بسم هللا الرحمن اﻟرﺣﯾم Qualitatitive and Quantitative Assessment Of

بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم

Qualitatitive and Quantitative Assessment of Groundwater Resources and Numerical Simulation in Shendi Sedimentary Subbasin River Nile state - Sudan By Elamin Dafaalla Suliman A thesis Submitted to the Graduate College in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master Degree of Science in Hydrogeology

Supervisor Professor Adel Balla Magboul

July 2017

بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم

االستـــهالل

قال تعالي:

}وأنزلنا من السماء ماء مباركا{

DEDICATION

TO MY

FAMILY

Specially for my MOTHER

MY F R I E N D S

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Acknowledgement

الشككككككككككعكككك ر الككككعككككالككككمكككك ككككن اوال الككككفق و ككككجككككنككككل كككك ا ككككفا الككككعككككمكككك المتواضع I would like to express all my thanks, And gratitude to Al Neelain University for fund and support. I would like to express deep gratitude and appreciation to Prof. Adil Balla Dean of faculty of petroleum and Minerals. for his close supervision and guidance throughout this work. Also I would like to thanks to Dr. ali Eisawi, Special thanks to the staff of faculty of Petrolum and Minerals. I wish here to thank Mr. ahmaed abd alroof, and I would like to thanks any one help me .

Abstract The study area is located in Shendi basin , between latitudes 16˚30.618′ &17˚ 17′ 244″ N and longitudes 33˚ 25.200′.. & 34˚02.92′ E, The purpose of the study is to assess and evaluate the groundwater resources, both quantitatively and qualitatively in the Shendi basin. it’s about 172 Km from khartoum and cover an area of approximately 11100 Km2. The geological units in the study area composed of Superfecial deposits, Hudi chert, Shendi formation, Cretaceous Sedimentary sequences and basement complex in descending chronological order. Different methods were used to achieves the objective of the study .These include: ARC.GIS for spatial data processing , Digital Elevatin Model (DEM) for topographic feature manipulations, Aquifer Test for Hydraulic characterstics calculations, Aquahem for chemical species and water quality classifications, Rockwrok for cross-sectin construction,and Visual MDFLOW software for numerical simulation. This study has been carried out using the GPS, for location and elevation of wells,. Water level indicator to measure water table level Landsat images to construct the geometry of the area. From borehole lithology there are two aquifer zones namely upper unconfined to semi-confined aquifer and lower confined aquifer. The hydraulic characteristics were done using different pumping test methods. Accordingly the transmisstivity (T) ranges between 50 to 390 m2/d and hydraulic conductivity (K)ranges between 2.5 to 5.58 m/d , specific storage( S )ranges between 0.12to 0.15, Chemically the Groundwater in the study area is suitable for consumption and irrigation and industrial activities. Interpretation and results of hydro chemical species show that two types of water quality in study area(, calcium bicarbonate and sodium-

Potassium carbonates water type). From modeling application of groundwater model reveals suitable model deign that fairly simulate the groundwater system and determine the general flow direction and determine the discharge areas and recharge area depending on the simulated contour maps. Groundwater potentiality was well evaluated by numerical model results where the water budgets components were measured and tabulated المستخلص :

تجع منطجة الدراسة ي حوض شندي ال سوبي ب ن طي طول ,E 02.92′˚34 & ..25.200′ ˚33 – و طي ع ض . N 244″ 17′ ˚17& 30.618′˚16

تهدف الدراسة الي تج م مصادر الم اه الجو ة من ج ث النوع ة و العم ة ي حوض شندي ال سوبي الفي يبعد عن الخ طوم حوالي 130 ك لو مت ، و تغطي منطجة الدراسة حوالي 11000 ك لومت م بع

تتعون ج ولوج ة المنطجة من الوحدات الصخ ية اآلت ة : ال سوب ات السطح ة ، الهودي ش ت ، و رسوب ات العص الع يتاسي ) متعون شندي ال سوبي ( و صخور األساس .

استخدمت العديد من الط ق للحصول علي أ داف الدراسة و تتضمن الب امج الحاسوب ة مث نظم المعلومات الجغ ا ة ي )( ي التوزيع المعاني للمعلومات و ب نامج )( لخ يطة الظوا الطبوغ ا ة و ب نامج )( لحسا الخواص اله درول ع ة لخزانات الجو ة و ب امج )( لتصن ف نوع ة الم اه ، ب نامج )( لتصم م مجسمات و قطاعات ع ض ة لطبجات الخزان الجو ي ، ب نامج )( للنمفجة ال قم ة ، و استدم جهاز ال )( لتحديد مواقع اآلبار و إرتفاعها عن سطح البح و جهاز ق اس مستوق الم اه )( و صور األقمار ا صطناع ة .

من الل التتابع الطبجي إتضح أن نالك نوعان من الخزانات الجو ة ، زان علوي شبه محصور الل غ محصور ، و زان سفلي محصور . لتحديد الخصائص اله درول ع ة من الل تجار الضخ أستخدمت ط ق مختلفة ) تايس – كوب و جاكو ( وجد أن مدق ا م ارية )T( من 50- 390 مت 2 / ال وم ، و الموصل ة اله درول ع ة )K( 2.5 – 5.58 مت / ال وم ، و معام التخزين النوعي)S( 0.12 – . 0.15

و من الل الدراسة اتتضح ان الم اه الجو ة ل منطجة الدراسة تصلح الستخدامات االنسان و ال ق والصناعة . وظه ت نتائج التفس الع مائ ة ان نالك نوعان من سحنات الم اه الجو ة ) صوديوم ب ع بونات وصوديوم بوتاس وم كاربونات( واظه تطب ق النمزجة ال قم ة للم اه الجو ة نموذ مالئم لنظام الم اه ووجود االتجاه العام للج يان والتص يف والتغفية اعتمادا علل ائط كنتورية، وتم تج م امعان ة وق اس م زان ة الماه الجو ة من نتائج النموذ ال قمل

Table of Content

ii….…………………………………………………………………………االية Dedication……………………………………………………………………iii Acknowledgement……………………………………………… …………. iv Abstract……………………………………………………………………….v CHAPTER ONE Introduction

1.1 Location and area extent ………………………………………………... 1 2.1 Physiographical features ………………………………………………….2 1.2.1Topography ……………………………………………………………...2 1.2.2 Climate and vegetation cover ………………………………………...... 2 1.2.3 Drainage System ………………………………………………………..2 1.3 Populations ………………………………………………………………. 3 1.4 Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………...4 1.5 objectives ………………………………………………………………....4 1.6 Method of the study ……………………………………………………...4 1.6.1 Fieldwork ……………………………………………………………….4 1.6.1.1Sites Survey …………………………………………………………...5 1.6.1.2Well Monitoring ……………………………………………….………5 1.6.2. Laboratory work …………………………………………….………….6 1.7 Previous study …………………………………………………………….6 CHAPTER TWO

Regional Geology ………………………………………………………….....8 2.1 The geological Units …………………………………………….……..…8 1.2.1.2 Basement Complex ………………………………………….………..8 2-1-3 Nubian Sandstone Formation ………………………………….……….9 2.1.4. Hudi Chert Formation ………………………………………….………9 2.1.5 Superficial Deposits …………………………………………….………9

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2-2 Geology of study area ………………………………………………….10 2-2-1 Cretaceous Sedimentary (Nubian Sandstone) Formation …………….10 2.2.1.1-Conglomerate ……………………………………………………..…10 2.2.1.2- sandstone …………………………………………………………...11 2.2.1.3-Mudstone ……………………………………………………………11 2.2.2 Hudi Chert …………………………………………………………….12 2-2-3 Superficial Deposits& Recent Sediments …………………………….12 2.2.4 Sedimentary structure ………………………………………………....13 2.3. Tectonic Setting ………………………………………………………..14 CHAPTER THREE Hydrogeology ……………………………………………………………….17 3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………..17 3.2 Water Resources Distribution in the world ……………………………..18

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3.3 Water resource in Sudan ………………………………………………...18 3.3.1. Surface water …………………………………………………………18 3.3.2. Groundwater ………………………………………………………….18 3.3.2.1 Water-Bearing Formation …………………………………………...18 3.3.2.1.1 Cretaceous Sedimentary (Nubian sandstone) formation…….……..18 3.3.2.1.2 Umm Rauwaba formation………………………………….………19 3.3.2.1.3 Quaternary Sediments…………………………………………...…19 3.3.2.2 Basement Rocks ……………………………………………………..19 3.4 Hydrogeology of study area ……………………………………………..19 3.4.1 Surface water in study area ……………………………………………19 3.4.1.1 River Nile\ …………………………………………………………...19 3.4.1.2. Seasonal valleys ………………………………………………….…19 3.5. Groundwater in the study area ……………………………………...…20 3.5.1. Aquifer lithology and thickness ………………………………………20 3.5.1.1 Cretaceous sedimentary (Nubian sandstone) formation …………….24 3.5.1.2 Recent sediment ……………………………………………….…….24 3.5.2 Aquifer Characteristics………………………………………………...24 3.5.3 Hydraulic head in the study area ………………………………………24 3.5.5 Aquifer Properties ……………………………………………………..25 3.5.5.1Hydraulic conductivity (K) …………………………………………..27 3.5.5.2 Transmissivity (T) …………………………………………….…..…27 3.5.5.3Storativty …………………………………………………….…….…28 CHAPTER FOUR Groundwater Modeling (Shendi Basin Case Study) ………….……………..29 4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………...……………29

