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How Women's Integration Transformed the Army, 1964

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How Women's Integration Transformed the Army, 1964 STROHMER, THERESE M., Ph.D. Soldiers, Not Wacs: How Women’s Integration Transformed the Army, 1964-1994. (2016) Directed by Lisa Levenstein. 380 pp. In 2016, the Secretary of Defense opened all ground combat jobs in the military to women, permitting work in a field that had been off limits to them since the inception of the Women’s Army Corps in 1948. Yet little is understood about female soldiers’ journey to attain these roles. This dissertation shows how the 2016 decision did not emerge out of nowhere; earlier generations had laid the foundation. That foundation reflected both advocacy and achievement on the part of military women to gain access to a range of noncombat jobs on the battlefield. Women’s integration into these positions changed the meaning of combat from a geographic space exposing soldiers to hostile action, to a soldier’s specific direct ground combat role attacking the enemy. Women’s integration fundamentally transformed the Army workplace. Between 1964 and 1994, their presence in the Army increased from one percent to thirteen percent. As their numbers grew, they increasingly infiltrated the leadership ranks; by 2016, over seventeen percent of Generals were women. Having women in these leadership positions meant they commanded men, established plans for war and led troops in battle. Many ordinary soldiers pushed for policies that enabled mothers to serve, allowed women access to professional military education, and they consistently forced the military to confront the problem of sexual violence. Lesbian soldiers consistently pushed the Army for inclusion, by 2010 their efforts resulted in the right of all homosexuals to serve openly. Women’s opportunities visible in the Army today are the result of female soldier’s consistent push for equal treatment as soldiers. SOLDIERS, NOT WACS: HOW WOMEN’S INTEGRATION TRANSFORMED THE ARMY, 1964-1994 by Therese M. Strohmer A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Greensboro 2016 Approved by Dr. Lisa Levenstein Committee Chair APPROVAL PAGE This dissertation written by Therese M. Strohmer has been approved by the following committee of the Faculty of The Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Committee Chair _________________________________________ Lisa Levenstein Committee Members _________________________________________ Thomas Jackson _________________________________________ Mark Elliott _________________________________________ Jeff Jones ___________________________ Date of Acceptance by Committee _________________________ Date of Final Oral Examination ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful for the support and encouragement of many individuals who lifted me up, and at times seemed to carry me, during my journey to complete this dissertation. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Lisa Levenstein, my Committee Chair, for her passionate support of my writing and research. She has been my mentor since my first days in graduate school. Her endless patience and generous time kept me going through countless hurdles that arose during this project. I could not have expected a better advisor and mentor for my study. With her keen analysis to guide me through issues that perplexed me at times, my work is stronger. Thank you. The remaining members of my committee have all directed me in important ways as well. I am sincerely grateful for their personal encouragement and critical analysis of my work. Dr. Mark Elliott spent countless hours helping to improve my work and keep my spirits high. Dr. Tom Jackson’s classes provided me with the inspiration to explore labor history and help set me off on this path. I will always be grateful to Dr. Jeff Jones because of our mutual love for Russian history and his teaching mentorship. A warm thanks to Dr. Jodi Bilinkoff, who not only provided me with continual support, but I will always remember as the first person I met when I arrived at UNCG. I am thankful for Dr. Colleen Krieger’s boundless encouragement. Dr. Lisa Tolbert is responsible for getting me through my first year, and I am forever grateful for her thoughtful guidance, especially with teaching and researching. I could not have completed my dissertation without generous financial support for my research. I was honored to receive the Candace Bernard Dissertation Fellowship in College of Arts and Sciences and the Trelease Graduate Fellowship from the History Department. The History Department also generously provided me with a Richard G. Lane Memorial History iii Scholarship, a Summer research assistantship and Graduate student travel grants. I am thankful for the Sally and Alan Cone Course Scholarship and Grant for Special Projects from the Women and Gender Studies Department. I have been privileged to work with inspiring, motivating and thoughtful friends, classmates and colleagues. My dissertation writing group changed faces over the course of the years, but I am thankful for the support of John James Kaiser, Maggy Williams, James Hall, Joseph Ross, and Christine Flood. I am indebted to James Findley, Alyce Miller, Theresa Campbell, Jacqueline Spruill, Katrin Deihl, Rick Shelton, Paige Meszaros, Theresa Campbell, and Angela Robbins who provided me with encouragement and many meaningful discussions. Special heartfelt gratitude goes to Susan Thomas, Christopher Graham, Keri Peterson, Sara Gates and Missy Foy for their lasting friendship and support all these years. Laurie O’Neill, Dawn Avolio, and Kristina Wright have been the heart and soul of the History Department here at UNCG for me. I am grateful to them for their immeasurable help in matters large and small, providing me with the freedom to spend time on research and writing. My heart is full of limitless gratitude and respect for the staff at SCUA, the Special Collections and University Archives at UNCG. I will always be grateful to Dr. Charles Bolton for encouraging me to apply there as an oral historian. I have had the great privilege of working with the Betty H. Carter Women Veterans Historical Project for nearly nine years. There are simply no words to express my deepest thanks to Beth Ann Koelsch, who not only provided me with first- class research assistance for my dissertation and can answer any question in the universe, but is someone I am fortunate to call my friend. Two other special folks at the library have been indispensable to my research, Gaylor Callahan and Patrick Kelly, who successfully located many obscure studies and reports that were significant for my work. Thank you. iv I am blessed with a loving, compassionate and joyful family who have kept my spirits high through the darkest of days. My Dad inspires me every day, and I know he is always in my corner. I am grateful for my siblings Julie, Kathy, Margaret, Patrick and Mike as they have taught me how to persevere with faith and grit. Patrick deserves a special mention for helping as a “listener” of my scholarship, and by providing priceless assistance with my graphs and charts. My scholarship is dedicated to my beloved Mother and sister Mary, who were my biggest supporters and cheerleaders throughout these many years before their recent deaths. My profound gratitude to Sue for being there for me every day. Your kindness, compassion and endless support made all the difference. This dissertation would never have come to conclusion without you. Thank you. And lastly, Oreo, who is truly the one who has been by my side every step of the way. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. viii GLOSSARY TERMS ................................................................................................................ ix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 Historiography ................................................................................................... 6 Women’s Military Service Prior to Vietnam ..................................................... 17 Author’s Military Background ......................................................................... 24 II. WACS FIGHT FOR INCLUSION IN THE VIETNAM WAR, 1964-1973 ........................................................................................................... 29 Wacs Lobby for Noncombat Assignments in Vietnam ...................................... 39 Sexism and Harassment in Vietnam ................................................................. 53 Wacs Seek Work that Values their Talents and Skills ....................................... 63 Wacs Defy Women’s Corps Protectionist Policies ............................................ 74 Wacs Shared Experiences with Noncombatant Men ......................................... 78 Wac Experience in Vietnam Lead to Careers .................................................... 88 III. ALLIANCES FORCE CHANGE: THE ERA, THE VOLUNTEER ARMY, AND THE END OF WAC, 1967-1978 ..................................................... 96 Officers Join Allies in Battle for Equal Promotion Opportunities .................... 100 DACOWITS and PSCW Coalition ................................................................. 110 A Monumental Shift for Wacs with the ERA and AVF................................... 122 The Fight to Open the Military Academies and ROTC ..................................
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