Violence Against Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals

Violence against Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals - Social Media Activism in the Obama Era in the Light of Johan Galtung’s Violence Triangle Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München vorgelegt von Tanja Fuchs aus Lindenberg i. Allgäu München 2017 Erstgutachterin : Prof. Dr. Ursula Prutsch Zweitgutachter : PD Dr. Sascha Pöhlmann Datum der mündlichen Prüfung: 20. November 2017 Meiner Familie und dir, Christina Tanja Fuchs Violence against Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals Table of Contents Table of Contents.................................................................................................... I. Introduction................................................................................................1 1. Social Media Activism, Neoliberalism and the Violence Triangle – Thesis ....8 2. Methodology and Scope of the Study.............................................................11 3. Theoretical Framework...................................................................................18 3.1 Johan Galtung’s Violence Triangle, Collective Identity and Social Media ........................................................................................................................18 3.2 Neoliberalism and Neoclassical Economics.............................................32 II. Social Media Activism in the Obama Era .............................................38 1. Structural Violence .........................................................................................38 1.1 Fighting Heteronormativity – Cultural Violence: The Foundation of Structural and Direct Violence .......................................................................41 1.2 Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell: Structural Violence in the U.S. Military .............44 1.3 The Denial of Same-Sex Marriage and the Well-Being of Children: A Manifestation of Structural Violence?............................................................57 1.3.1 Personal Stories of Homosexuals................................................................. 62 1.3.2 Heterosexual Celebrities and their Contribution to Raising Awareness....... 72 1.4 “Maybe I can make a difference”: Structural Violence in Daily Life ......79 1.5 “Bye, bye mother monster”: Anti-LGB Bullying and Suicides ..............92 1.6 Homelessness among LGBTQ* Youths.................................................102 1.7 LGBTQ*s in the Workplace: Inequality and Neglect ............................117 2. Direct Violence.............................................................................................131 2.1 Bringing Attention to Direct Violence ...................................................131 2.2 “I Take Bullets”: Direct Violence and Social Media Activism..............136 Tanja Fuchs Violence against Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals III. The Violence Triangle, Socio-Political Influences and the Era of Donald Trump............................................................................................181 1. Past Influences on the LGBTQ* Movement.................................................181 2. The Future of the LGBTQ* Movement ........................................................190 IV. Conclusion...........................................................................................216 Bibliography .....................................................................................................220 Illustration Credits ............................................................................................246 Tanja Fuchs Violence against Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals I. Introduction Equality. History has taught that the striving for equality is a significant catalyst for change. It has stirred revolutions, reversal of political systems and the restructuring of socio-political concepts. It is the incentive that has galvanized billions of people over the course of human history. But it is also a pawn in the hands of the powerful. Suppression, the denial of equality, keeps systems alive and it secures the power of the ruler. Violence becomes an instrument in the trial of power. It has the force to preserve or strengthen hierarchies but it also possesses the force to subvert them. However, violence is not limited to its physical essence; it can also be exercised indirectly without causing physical harm; simply by preserving detrimental systems and applying elementary rhetoric serving this cause. The late nineteenth century has seen such a manifestation. The 1860s have introduced categories of sexuality that ultimately led to a hierarchy subordinating those people who were identified with the expression “homosexual”. The terms “homosexual” and “heterosexual” were coined in 1868 and laid the foundation for the concept of heteronormativity, the rule of the expectation that people identify as heterosexual and live accordingly in opposite-sex relationships. All these centuries before, sexual and emotional relationships among same-sex couples were part of European, Asian and American societies. Even though same-sex intercourse was already condemned and in some cases persecuted during the Middle Ages it was still practiced in the subsequent centuries. On the American continent, the New England colonies introduced anti-sodomy laws during the sixteenth century. However, the essence behind the laws was not a feeling of superiority by people living in opposite-sex relationships but a pragmatic one. The settlers’ intention to populate the American colonies was tied to reproduction and therefore they opposed intercourse that could not result in 1 Tanja Fuchs Violence against Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals newborns. 1 It was not until the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century that same-sex intercourse and relationships were edged into a subordinate role and encountered massive rejection of major parts of societies. The invention of the terms of “homosexuality” and “heterosexuality” created categories that were pressured into a dichotomy and rivalry. They established an imbalance that resulted in a hierarchy and led to an unequal treatment of those constituting the minority. The early twentieth century saw the ultimate establishment of a system that inscribed discrimination against all those, desiring and loving women and men of the same sex. The system of heteronormativity led to ostracism of homosexuals. Acts of sodomy were punished with imprisonment; police raids at local gay bars saw the use of brutal police violence; homosexuals were laid off at work and faced exclusion from the U.S. military. Gays and lesbians were denied equal treatment and their aspiration to put an end to discrimination and violence and instead achieve the fundament right of equality stirred their revolution. The Stonewall Riots in June and July 1969 represent the moment in history when gays, lesbians and transsexuals collectively rebelled against the system of subordination. The gay rights movement was finally constituting itself and initiating a fight against harassment and violence. The riots starting in the night of June 28, 1969 were the response to a multitude of brutal police raids and they also represented a reaction to the bitter humiliation and degradation lesbians, gays and transsexuals had had to endure for decades. Stonewall sparked a movement that was growing in intensity and that was achieving victories – slowly but steadily. Soon, activists tried to create the foundation for an efficient movement. Gay Pride and Gay Power were embraced and served as resources for creating awareness. A year after the Stonewall Riots, activists in New York City as well as Chicago and Los Angeles celebrated their first gay pride parades – a practice that has spread around the world and repeats itself every year since. The community became political and that step was aligned with advancements. 1 Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality , (New York: Penguine Books, 1995), 37. 2 Tanja Fuchs Violence against Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its official list of mental disorders. In 1977, Harvey Milk, an icon of the gay rights movement, was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors and became the first openly gay man in public office in California. Activists tried to challenge sodomy laws on a variety of occasions in court; ultimately, 34 years after Stonewall, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lawrence vs. Texas that sodomy laws were unconstitutional – a milestone for the U.S. gay rights movement. It laid the basis for all advancements that were yet to come. Stonewall sparked a movement. The experience of violence and ostracism united lesbians, gays and transsexuals in a way that is still sustaining this cohesion nowadays. However, the focus of the gay rights movement has shifted over the last two decades. It has advanced its strategy and taken the fight to the next level. The pursuit of equality in all spheres has become the core motivation for activists. After Lawrence vs. Texas , the efforts to achieve recognition of civil unions and same-sex marriages came to the forefront of the movement’s ambitions. LGBTQ*s’ visibility and activists’ determination have led to advancements in the legal sphere. A combination of strategic litigation and social education constitutes the foundation for the current successes activists achieve. Visibility, the creation of awareness, and the subtle subversion of society’s heteronormativity play a major part in

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