4.2 Visual MODFLOW……………………………..………..…….……………………29

4.3 Model Grid and Layers ……………………….....………………………30 4.4 Model Input Data……………………………………………………...…31 4.4.1Aquifer type …………………………………..….…………………….31 4.4.2Observation wells …………………………….….……………………..31 4.4.3 Groundwater Discharge ……………………………………………….32 4.4.4 Groundwater Recharge ………………………………………………..33 4.4.5 Hydraulic Properties ………………………………..…………………33 4.4.6 Initial Condition …………………………….…………………………34 4.4.7 Boundary Condition …………………….……..………………………34 4.3 Model Calibration …………………………….…………………………35 4.5.1 Calibration Statistics ………………………………….……………….37 4.6 Model Results …………………………………...………………………38 4.7 Zone Budget ……………………………………..………………………41

CHAPTER FIVE

Hydrochemistry of groundwater

5.1 Introduction…………….……………………………..…………………43 5.2Physio-chemical parameters …………………………..…………………44 5.2.1 Color ………………………………………………..…………………45 5..2 Taste and Odor…………………………………..………………………45 5.2.3 Temperature ………………………………….…..……………………45 5.2.4 Turbidity ………………………………………………………………45 5.3 Chemical properties ……………………………..………………………45 5.3.1 Electrical Conductivity (EC) …………………..………………………45 5.6 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) ……………………………………….51 5.3.4 Total Hardness (TH) ………………………………………………….52 5.3.5 Major cations ………………………………...…….………………….53 5.3.5.1 Sodium…………………………………………………………….…53 5.3.5.2 Potassium (K) …………………………………………………….…55 5.3.5.3 Calcium (Ca) …………………………………………………..……56

5.3.5.4 Magnesium (Mg) ……………………………………………………57 5.3.6 Major Anions.……………………………………………………...…..59 5.3.6.1 Carbonates & Bicarbonate ……………………………………….…59 5.3.6.2 Chloride ……………………...………………………………………60 5.3.6.3 Sulphate ………………………………………………………...……61 - 5.3.6.4 Nitrates (NO 3) ………………………………………………………62 5.3.6.5 Fluoride …………………………………………………………..….63 5.4 Piper diagram ………………………………………….………..……….64 5.5. Stiff Diagram……………………………………………………………65 5.5 Groundwater suitability and uses …………………………………….….67 5.5.1 Sutability for drinking …………………………………………………67

Chapter Six

Conclusion and Recommendation…….……………………………………..68 6.1 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………68 6.2Recommendation ………………………………………..……………….69 Reference ………………………………………………………..………..…70

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Location map of the study area.… ……… …………….…………1

Figure 1.2 Drainage System of the study area……………………...…………3

Figure2.1 geological map of study area……………………..……….………10

Figure2.2 Sedimentary structure…………………..…………..….………….14

Figure2.3 location of rift basins in Sudan (after Browne and Fairhead1983)…………….16

Figure3.1 3D model of the study area………….………...………………….21

Figure3.2 map& cross section of the study area………..…….…….………..22

Figure3.3 fence diagrams 3D of the study area…………….…….…………23

Figure3.4 Hydraulic head in the study area...... 25

Figure3.5 pumping test result calculation using cooper & jacob method .….26

Figure3. pumping test result calculation using Theis method ………...…..26

Figure3.7 pumping test result calculation using cooper & jacob method..…27

Figure4.1 Model Construction Calibration and Results…..…..….……..…..31

Figure4.2 Observation wells distribution of study area………….…………32

Figure4.3 pumping well distribution of study area………………….……..33

Figure4.4 GH B of study area…………………………….……………..….35

Figure4.5 .Manual and automatic calibration techniques of numeric modeling…………..37

Figure4.6 observed Head steady state…..………………….……….………39

Figure4.7 bisometric surface map the study area…………....…...... ………41

Figure4.8 General flow direction in the study area…………………..…….42

Figure5.11 well Location map ………………………………….….………43

Figure5.2 1Hydrograph of EC in the study area………..…..………...…….46

Figure5.7 Hydrograph of total hardness in the study area………....………52

Figure5.8 Spatial distribution of total hardness (TH) value in the study area……………………………………………………………………….….53

Figure5.9 Hydrograph of sodium value in the study area…………..…...... 54

Figure5.10 Spatial distribution of sodium value in the study area….…..….55

Figure5.11 Hydrograph of potassium value in the study area………….…...56

Figure5.12 Spatial Distribution of calcium value in the study area………….57

Figure5.13 Histogram of Magnesium ion concentration in the study are…………………………………………………………………………...58

Figure5.14 The spatial Distribution of Bicarbonates value in the study area…………………………………………………………….………….….59

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Figure5.15 The spatial Distribution of Bicarbonates value in the study area………………………………………..………………………..………...59

Figure5.16 1 The spatial distribution of Chlorides value in the study area…………………………………………….……………………………..60

Figure5.17 The Sulphates value in the study area…………..……………....61

Figure5.18 Spatial Distribution of nitrate value in the study area……...... …62

Figure5.19 Spatial Distribution of nitrate value in the study area…….…….63

Figure5.20 Hydrograph of Flourite in the study area……………..………...64

Figure5.21 Spatial Distribution of Flourite in the study area….…….…..….64

Figure5.22 Piper Diagram for water type Classifications……..….…..…..…65

Figure5.23 stiff Diagram for water type Classifications…………….………66

LIST OF Table

Table 3.1 The result of pumping test………………………….………….…28

Table 4.1 cumulative budget for the model area…………...….……………43

Table 5.1 EC standard classification……………….………..…..………..…47

Table 5.2 Salinity Standard Classification adopted in sudan chemical laborator...... 50

Table 5.3 TH standard classification……………….…………………..……52

Table 5.4 comparison between WHO with water in the study area …….….67

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CHAPTER ONE Introduction

1.1 Location and area extent The study area lies at River Nile state around Shendi Town between latitudes 16˚30.618′ &17˚ 17′ 244″ N and longitudes 33˚ 25.200′.. & 34˚02.92′ E, covering an Area of 11100 .Km2. it’s located in the Southern part of the River Nile State, Northern Sudan. It lies on the Eastern bank of the river Nile and it bounded in east by Albotana peneplain Figure 1.1 . The area is easily accessible and can be reached by a paved road, passing through Shendi, to Atbara, following the River Nile on the Eastern bank. The Sudan railway line joining Khartoum Atbara, can also be used to reach the area. The distance from Khartoum to the study area is about 170 km.

Figure 1.1 Location map of the study area

2.1 Physiographical features

1.2.1Topography Topographically, the study areas are characterized by low relief, except the numerous occurrences of isolated sedimentary outcrops Southern Alnaggaa & Almoswrat and Bagrawia area at the north and a series to the East until Alhnafa mountain. From Bagrawia to the North a gap of flat layng area is crossed by local valleys e.g wady Alhwad ,Altarbeel, Aldan, up to Umm Ali hill where high elevated isolated outcrop appear once again. A few kilometers to the North, these outcrops form flat lying and Northerly extended sedimentary plateau. at the Northern area they are characterized by flat lying tops. 1.2.2 Climate and vegetation cover The area is dominated by arid to semi-arid condition. The rainfall is rare and vegetation is represented by thorny trees mainly lining the valleys. The winter season is from December to March with minimum temperature of 10⁰C. The summer is characterized by maximum temperature of 45⁰C extended from March up to mid-July where rainfall begins with an average between 50-100 mm/y. September and October are generally hot months during the day, warm at night with dust storm till November. 1.2.3 Drainage System The area is dominated by parallel to dendritic seasonal streams flow through sedimentary provinces and seems to be structurally controlled. The main direction of these streams is to the West and North West, towards the river Nile e.g. wadi Alawteeb, wadi alhreega, wadi alhwad wadi adan and wadi Gabaty. They are the main geomorphologic features which drain the water to the River Nile Figure 1.2 .

Figure 1.2 Drainage System of the study area . 1.3 Populations According to the 1993 Census in Sudan, the total population of the area were estimated to be about 900,000 inhabitants. The main tribes are Gaalain, Fadanya ,Hassanya ,Manassyr, Ababda and Shawaiga that populated the area.The population density is low (Muswwarat area) who have a comparable life style, shuttling themselves with their camels, sheep and goats and depending on the water gathering from some wells and aqueduct at rainy season, while the concentration of these tribes is along the river Nile where the water and the productive agricultural areas.

1.4 Statement of the Problem The study area is subjected to severe agricultural and industrial activities. Past expansion of population settlements was far away from the surface water resources (River Nile) and considerable efforts should be exerted for the ground water suitability and sustainability to achieve the requirements of the people. Many agricultural schemes were executed in most of the study area and required suitable groundwater storage to offset the overdraft resulted from high pumpage as well as suitable water quality for human consumption and different types of agricultural plantations. 1.5 objectives: The research objectives are: - To appraise the groundwater resources. -To determine the hydrogeologic characteristics of the water-bearing formation. -To measure water level dynamic variations related to pumping The overall objectives of the pumping test campaign was to further investigation the aquifer properties of the Shendi aquifer , in particular the hydraulic conductivity . In addition to , the well performance test allowed the determination of the laminar and turbulent head loss coefficients of the JACOB drawdown equation for each tested well.To evaluate the hydrochemistry and groundwater pollution of the aquifers. -To understand the source of salinity , evaluate and estimate the mechanism and amount of recharge , discharge via estimating the storage capacity of the aquifer. -To design suitable groundwater model to evaluate the storage capacity of aquifer and water balance of the area. 1.6 Method of the study : 1.6.1 Fieldwork: 1. Pre-exisiting data collection for structures and drainage system. 2. Compilation of water level fluctuation records, lithologic and water samples. 3 .Pumping test for hydraulic properties. 3. Geological observations and structural setting

