versa. Rights’. Eschborn: GTZ.

188 Notes

189 Notes

190 ediTorial

PUBliShed By Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung P.O. Box 4472 Kawawa Road Plot No. 397 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Telephone: 255-22 2668575 / 2668786 Fax: 255-22 2668669 Mobile: 0754-884485 E-Mail: [email protected]

coPyriGhT© 2007 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Dar es Salaam ediTorS Peter Haeussler Angela K. Ishengoma Azaveli F. Lwaitama layoUT Lars-Christian Treusch

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NB: Articles which carry an author´s name do not necessarily refl ect the view of FES. All facts and fi gures in this Calendar are correct to the best of our knowledge. However, FES bears no responsibility for oversights, mistakes or omissions. The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, or FES, was founded in 1925 as a political legacy of Germany´s first democratically elected President, Friedrich Ebert, who died in that year. Ebert, a Social Democrat of humble origins, had risen to hold the highest office in his country dispite considerable opposition from his political adversaries. He assumed the burden of the presidency in a country which was crisis ridden following its defeat in World War I. His own personal experience led him to propose the esta- blishment of a foundation with a threefold aim: • to further a democratic, pluralistic political culture by means of political education for all classes of society. • to facilitate access to higher education for gifted young people by providing scholarships. • to contribute to international understanding and co-operation in order to avert a fresh outbreak of war and violent conflicts wherever possible.

Today, the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung is a political non-profit making, public-interest institution com- mitted to the principles and basic values of social democracy in its educational and policy-oriented work.

Development Co-operation In the Foundation´s offices in Africa, Asia, Laitn America and Oceania approximately 80 German staff and 600 local nationals are involved in projects in the fields of economic and social development, socio-political education and information, the media and communication and in providing advisory services.

The Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung sees its activities in the developing countries as a contribution to: • the improvement of political and social frameworl conditions • the democratisation of social structure • enhancement of developing countries´position in the International Trade arrangements • the empowerment of women and the promotion of gender • the strenghening of free trade unions • the improvement of communication and media structures • regional and international media co-operation • regional co-operation between states and interest groups • the resolution of the North-South conflict

This calendar is intended to provide not only an individual tool for purposes of time planning but also a day-to-day handbook for quick reference on issues that may be of interest to the people in Eastern Africa and to those who are politically active.

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Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung P.O. Box 4472 North-South Dialogue: Julius Kawawa Road Plot No. 397 Nyerere, former President of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania the United Republic of Tanza- Telephone: 255-22 2668575 / nia and Willy Brandt, former Chancellor of the Federal 2668786 Republic of Germany Fax: 255-22 2668669 Mobile: 0754-884485 Willy Brandt: E-Mail: [email protected] „International co-operation is http://tanzania.fes-international.de far too important to be left to governments alone.“ ISBN: 978-9987-22-061-8