1.6.1.1Sites Survey The study area is located in Shendi district between lats16˚30.618′ &17˚ 17′ 244″ N and longs 33˚ 25.200′.. & 34˚02.92′ E show the location of the selected wells including some basic information is provided in Table (4) .40 wells are operated by the shendi water cooperation , located along the river Nile and cover the villages close to the Nile Another 20 wells are located on the ALTRAJM area east of Shendi town (30 km). Most wells cover by geophysical borehole logs and this logs interpreted prior to the start of the pumping test . This way the suitability of each well for pumping test could be verified and the information concerning all relevant well construction . Details given by the well owner could be confirmed , or where necessary corrected. The existing wells were selected according to the following criteria: the wells had to be tapped Shendi aquifer, the diameter of the selected wells had to be large enough to be suitable for a pumping test and the wells had to yield more than 20 m3 /h . 3- pumping test schedule: In order to facilitate the comparability of the results , design and performance of all pumping tests were done in the same way: a. Well cleaning and calibration tests (several hours) b. recovery phase for 12 hour c. Continuous pumping tests ( pumping test step) d. Aquifer test constant discharge rate Aquitest software package version 11.2 through which Theis / Cooper & Jacob methods are applied During this study and based on total depths, the wells in the study area have been grouped into: deepest (lower aquifers zone) wells with total depth ranges between 30-270m below the ground surface; and shallow (upper aquifers zone) wells with total depth ranges between 30- - 220m below the surface 1.6.1.2Well Monitoring The measurement interval of groundwater level during the whole pumping tests were2minutes .Water quality data were obtained by groundwater samples collected during the pumping tests for laboratory analysis . Guitarist The measured parameters are the (EC , pH, turbidity (ntu)

5 color and TH) .The analyzed chemical chemical parameters were (Ca+2 , Mg +2 , Na+ , K + , Fe+2 + - -2 - - - , NH4 Hco 3 , So4 ,No3 , Cl , No2 Analysis of well performance analyzed using Jacob and theis methods 1.6.2. Laboratory work : * Preparation of base maps and conceptual model components . * Analysis of lithologic, water samples and pumping test data. * Sattelite image analyses for drainage system in the area * Bacteriological analysis for ground water pollution. * Geostatistic and computation of the data.

1.7 Previous study Several studies were conducted in the Shendi Formation (e.g. Kheiralla, 1966; Whitman, 1971; Bussert, 1998, Wysick et al., 1990). Previous dating of Shendi Formation was based on correlation with Omdurman Formation as part of Nubian Group (Vail, 1988). Kheiralla (1966) recognized different lithology in the Khartoum-Shendi area conglomerates include (pebbly conglomerate, intraformational conglomerate). Sandstones include (Merkhiate sandstone and Quartzose sandstone) and mudstone. The Quartzose Sandstone unit identified in Shendi area was later renamed by Whiteman (1970) into Shendi Formation. A conclusive description of the

Shendi Formation is given in Whiteman (1971). Wysick, et al. (1990); Awad and Shrank (1990) considered the Shendi Formation as a time equivalent to Omdurman and Wadi Milk Formations (Albian-Cenomanian) based on fossil wood from Umm Ali area. Ibrahim (1993) supported the idea of two basinal pattern from the Bouguer anomaly at the area East and West the Nile attribution the distinctive abnormal positive Bouguer anomaly to the wide spread occurrence of ferricrete bands. Werner (1993) identified freshwater vertebrate faunal assemblage collected from Shendi Formation indicating the widespread of warm, wet biotopes with dense vegetation. She showed that there is a striking similarity of non marine Cretaceous African terrestrial vertebrate association which characterizes the flood plain, swamps, small ponds and lakes. Abdullatif (1993, 1995) studied Shendi Formation and subdivided it into upper fluvitile and lower lacustrine deposit. The latter consists of light grey bentonitic mudstone. Salama (1997) studied the Sudanese intracratonic rift basins on the basis of geophysical survey, delineating NW-SE trending cretaceous sediment troughs and mentioned that wadi El Mukabrab in the Northern part of the study area represents a fault boundary. Bussert (1998) studied the intracratonic basins evolution in the central Northern Sudan showing the contrast with typical cratonic sandstone sheets of North Africa which is dominated by uniform braided river sandstone. Osman (2000) studied the sedimentology and engineering properties of kaolinitic mudstone at Umm Ali so as to construct and establish its origin and paleoenvironment to assess its technical properties and industrial potentiality.

CHAPTER TWO Regional Geology

2.1 The geological Units: The study area is entirely covered by Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks, (Kherialla, 1966) surrounded and overlying the basement complex. The Basement rocks have been exposed at Sabaloka igneous complex on the south, Bayuda complex at the nourthwest , Butana basement rocks at the southeast, and Red Sea hills at the northeast forming an outlier (Vail,1983, Almond, and Ahmed,1993). Low lying out crops at North e.g. alzedab Alshreeg outcrop are encountered as subsurface geologic units north east and East of the study area of sand dunes and superficial deposits cover most of the study area. In general, the regional stratigraphic units in the area Figure 2.1 have been arranged chronologically as follows. 4- Superficial deposits 3- Hudi Chert Formation. 2-Nubian Sandstone Formation 1- Basement Complex. 2- 2-1-2 Basement Complex: Shendi Formation is an outlier surrounded by the pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic crystalline rocks. South of shendi, the basement is exposed at Sabaloka area; Bayda terrain and Bayuda desert to the north and west. The Sabaloka basement complex is predominantly composed of grey gneisses with patch’s of granulite and chronkite of pan-Africa age (Dawoud, 1980). It was later intruded by poorly foliated granitic rocks and post-orogenic younger granite, including ring complex (Almond 1971, 1977). To the east and south east, Basement rocks also exposed at Bayuda bounding Shendi Formation western side the rocks are predominated by heterogeneous and poly-metamorphosed high-grade gneiss and migmatities interlayered with psammitic and pelitic metasediments introduced with syn, late and post tectonic granitoids. (ELrabba, 1976 )and Dawoud, 1980). In the northern side, the above mentioned high-grade Nile Craton has been structurally overlained by Nubian shield. The Nubian shield generally consist of Neoproterzoic volcano-sedimentary ophiolitic assemblage metamorphosed as low-

8 grade green schist fades and introduced by orogenic, unorogenic batholithic, pIutonic dominantily of granodioritic, dioritic and granitic composition (Vail, I 983). 2-1-3 Nubian Sandstone Formation: Shendi Formation composed of continental fluvial and lacustrine facies.. This is to designate siliceous conglomeritic sandstone with substantial clays of Upper Cretaceous age and recommended that the term “NST” should commonly be used to describe a facies and therefore has no stratigraphic value. Subsequently the term “Nubian series”. In Sudan Kheiralla (1966) and Whitman (1971) used the term “Nubian sandstone” to designate (lie sediments of variegated colors lying unconformable on the basement and Paleozoic Formation comprising from conglomerates, sandstone, mudstones and overlain unconformable by HudiChert, ( 2.1.4. Hudi Chert Formation: Hudi Chert formation consists of fragments of boulders and cobbles scattered, particularly East and south of study area in albaflel jebl alborog and alawteeb area Hudi Chert capping hills western Nile in the Kemair village , alageeda village alzedab area. The boulders are mostly irregular ellipsoidal in shape, red or brown in color with cavities and pitted surface. The age of the HudiChert either upper Eocene or lower Oligocene age and may be have been deposited in shallow lakes,.its Minerollogy is composed of silicates.( Eisawi, et at., 2012). 2.1.5 Superficial Deposits: The superficial deposits includes Wadies sediment which courses the Jebels, recent fan deposits that emerged from the outcrops like Almaageel, Alngah ,Bagraweya hills and consist of poorly sorted sediments redeposit form pre-existing sedimentary boulders, fragments and leached coarse and fine sediments. East of shendi area numerous mobile sand dunes (Qoz) consists of wel1 sorted medium to-fine-grained sand, are covering the underlying Shendi Formation Substantial accumulation of Nile silt occurs as superficial deposits on both banks of the River Nile. They consist of very fine micaceous sands and silt that were deposited annually during the flood seasons.

Figure 2.1 geological map of study area 2-2 Geology of study area: 2-2-1 Cretaceous Sedimentary(Nubian Sandstone) Formation: The term Nubian sandstone was first used by Beadell (1909) the and applied it the rock NW Sudan Shendi Formation composed of continental fluvial and lacustrine facies.. This is to designate siliceous conglomeritic sandstone with substantial clays of Upper Cretaceous age and recommended that the term “NST” should commonly be used to describe a facies and therefore has no stratigraphic value. Subsequently the term “Nubian series”. In Sudan Kheiralla (1966) and Whitman (1971) used the term “Nubian sandstone” to designate (lie sediments of variegated colors lying unconformable on the basement and Paleozoic Formation comprising from conglomerates, sandstone, mudstones and overlain unconformable by Hudi Chert, the lithologcal ground Kheiralla (1966) recognized in Shendi –Khartoum area the following lithologcal types 2.2.1.1-Conglomerate This formation can be classified as pebbly Conglomerate and Intraformational Conglomerate

The conglomerates form sometimes the lower bed of Nubian sandstone formation , they are composed rounded to sub rounded pebbles cemented by silica and/or clay minerals. 2.2.1.2- sandstone This formation can be classified as Merkhyiat sandstone and Quatzose sandstone. The sandstone is mainly making up of detrital quartz , most of the sandstones are poorly cemented by silica and/or clay minerals . The grains range from fine to medium to coarse and very coarse , poorly sorted and good porosity .Sandstone intercalated with well rounded to sub rounded pebbles and interbedded with thin layers of mudstone and conglomerate . The thickness of sandstone is variable between 5-100 meters( khairalla 1966) 2.2.1.3-Mudstone The term Mudstone applies to these rocks composed of clay and silt particles. the Mudstone is widely distributed throughout the area , it occur as lenses intercalated with Sandstone as well as layers with thickness about 5 – 125 meter ,Mudstone thickness increase to the north and north east direction . Due to presences of mudstone intercalation more than one aquifer are found in the Nubian sandstone , slight artesian head resulting from presence of mudstone lenses. The mudstones are massive , moderately to well cementing by silica or iron oxide and impermeable , the Mudstone occur in whitish gray , gray , brown and yellow colors . khairalla (1966) . Kheiralla ( op.cit) asto differentiated quatzose sandstone for its non-pebbly medium t fine grained,well sorted , poor degree of rounding and small clay silt fraction suggested that might have been deposited slightly in defferent envroment The above classical lithological quatzose sandstone type of Kheiralla (1966) has been renamed as the Shendi Formation by Whiteman (1971) as type locality in the shendi district, observed within these sandstones. A subtropical to tropical climate also existed during the Albian-Santonian period, but with a more pronounced dry season (Bussert, 1998). The wide spread presence of silicified wood in sediments in central, eastern and northwestern Sudan also indicates wet tropical conditions with alternating dry and wet seasons (Le Franc and Guiraud, 1990). Schrank and Awad (1990), based on macro- and

11 microflora from the Albian to Cenomanian Omdurman Formation, also suggested a generally tropical climate. attributed lateritic deposits within the Albian– Cenomanian Omdurman, Shendi and Wadi Milk Formations to a hot humid climate. Furthermore, the iron crust or ferricrete which is widely present in the “Nubian” strata in central Sudan, suggest a wet tropical climate characterized by a long dry season Bussert (1998) reported that major vertical changes in the “Nubian lithofacies” of the central northern Sudan, from more fine-grained to more coarse-grained fluvial deposits, were influenced by a shift from a more humid to a more arid paleoclimate. 2.2.2 Hudi Chert The Hudi chert was first identified by Cox (1932) from Hudi Railway Station about40 km NE of Atbara and later studied by Andrew and Karkains(1945),Andrew(1948), Whiteman (1971) and Barth and Meienhold (1979). The Hudi chert rockswere regarded as lacustrine chalky deposits that have been silicified into chertAndrew and Karkains, 1945). The source of silica was probably from silica flowfrom the young volcanic activity of Jebel Umm-Marafieb of NW Berber Cox (1932) reported that the Hudi chert is an uppeEocene/lower Oligocene Formation, which contains some types of fossils such Gastropods and plant fossils.In this study area , cherts have been found in the mapped area NE ,E of Shendi in the albaflel ,jebl alborog and alawteeb area (underlain by the deformed Creteaous sediments. The Hudi chert is present as sub-rounded boulders, yellowish brown in color, whichrange in size from 5 to 20 cm. The rocks are very hard and fossiliferous withGastrobod fossils. 2-2-3 Superficial Deposits& Recent Sediments All the lithologies mentioned above are covered by Quaternary to Recent sediments.These sediments include gravels, sands, clays, sandy clays and silt. The alluvial deposits are very thick around the River banks consisting mainly of dark clays and clayey silt with fined-grained sands used for Cultivation. The Wadi alluvial consistsof fined to medium-grained sands, which form the middle and lower courses of the Wadis, while the upper parts are covered with unconsolidated coarse sand and fine

12 gravels. Most of the peneplain area east of the River Nile is covered with residual coarse sands and pebbles, which have been derived from the Nubian Sandstones Formation. A great part of the study area is covered with eolian wind-blown desert sands. 2.2.4 Sedimentary structure Many sedimentary structures can be seen in the study area which can be discussed in the following paragraphs: 2.2.4.1 Trough Cross- bedded sandstone lithofacies (St) This lithofacies is composed mainly of quartz, quartz pebbles, kaolinite, iron oxides with minor amount of lithic fragments and mud interclass are rounded to sub rounded well to moderately and poorly sorted and supported by moderately sorted matrix of sand, Figure 2.2. 2- Planner Cross- bedded sandstone This lithofacies is composed of quartz , kaolinite and iron oxides, with interclasts of mud , the clasts are angular sub angular , whitish in color, the dominant grain size is medium to fine with minor amount of coarse grains, the grain are moderately to well sorted somewhere showing poorly sorted grains containing root fossils. Figure 2.2. 3- Rippled sandstone This lithofacies is composed of quartz, iron oxides with fine to moderately grains, moderately to well sorted and moderately to well cemented, bioturbated rippled sandstone 4 - Massive sandstone Distinguished by the presence thin layer of iron oxides intercalations,dominated by medium to coarse and fine grain , moderately to well sorted; also mud clasts are presented in this Figure 2.2. 5 - Massive mudstone Massive mudstone lithofacies is presented on the most studied profiles as thin layers within the sections, characterized by mud cracks structure (plate1&. Figure 2.2) and Ash tray structure and it mainly kaolinitic in composition with iron oxides. This lithofacies is relatively more abundant in Umm Ali area compare with El Musawarat and El Bagrawia area. 6- Laminated sandstone

Moderately to well sorted quartz grains dominated by fine to medium grains with presence of pebbles), kaolin and iron oxide, and it’s well to moderately cemented Figure 2.2 7 - Matrix supported conglomerate Characterized by moderately sorted and well-rounded pebbles, matrix supported of coarse to medium grain sandstone. And it’s well cemented Figure 2.2 .

Figure 2.2 Sedimentary structure, Plate 1 general facies of the study area 1, 2and 5 planer Cross bedded sandstone facies (sp). 3 Massive mudstone facies (Fm). 4 Laminated sandstone facies 6 Massive sandstone facies(Sm) overlain by (Fm) massive mudstone facies, with load structure in Umm Ali area (road cut). 2.3. Tectonic Setting: During the late Proteriozoic the Central Africa Shear Zone was initiated. It can be traced from Cameron trough of Central Africa, Chad to North Kordofan in Central Sudan and

14 probably further into the Red Sea in NE Sudan representing one of the major shear zones of lithosphere weakness in Africa (Schandelmeier, et a1 1987). There fore the Central Sudan lies in the eastern part of the Central Africa Rift System which extended from Benue Trough in Nigeria to the Atbara Rift in the eastern Sudan (Browne and Fairhead 1983). Along the Central Africa Shear Zone a series of NW-SE trending transtensional basins developed in response to intermittently reactivated pre-Cambrian discontinuities (Schandelmeier, et al 1987; Jorgenson and Bosworth (1989). On the basis of geological and geophysical investigations, Bussert et al (1993); Wyeisk et al (1990) confirmed the existence of several deep (>2km) graben and half-graben structures. ‘These structures are located north of the central and northern Sudan rift segments within the region of the Central African Fault Zone (Bussert, et al 1993; Schandelmeier and Pudlo (1990) Bussert (1993) recommended that Shendi-Atbara sub-basin was formed as isolated half- graben structure during upper most .Jurassic to lower most Cretaceous time. At the beginning it was formed during north eastern extension to the west and Central Africa Rift System. This was followed by thermal-sag-phase and the basins expanded their areal extent beyond the limits of the graben structures. This outcropping sediment in the area represents the period of the basin evolution. Figure 2.3

Figure 2.3 location of rift basins in Sudan (after Browne and Fairhead1983)

CHAPTER THREE Hydrogeology 3.1 Introduction: Hydrogeology encompasses the inter relationships of geological materials and processes with water. Groundwater Basin, which is subsurface volume through which groundwater flows towards specific discharge zone. It is bounded by geological divides. The boundaries of a subsurface basin and groundwater basin may be coincides or not. Aquifers in the Sudan in order of importance are: the Nubian Sandstones Formations, Umm Ruwaba Formation, El Gezira Formation, the Alluvium deposits, and weathered and fractured Basement Complex rocks. The Nubian Sandstone Formations (Cretaceous Sedimentary rocks) occupies about 28% of the total surface area of the Sudan. Most of this formation is situated north of latitude 12°N. The Formation is either cropping out or covered by superficial deposits, Gezira Formation, Umm Ruwaba Formation or Tertiary Lavas (N.C.R. 1982). The thickness of the Nubian Sandstone Formation ranges from few meters near the Basement Complex to more than 2000 meters at its deep trough. The maximum thickness recorded from the borehole data of water wells is not exceeding 500 meters below land surface, but geophysical surveys carried out in the Nubian Sandstone Formation in different areas indicate that the thickness is more. postulated a thickness of 1680 meters at El Asal basin, which lies north of Jebel Aulia (N.C.R, 1982). Many boreholes were drilled in the Nubian Sandstone aquifer. The depths of these wells range from about 60 to about 600 meters. The water level in the Nubian Sandstone aquifer varies from basin to another, but generally ranges from few meters below the ground surface in the basins having sources of recharge (mainly in Nile and its tributaries) to more than 120 meters in the basins remote from or have no sources of recharge (N.C.R, 1982). Many researchers deal with hydrogeology of the study area. The most important of this work was carried by Kheiralla (1966), Saeed (1976), Sudanese- German Exploration project.

3.2.Water Resources Distribution in the world

Saline water in the Sea and Oceans represents 97%; land areas hold 2.8% of the total. Ice caps and glaciers hold 2.14%; deep groundwater accounts for 0.61% of the total; soil moisture, 0.005%; fresh water lakes, 0.008%.Only a small percentage of the world’s water supply is available to humans as fresh water

3.3 Water resource in Sudan: There are two main sources of water in Sudan recharged by the rain fall which include: surface water (rivers, lakes and springs) and groundwater. 3.3.1. Surface water: Due to climatic variability in the Sudan desert in the north to savannah in the center and tropical in the south it is found that the rain intensity rate varies from as well as scarce in the north to the average and prolific in the south, and the evaporation rate is gradually increasing in the direction of north. There are several sources of surface water in the Sudan, including lakes, rivers, creeks, springs, ponds. The main source of water are the rains that fall during the year, the River Nile and its branches is one of the most important surface water sources in Sudan.Factors affecting the surface water rainfall are the climate and porosity and permeability and topography of the region 3.3.2. Groundwater: Is one of the main sources for more than 80% of the population, especial for human and animal populations that live away from the Nile depends mainly on groundwater. Groundwater studies conducted in different parts of Sudan were carried out by a number of scientists such as Iskandar ( 1970-1967). 3.3.2.1 Water-Bearing Formation: There are a number of geological formations have potential groundwater storage in Sudan, including:

3.3.2.1.1 Cretaceous Sedimentary (Nubian sandstone) formation Cretaceous Sedimentary contains sufficient amount of groundwater and covers about 28% of the area of Sudan consists of sandstone, clay and silt. The drilled depths of boreholes ranges from 50 meters to 600 meters, and the depth of the water varies in those

18 wells from a few meters to 150 meters as they sometime appear in the form of springs and fountains . Water exists in the artesian condition is of good quality Iskandar (1967). 3.3.2.1.2 Umm Rauwaba formation Umm Rauwaba formation is a Tertiary sedimentary formation covers large parts of western, central and southern Sudan, about 20% of the area of Sudan. Consisting of clay, sand and gravel, and comes in productivity after Nubian sandstone formation, and reaches a depth of up to 300 meters as the water quality varied from one area to another.

3.3.2.1.3 Quaternary Sediments They represent superficial deposits sediments in the Sudan and Nile Sediments valleys. It is one of the most important groundwater bearing formation due to the high permeability and porosity for storing fresh waters. 3.3.2.2 Basement Rocks: In the last few decades, as a result of human expansion upon a limited fertile land and fresh water resources, the basement rocks are investigated extensively for groundwater resources. The term basement rocks; includes both Igneous and Metamorphic rocks. Generally they forms of compact impermeable rocks of primary porosity may not exceed 1%. But these rocks may be highly potential where the porosity my reach 45 % as in the weathering regolith and of high permeability such as in volcanic rocks due to the fracturing. The groundwater can be storage in appreciable amount in weathered rocks (regolith) or restricted to the fractures and joints. 3.4 Hydrogeology of study area 3.4.1 surface water in study area: The main sources of surface water at Shendi basin include: 3.4.1.1 River Nile: The river Nile flows through the west part of study area. It represent the main source of groundwater recharge . It has been found that the wells near the Nile characterized by a high river stage which fluctuated in the flood season. 3.4.1.2. Seasonal valleys: Wadi Alawateeb and Wadi Alhawad are the main seasonal streams that located in the region of Shendi basin . Wadi Alawateeb flows from the southeast to the northwest

19 toward the River Nile through a sedimentary rocks . While Wadi Alhawad flows parallel to wadi Alawateeb to the north west joining the river Nile at Kaboshiya. They are largest valleys that carry surface water from the high lands at the East and flows into the River Nile near Shendi, which are structurally controlled (valleys faults) .It flows over a sedimentary rocks, and represents addition recharge source of groundwater at the Eastern part of the study area, 3.5. Groundwater in the study area: 3.5.1. Aquifer lithology and thickness Lithological information are available from existing boreholes. They play significant role in delineating the aquifers extensions and thickness. The dominant rocks, in the study area are characterized by grain size range from fine to very coarse sand. Some gravel are found interbeded or mixed with sandy layers. Thick clay layers with average thickness of 40 m were found at some boreholes. The variability in lithology and structure of the rocks can be taken to characterize Nubian Sandstone formation that pointed to rapid facies changes that make to correlation of lithological units over long distances very difficult. In general groundwater found under different conditions. The thickness of saturated zone changing from one place to another. The saturated thickness generally varies from 15m to about 70 m. Figure 3.1, 3.2and 3.3 .

Figure3.1 3D model of the study area

Figure3.2 map (a) cross section (b) of the study area

Figure3.3. map (a) 3D fence diagrams (b) of the study area

3.5.1.1 Crteaceous sedimentary (Nubian sandstone) formation It is the main aquifer in the study area consists of sandstone, clay and silt. The total depth of water level tapped by the drilled wells ranges from 50 meters to 300 meters, and the depth of the water varies in those wells from a few meters to 100 meters. 3.5.1.2 Recent sediment They are represented as superficial deposits ( Nile & valleys Sediments). It is one of the most important shallow aquifers. Their depths are about 20 m and characterized by high permeability and porosity and yield fresh waters. 3.5.2 Aquifer Characteristics: In the study area four layers with two aquifer were considered namely upper and lower aquifers separated by impermeable geological formations. The lower aquifer was assumed to be confined, unconfined with thickness varies from 15 to 70 m. The upper aquifer thichness (second layer) varies from 5 to 30 m. The Nubian Sandstone Formation is the predominant geological formation in the study area. This Formation composes of Sandstones, Mudstones and conglomerates covered by recent deposits. Most of the Sandstones are poorly cemented. The grains are coarse and moderately to poorly sorted giving the rock the property of relatively good porosity. Due to the existence of mudstones and clays intercalations, more than one aquifer is encountered (Fig,3.1). The artesian conditions are prevailing in the area under investigation, that as a result of presence of thick mudstones and clay beds confining the poorly cemented sandstones. The later constitutes the main water bearing horizon with thickness increases to the west of the study area. 3.5.3 Hydraulic head in the study area: The hydraulic head reaches from 315 m to 359 m at the average level of 339.8 meters(a.m.s.l). Head variation is depicted that hydraulic gradient decreases gradually with distance from south east to east ,figure 3-4.

Figure3.4 Hydraulic head in the study area.

3.5.5 Aquifer Properties The purpose of groundwater observation wells network to monitor the quantity of groundwater reservoir. Keeping in view the regional and local requirements, the planning and design of such a net work sholud depend on hydrogeological situations, purpose of investigations, stage of development as well as political and social demands (Fetter, 1994). In order to determine the hydrogeologic characteristics of the aquifer, pumping test has been carried out at several localities. Pumping test data used in this part are

25 collected from the Almewal Alzahapy company activities in the area. The following methods were used to the interpretation of the collected data: Thies,(1935), Figure3.5 Cooper and Jacob methods (fig 3.5)& Figure3.6 were applied for the unsteady- state flow in confined aquifer methods for estimating the coefficient of tramnmissivity (T) and the storage (S). Hydraulic conductivity (K), transmissivity (T), and storartivity (S), are the most important properties of aquifer in relation to its ability to store and transport the under groundwater.

Figure3.5 Pumping test result calculation using Theis method

Figure3.6 Pumping test result calculation using cooper & jacob method

Figure3.7 Pumping test result calculation using cooper & jacob method

Algyada well thickness of aquifer40m T= 267m2/d K = 5.67 m/d

3.5.5.1Hydraulic conductivity (K) Hydraulic conductivity K is the ratio of flow velocity to the driving force of water under saturated conditions in porous medium. Also it is defined as the quantity of water flowing in one unit time through a face of unit area, under a driving force of one unit of hydraulic head change per unit length. It,s express by meter/day. In the study area (K) ranges between to 2.5 and 5.58 m/d 3.5.5.2 Transmissivity (T) Transmissivity (T) is the rate of flow of water through avertical strip of aquifer one unit wide, and extending the full saturated thickness of the aquifer. Transmissivity is equal to the product of hydraulic conductivity and formation saturated thickness. It,s express by meter square / day. Transmissivity values obtained by recovery test are more accurate compared to those obtained by draw down tests, Kruseman and Deridder, (1970).in the study area (T) range between 50 and 390 m2/d .

3.5.5.3Storativty Storatvity (S) is the volume of water that an aquifer releases or intakes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer under unit change in hydraulic head normal to that surface( Kruseman and Deridder, 1970). In the study area the storage coefficient (S) ranges between 0.12- 0.15. The results of pumping tests data are shown in Table (3-1). The magnitude and spatial distribution of the aquifer parameters is described as follow: Table 3.1. The result of pumping test. Well Name Method Theis Cooper& Jacob Parameter T K S T K S

Seef project 1 1.86x102 6.54x100 5.23x10-4 2.56x102 8.54x100 9.11x10-5 Alaang project 2 3.08x101 1.03x100 1.14x10-4 3.08x10 1.03x100 1.2x10-4 Shaty prject 3 1.56x101 6.2x10-1 1.45x10-4 3.89x101 3.56x100 5.0x10-1 Shendi b24 4 4.83x100 1.3x10-1 5.0x10-1 1.95x102 7.82x100 5.x10-1 Banat alahamda 5 2.08x101 8.30x10-1 1.20x10-4 1.73x103 6.91x101 5.0x10-1 Umeshair north 6 1.86x101 7.43x10-1 5.00x10-1 6.50x102 2.6x101 5.0x10-1 Glleaa mostafa 7 2.93x101 7.33x10-1 1.17x10-1 1.27x103 3.17x101 5.0x10-1 alshekhab 8 1.99x102 4.97x100 1.00x10-6 3.44x103 8.60x101 5.0x10-1 Mesaiktab oshara 9 2.78x101 5.51x10-1 5.0x10-1 8.84x102 1.77x101 5.0x10-1 algyada 10 1.82x1 4.56x10-1 5.0x10-1 2.2x102 5.67x100 5.0x10-1

CHAPTER FOUR Groundwater Modeling (Shendi Basin Case Study) 4.1 Introduction Groundwater modeling has become a major part of many projects dealing with groundwater assessment, management, exploitation, protection and remediation. It is essential, however, that for any groundwater model, it should be interpreted and used properly, and its limitations should be understood. In addition to strictly “technical” limitations, such as accuracy of computations (hardware / software), the following is true for any model (Anderson & Woessner 1992):  It is based on various assumptions regarding the real natural system being modeled.  Hydrogeologic and hydrologic parameters used by the model are always just an approximation of their actual field distribution, which can never be determined with exact accuracy.  Theoretical differential equations describing groundwater flow are replaced with system of algebraic equations that are more or less accurate. It is therefore obvious that a model will be as reliable and “good” as its developer, and that it cannot be miss- used as long as all the limitations involved are clearly stated .many computer codes had been built based on partial differential equations for groundwater dynamic and solute transport to solve different groundwater problems. Modular Groundwater flow model such as MODFLOW software is popular and Universally used for groundwater system. 4.2 Visual MODFLOW: Visual MODFLOW is the sub sequent version of MODFLOW currently the most standard used numerical model for groundwater flow problems. It is developed by the U.S. geological survey for three-dimensional, block-centered finite difference groundwater flow. It is capable to simulate subsurface conditions such as steady state or transient flow, confined or unconfined aquifers. Visual MODFLOW is the most complete environment for practical applications in contaminant transport model simulation. MODFLOW was originally the three-dimensional groundwater

29 flow and developed to simulate saturated flow in a porous media with uniform temperature and density. Previously, Visual MODFLOW cannot simulate multiphase flow; flow in unsaturated zone, flow in fractured media (unless it can be considered to be an equivalent porous media), density dependent flow, or an aquifer with varying anisotropy conditions, but now it is highly improved. On applying Visual MODFLOW, the model grid can be uniformed or variables. Hence, the model can simulate steady and transient flow in regularly and irregularly shaped flow system in which aquifer layers can be confined, unconfined, or combination of both. Flow from external stresses, such as flow to wells, areal recharge, evapotranspiration, flow to drains, and flow through riverbed, can be simulated. Hydraulic conductivities or transmissivities for any layer may differ spatially and can be anisotropy, and the storage coefficient may be spatially heterogeneous. Trasmissivity of each layer can be determined, although the saturated thickness cannot be specified but only can be determined indirectly. Specified heads and specified flux boundaries can be simulated as can a head dependent flux across the model outer boundary that allows water to be supplied to a boundary block in the model area at a rate proportional to the current head difference between a “source” of water out side the model area and the boundary block. Visual MODFLOW combines MODFLOW, MODPATH, Zone Budget, MT3D and PEST as integrated package.

4.3 Model Grid and Layers: The geographic boundaries of the model grid must be determined by using a base map. A finite difference grid was then superimposed over the whole area that designed and constructed, based on the simplifications of a conceptual model, to represent the physical properties of groundwater system. In plan view the blocks are made from a uniform grid or variably paced grids and a number of layers that can have varying thickness. Then a grid network, that composed of 90 rows, 80 columns, 4 layers and 28800 cells were used to cover the model area Figure4.1 .

Figure4.1 Model Construction Calibration and Results 4.4 Model Input Data Model input data are essential to complete the model constructions. These parameters include: 4.4.1Aquifer type In the study area four layers with two aquifer were considered namely upper and lower aquifers separated by impermeable geological formations. The lower aquifer was assumed to be confined, with thickness varies from 27 to 74 m. The upper aquifer thickness (second layer) varies from 24 to 96 m. The depth to groundwater table varies from 15 to 81 m below the surface. 4.4.2Observation wells Observation wells were used for monitoring groundwater heads during model simulations to reveal the water level distributions in the model area. There were seventeen (17) observation wells used in the model area Figure4.2 where the water level measurement taken at the year 2014.

Figure4.2 Observation wells distribution of study area

4.4.3 Groundwater Discharge Groundwater abstraction, and evapotranspirations were the main source of discharge. Therefore, groundwater pumpage represent the main source of discharge. Number of 76 wells were used to discharge water from the to aquifer in the model area Figure4.3 .

Figure4.3 pumping well distribution of study area

4.4.4 groundwater Recharge The main Nile and seasonal streams were assumed to be the main source of recharge to the aquifers in the area, whereas the direct precipitation (semi arid) and natural subsurface flow represent additional source of recharge. 4.4.5 Hydraulic Properties The hydraulic conductivity value of 2.5 and 5.58 m/d were assigned for upper and lower aquifer respectively, whereas, the specific coefficient values of 0.000124 and 0.00131 were considered for upper and lower aquifer respectively in the model domain. The storage coefficient value of 0.12, effective porosity of 0.17 and total porosity of 0.22 were assigned to the upper aquifer. On the other hand, storage coefficient of 0.15,

33 effective porosity of 0.23 and total porosity of 0.28 were assigned to the lower aquifer for model simulation. 4.4.6 Initial Condition The initial conditions are simply the values of the dependent variable (water head) specified everywhere inside the model domain or boundary at the time zero of measurements. The measured heads in the observation wells at the year 2014 were used as initial head distribution for the model simulation. 4.4.7 Boundary Condition The bottom of the aquifer and the western side of the model area were considered as No flow boundaries. the top of the aquifer as the variable head boundary, where flow may enter the model as a recharge from the main river Nile (Fig.4.4) seasonal stream and direct precipitations.. The southern, eastern and northern sides of the model were taken as General head boundary(GHB) of 331, 328 and 322 m, a.s.l for upper aquifer respectively .whereas GHB of 328, 322 and 321 m, a.s.l were assigned to the southern, eastern and northern sides of lower aquifer respectively Figure4.4

Figure4.4 Boundary Condition of study area 4.3 Model Calibration Model calibration is a process of finding a set of boundary conditions, stresses, and hydrogeologic parameters, which produce the result that most closely matches field measurements of hydraulic heads, fluxes and concentrations. Calibration of every model should have the target of an acceptable error set beforehand. Its range well depend mainly on the model purpose. For example, a groundwater flow model for evaluation of a regional aquifer system can sometimes “tolerate” a difference between calculated and measured heads of up to several feet. This however, would be an unacceptable error in the case of a model for design of contaminant and cleanup of a contaminant plume spread over, say, fifty acres.

In many instances the quality of calibration will depend on the amount and reliability of available field data. It is therefore crucial to assess these field data, or calibration data set, for their consistency, homogeneity and measurement error. Such assessment is the basis for setting the calibration target. For model calibration both automatic and trail-an-error calibration technique can be used, Figure4.5.The trial and error procedure are time consuming, especially when the numbers of unknown parameters are large. A prior calibration targets and criteria have been adopted based on the discrepancies between the measured and the simulated groundwater heads at Seventeen (17) groundwater observation wells Figure4.2 . Generally, the errors in the model area are considered randomly distributed throughout the model domain. The groundwater model application for shendi basin was run in steady state condition using trail-and- error techniques, after all required boundary conditions, hydrogeologic, hydrologic, geologic and stratigraphic data had been assigned. During earlier stages of model calibration, an adjustment of the general head boundary, river stage, riverbed, conductance, pumping rates, and recharge was performed to minimize the discrepancy between the observed and simulated heads. The aquifer hydraulic conductivity, storage coefficient and specific yield considered being constant of each zone for the entire period. However, other hydrologic parameters are time dependent such as recharge, pumping, evapotranspiration, and constant head boundaries. The main calibration targets are heads and mass balances.

Figure4.5 Manual and automatic calibration techniques of numeric modeling(After Adil Elkrail 2004) 4.5.1 Calibration Statistics Statistical analysis was performed by visual MODFLOW after manual Trail-and-Error adjustment to the selected input parameters. Different criteria were used by visual MODFLOW as a measure of the fit between the simulated results and the observed data were summarized below: Calibration Residual is defined as the difference between the calculated results and the observed results as: 1 n R  (X cal  X obs )i (4.1) n i1

Where R is the Residual, n is the number of Residual, X cal is the calculated

37 value and X obs is the observed value of a data series.Root Mean Squared error is defined by the equation:

n 1 2 RMS   Ri (4.2) n i1 Normalized Mean Squared Residual is the root mean squared error divided by maximum difference in the observed head values, i.e.: RMS NormalizedRMS  (4.3) (X obs ) max  (X obs ) min

Residual Mean ( R ) is a measure of the average Residual value defined by the equation:  1 n R   Ri (4.4) n i1

Note that the Residual Mean should never be used by itself as a measure of the fit between the simulated results and the observed data, because over-estimated and under- estimated values negate each other and produce a residual mean value close to zero which can lead to false interpretation of the model calibration. Mean Absolute error ( R ) is a measure of the average absolute residual value defined by

the equation: 1 n R   Ri (4.5) n i1 Standard Error of the Estimate (SEE) is a measure of the standard deviation of the estimate and is expressed by the equation:

1 n (R  R)2 n 1 i SEE  i1 (4.6) n

4.6 Model Results The calibration of the three dimensional finite difference steady state flow model of the study area was run and performed using the Root Mean Squired Error (RMS), Absolute

Residual Mean (A.R.M), Normalized (RMS) and mass balance percent discrepancy. The model calibration criteria such as absolute residual mean (A.R.M), root mean square error (RMS) and mass balance error of water into and out of the system were adjusted to less than 0.201 m, 0.317 m and 0.73% respectively Figure4.6

(Figure4.6) Observed Head steady state

However the calibration will be more acceptable with (RMS) of 0.317 m and average absolute residual mean (ARM) of 0.201m and average normalized root mean square (NRMS) of 0.73 %. the contour map of the simulated heads were drawn using visual MODFLOW post- processing tool Figure4.7

The contour lines were closer at the west showing recharge from the Nile towards the east with steep hydraulic gradient. Water heads decreasing towards the east and inside towards the center forming cone of depression which is considered to be due to heavy pumping. The general flow direction as depicted from the piezometric surface map is from the west to the east, confirming the natural aquifer recharge from the River Nile Figure4.7 . The model show that the contour lines shape and spacing is proportional to the pumping, hence an acceptable calibration were obtained and the model can be used for prediction.

Figure4.7 bisometric surface map the study area

Figure4.8 General flow direction in the study area 4.7 Zone Budget Based on general hydro-geologic principles, a groundwater budget was prepared to estimate the amount of groundwater inflow, out flow and changing in storage. The field – estimated inflows may include groundwater recharge from precipitation, overland flow, subsurface base flow along the boundaries, or recharge from surface water bodies. Outflows may include spring flow, base flow, evapotranspiration and pumping. A water budget should be prepared from the field data to summarize the magnitudes of these flows and changes in storage. Generally the visual MODFLOW computes flow-rate and cumulative budget balance from each type of inflow and outflow for each time step for the whole area and does not report the cumulative budget for other individual zones, which are required for long –

41 term estimation. The zone budget was calculated for steady state model simulation for the whole model domain (Table 4.1). The volume of water in cubic meter per day (m3/d) and its percentage was calculated for each component of the hydrologic budget. Recharge is the most important hydrologic component of inflow to the aquifer, which is able to offset the groundwater extraction from the aquifer. The total volume of the aquifer inflow is amount to 196896.11 m3/d. Moreover the total volume of the aquifer outflow is amount to 196909 m3/d (Table 4.1). Groundwater pumping volume through production wells in the entire area computed by the model is of 101007.80 m3/d throughout the simulation period, which represent 51.3% of the total outflow from the aquifer (Table4.1). The subsurface inflow through the GHB is amount to 40337.8 m3/day , represents 20.5% from the total inflow. The river recharge to the aquifer as subsurface inflow is amount to 146291.19 representing74.3 % of the total inflow. The recharge water volume from direct precipitation is 10267.12 m3/d and represent 5.2% of the total inflow. The subsurface outflow from the river is amount to 95901.21 m3/day and represent 48.7 % from the total outflow. Finally, the descripancy between inflow and outflow amount to -12.89 m33/day which reprens 0.01% Table 4.1 Cumulative budget for the model area

Component Inflow (m3/day) % Outflow (m3/day) % Difference

Wells Discharge - 101007.80 51.3

Recharge 10267.12 5.2 -

River leakage 146291.19 74.3 -

GHB 40337.80 20.5 95901.21 48.7

Total 196896.11 100 196909.00 100 -12.89

CHAPTER FIVE Hydrochemistry of groundwater

5.1 Introduction The study of the hydrochemical characteristics of the groundwater system has become more meaningful and an integral part of hydrogeology. The aim of these studies is to evaluate the hydro chemical composition of the groundwater in the area under consideration and to establish the relation between the direction of groundwater flow and change in groundwater compositions, and to assess the suitable groundwater for domestic uses . The study depend on 71 samples , the selected samples cover a whole area under consideration., As water moves through sediments, its composition is modified by dissolution, leaching, precipitation ion exchange, and impact of agriculture's and urbanization, (Ahmed, & Ali. 2009). The water is the greater solvate in nature. It can dissolve many salts and elements in different grades, due to unusual atomic composition for water molecule that is composed of two Hydrogens affinities with Oxygen in dipolar structure. The physical and chemical properties of water determine its usefulness for industry, agriculture and domestic uses especially the potability of drinking water. Water quality studies generate large amounts of data describing different parameters obtained in the field and analyzed in the laboratories. The first stage in data processing is to organize the data into tables then by spatial distribution of hydrochemical cation and anion ,to detect water facies methods for collection and analysis of water samples: Collection of water samples water samples were collected from a number of production wells evenly distributed through out the study area. Water sample can be collected in 1 liter volume plastic bottle . Each sample bottle was labelled which designating the coordinates, date of sampling location point EC and

43 pH were immediately measured in the field Figure5.1

Figure5.1 well Location map

5.2Physio-chemical parameters The hydro physical properties of the water in the study area were measured in the field Physical parameters such as electrical conductivity (E.C) temperature, measured in situ with a portable kit (E.C-Meter). Also Color, taste and odor were measured

5.2.1Color: The color of drinking water is usually due to the presence of iron and natural impurities or as corrosion products. To detect color change we compare water sample with the pure distilled water or chloroform. The groundwater in the study area is clear and pure. 5.2.2Taste and Odor: Taste and odor originate from natural and biological sources or process from contamination. Taste and odor may also develop during storage in aquifer. To check odor and taste we smell and taste the water sample respectively. In the study area test in few wells are detected in umhatab area and south Shendi area 5.2.3Temperature The temperature was determined usually in the field by thermometers. The results were expressed in degree centigrade(C°). The Temperature of Groundwater in the study area ranges between 25 C° to 30 C°. 5.2.4 Turbidity The amount of solid particles that are suspended in water and that cause light rays shining through the water to scatter. Thus, turbidity makes the water cloud or even opaque in extreme cases. However, water from boreholes is not turbid, except from open wells or new well left from drilling fluid . 5.3 Chemical properties: The major Groundwater Chemical species include; Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Bicarbonate, Chloride and Sulfate, Nitrate, Nitrite . In the study area local ions concentrations are due to the variation of local geological conditions at which the mineral compositions of rocks, rock type, Basement rocks, limestone, clay and kaolin play the great role for the natural contaminations. 5.3.1Electrical Conductivity (EC) This is a measure of the ability of water to conduct an electrical current. It is highly dependent on the amount of dissolved solids (mainly salts) in solution (water). Pure water such as distilled water has a negligible or very low EC, while sea water has a high EC. Rain water often dissolves airborne gasses and dust and thus will have an EC higher relative to distilled water. EC is an important water quality factor because it gives a good indicator for the amount of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the water.

The electrical conductivity EC is measured immediately in the field during Sample collection. Electrical conductance apparatus are used and the EC are measured in μs/cm. the electrical conductivity increasing toward the eastern(in umhatab area ),southern boundaries Figure 5.2, 5.3, table 5.1. There for, electric conductivity cannot be simple related to ion concentrations or dissolved solids (Hem, 1970). However, the (EC) range from 200 to 6500 μs/cm(table) in most of the study area groundwater is good for drinking and irrigation. Few quality hazards were detected in some localities.

Table 5.1 :EC standard classification

Ec*106 µs/cm Water class

100-250 Low 250-750 Medium 750-2250 High

>2250 v.high

9000.00 8000.00 7000.00 6000.00 5000.00 Ec 4000.00 3000.00 2000.00 1000.00

0.00

abdtab

hmrany

altragma

wadgnga

alkofonga

almrekhab

m.oproject

sardya west

alshatyproj.

hoshbanaga

kamal no ( ) 1

alzhraano(1)

Elmikhaimram

almakageeb 1

deamumm trafi

gornabeneber & goosalhag nourth

omer. A project wel1 Figure5.2 Hydrograph of EC in the study area

Figure5.3 Spatial distribution of EC in the study are

5.3.2Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

The total dissolved solids (TDS) in water sample include all solid materials in solution whether ionized or not ionized , It does include suspended sediments, colloids , or dissolved gases . If all dissolved solids were determined accurately by chemical tests, the TDS will be the sum of these constituents. The total dissolved solids (TDS) are expressed as milligram per liter (mg/l) or part per million (ppm)

The simplest classification of water is based on the total concentration of dissolved solids. The classification used in this study is similar to a classification suggested by Gorrell, (1958), Fetter, (1990). The total dissolved solids (TDS), in the study area as salinity is very high reaching 5200 mg/l of Nubian sandstone aquifers ranging depth from 90m to 150meter at higher depth (more than 180 meter ) the TDS is medium (700-1000 ppm) in Umhatab and Altmeed area also Shawn in south west (Alzakyab area) at shallow depth of 30 to 50 meter, A concentration of 1000 ppm of total dissolved solids in drinking water is permissible while above 1000 is not recommended. 61 water samples were analyzed in the study area. 89% of samples within permissible limit ranging between( 99.4- 913 ppm) while 11% above the permissible limit (1100.-4389 ppm). In study area the TDS generally ranges from 99.4ppm to 5200 ppm, which means that groundwater in the study area is three types of saline water light in the region and increasing the concentration of salts in the areas of moderation, as shown in the map of medium to high salinity also show the maximum value of the total dissolved solid in east and south west of the map ( Um hateb Village Beer AlBasha and Alzakyab area. Figure5.4, 5.5, & table 5.2.

5000.00

4000.00

3000.00

T.D.S 2000.00

1000.00

0.00 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 WELLS number

Figure5.4 Hydrograph of total dissolved solid( T.D.S ) in the study area.

Figure5.5 Spatial distribution of T.D.S in the study are

Table 5.2 : Salinity Standard Classification adopted in Sudan chemical laboratory.

TDS ppm Classification

200 – 500 Slightly saline

500 – 1800 Moderately saline

1800 – 5000 Very saline

More than 5000 Extremely saline

5.6 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

The pH of water samples are measured by portable instrument called PH meter. The result was expressed in PH unit. PH range from 0 to 14: from 0 to 7 that Means water is acidic and from 7 to14, that water is alkaline. However, groundwater in the study area has PH units ranging between 6.74 and 8.9. indicating that the water in the study area is maly alkaline and with a rang suitable water for drinking Figure 5. 6.

Figure5.6 Spatial distribution of pH in the study area.

5.3.4 Total Hardness (TH):

The hardness of water is expressed in terms of the amount of Calcium Carbonate, the principal constituent of limestone or equivalent minerals that would be formed if the water were evaporated (Fetter, 1990). Total hardness TH was determined by titration with EDETA (ethylene diamine tetra acidic acid), and expressed in ppm. The total hardness in study area varies from 49 to 950 ppm. In the study area TH is classified as very hard water in the East region and South West Figure5.7, 5.8 & table 5.3 Table 5.3 :TH standard classification Water class Hardness mg/l as coco3 Soft 0-75 Moderately hard 75-150 Hard 150-300 Very Hard >300

1000

800

600 Total Hardness 400

200

0 1 4 7 101316192225283134374043464952555861646770 Figure5.7 Hydrograph of total hardness in the study area.

(Figure5.8 Spatial distribution of total hardness (TH) value in the study area.

5.3.5 Major cations: - + 5.3.5.1 Sodium (Na ): Sodium enrichment occurs as a result of leaching of the weathered feldspar and clay mineral. Sodium has no smell but it can be tasted by most people at concentrations of 200 milligrams per liter (mg/L) or more., An increase in sodium in groundwater above ambient or natural levels may indicate pollution from point or non-point sources or salt water intrusion. All groundwater contains some sodium because most rocks and soils contain sodium compounds from which sodium is easily dissolved. The most common sources of elevated sodium levels in groundwater may be by erosion of salt deposits and

52 sodium bearing rock minerals. Irrigation or precipitation of leaching through soils high in sodium. A concentration of 200 mg/l of sodium in drinking water is permissible while above 200 mg/l is not recommended. 70 samples were analyzed in the study area. 89% of samples within permissible limit ranging between( 12.9-197.8) while 11% above the permissible limit (221.5-489.5 ppm ). In the study area Sodium is high concentration in south west and west of the study area Figure 5.9 & 5.10 .

1400 1200 1000 800

Na Na 600 400 200 0 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 wells number

Figure5.9 Hydrograph of sodium value in the study area

Figure5.10 Spatial distribution of sodium value in the study area.

5.3.5. Potassium (K) Although potassium is one of abundant element in the earth. Its concentration in most natural water rarely exceeds 20 mg/l probably because most potassium (K) bearing minerals are resistant to decomposition by weathering . Potassium is commonly associated with Na in its distribution in water . In the study area potassium (K) is almost ranging between ( 1-20ppm)

25.00

20.00

15.00

K 10.00

5.00

0.00 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70

Figure 5.11 Hydrograph of potassium value in the study area.

5.3.5.3 Calcium (Ca) Calcium content is very common in groundwater because They are available in most of the rocks , abundantly and directly related to hardness. Calcium usually occurs in water as HCO , CO and SO although in high salinity water CaCl and CaNO can also be 3 3 4 2 3 found. Ca enters the water mainly through the dissolution of the carbonate rocks. The WHO recommended maximum level of (200 ppm) permissible limit. Although there is no health objection to high content of Ca in drinking water. In the study area calcium concentration varies between 5 to 214 ppm. All analyzed samples are within the permissible limits. Relatively high concentration was detected in the east part of study area Figure 5.12.

Figure5.12 Spatial Distribution of calcium value in the study area.

5.3.5.4Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium usually occurs in low concentration than calcium due to the fact that the dissolution of magnesium rich minerals is relatively slow . The maximum allowable level of magnesium is 150 mg /l. Excessive of magnesium are undesired in domestic water uses (hardness) . If the concentration of calcium and magnesium in drinking water is more than the permissible limit, it causes unpleasant taste to the water. In study area magnesium concentration varies between 2 to 123 ppm Figure ( 5.14) & ( 5.15) .

140 120 100 80

Mg 60 Mg 40 20 0 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 wells

Figure5.13 Histogram of Magnesium ion concentration in the study are

Figure5.14 The spatial Distribution of magnesium value in the study area.

5.3.6 Major Anions: 5.3.6.1 Carbonates & Bicarbonate:

The main source of CO3 and HCO3 is the atmosphere and the soil. The concentration of Carbonates & Bicarbonate in the study area is attributed to the Kankar minerals that are very common in the lithology of boreholes,. The primary source of CO3 – and HCO3 ions in groundwater is the dissolved CO2 carried by rainwater that on entering in the soil dissolves more CO2 . HCO3 groundwater the permissible (>250 mg/l) limit . Both CO3 - and HCO3 contribute to the alkalinity of the unpleasant taste to water. Normally in natural water as the pH value ranges from 7.0-8.0 would contain much more bicarbonates than carbonates (Chow 1964). Alkalinity of the circulating water is mainly responsible for the increase concentration of fluoride. In study area bicarbonates concentration varies between 109 to 915 ppm mainly samples within the permissible limits . Relatively high concentration were detected in the south and south west of the study area Figure 5.15.

Figure5.15 The spatial Distribution of Bicarbonates value in the study area.

5.3.6.2 Chloride: The chloride concentration due to domestic sewage , fertilizers applications and/or leaching from upper soil layers in semi arid climates . Small amounts of chlorides are required for normal cell functions in plant and animal life . Chloride permissible limit (<250 mg/l) . The Cl combination which commonly with and less with Ca and Mg are very stable in water and lesser with Ca and Mg. In the study area chloride concentration varies between 4.2 to 745.5 ppm. High concentration were detected at the eastern part of study area Figure 5.16 .

Figure5.16 The spatial distribution of Chlorides value in the study area.

5.3.6.3 Sulphate: Sulphate occurs naturally in water due to leaching from gypsum, other common minerals and discharge of domestic sewage tends to increase its concentration. Sulphate are related to the types of minerals in the soil and bedrock . Sulfur in the form of sulphate is an essential plant nutrient and is considered toxic to plants or animals at lower concentration, but at higher concentrations, it imparts a bitter taste and may cause laxative effects. In the study area the concentration of Sulphate ranges between 1- 370ppm and maximum concentration is190- 370 ppm,in south Shendi(Alsaama and Alnagaa Almoswrat area Figure 17 .

Figure5.17 The Sulphates value in the study area.

- 5.3.6.4 Nitrates (NO 3): The main source of nitrate and nitrite from Nitrates or nitrogen fertilizer is a chemical element in the rapid decay of water that has the symbol NO3. Its primary sources are fertilizers, water sewage and animal dung. Consisting of nitrates naturally in the environment, in piles of dung, soil, fresh water layer in the atmosphere pesticides of agriculture. The concentrations of nitrate in the study area ranges from .04 -42.2 ppm, with some high concentration records in some loaclities in the study area such as Alobeid and Sheraesha area eastern part of study area Figure 5.19 . Concentrations of nitrite in the study was range from 0.003 to 1.313 ppm the average concentration .658 ppm Figure 5.18

Figure5.18 Spatial Distribution of nitrite value in the study area

Figure5.19 Spatial Distribution of nitrate value in the study area

5.3.6.5 Fluoride fluride occurs naturally in water due to leaching from weather baesment, other common minerals and discharge of domestic sewage tends to increase its concentration. fluride are related to the types of minerals in the soil and bedrock . concentration of fluride in the study area ranges between .2-2.06 ppm south Shendi(Alsaama and alzakyab area) Figure 20.& 5.21 .

2.5 2 1.5 1

0.5 Series1 Fluorait ppm 0 1 5 9 131721252933374145495357616569 well Noumber

Figure5.20 Hydrograph of Flourite in the study area

Figure5.21 Spatial Distribution of Flourite in the study area 5.4 Piper diagram:

According to Piper (1949), the hydrofacies of groundwater in the study area are revealed from the Trilinear diagram also called (piper diagram). It was used in figure 22 to classify the groundwater of the study area. There are two

63 types of groundwater facies in study area ,namely; Calcium- Bicarbonte and Sodium –Potassium -Bicarbonate water types Figure 22

Figure5.22Piper Diagram for water type Classifications

5.5. Stiff Diagram: According to Stiff (1951) diagram Figure 5.23 the groundwater in the study area is a Bicarbonate sodium and potassium facies, and mixed facies.

Figure5.23 stiff Diagram for water type Classifications

5.5 Groundwater suitability and uses The quality of ground water is a measure of its suitability for human and consumption and agricultural and industrial purposes. The last one it neglegtable in this research due to few active industries in the area. However, classification of water according to possible uses is more important.Table 5.2 : Salinity Standard Classification adopted in sudan chemical laboratory.

5.5.1 Sutability for drinking Drinking water standards are based on two criteria: 1- The presence of objectionable taste, odour,or color,and 2- The presence of substances with adverse physiological effects. However, standard for drinking water limits varies from one country to another. Accordinglly the groundwater in the study area is good for human consumption, depends largely on the standards used in that country. According to comparison between Sudanese with World Health Organization (WHO .2002) standards Table5.3 . Table 5.3 : comparison between WHO with water in the study area

Item Groundwater in study area WHO standard pH 6.74 -8.9 6.5- 8.5 unit TDS 99.40 -4396 1000 mg/l TH 49 - 950 500 mg/l Ca 9.2 -214 200 mg/l K 1.06 -19.85 200 mg/l Na 12.9 - 1215 200 mg/l Mg 1.92 - 122.95 150 mg/l Cl 10.65 -571.55 250 mg/l SO4 1 370- 200-400 mg/l HCO3 122 -915 240 mg/l

NO3 0- 42.24 50 mg/l

CHAPTER SIX Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1 Conclusion: Ground water resource is the controlling factor in the development of any areas. These resources are of vital importance for industrial, irrigation and livestocks. shendi locality is located in North central Sudan at the eastern bank of the river Nile. between longitudes 33° 21´ E and 34° 043´E and latitudes 16° 20´ N and 17° 22´N The land surface of the study area is largely a plain of low relief The main geological units in the study area are Precambrian Basement complex almost totally covered by Mesozoic to recent sedimentary sequence, The Basement complex includes metamorphosed sedimentary, plutonic rocks. The Nubian sand stone series consisting of a flat laying sequence unconsolidated gravels; sand, sandy clay and clays are common. The superficial and clay plains deposits consist of laminated, compacted clay, silt, sandy clay and clayey.From the geological studies the groundwater storage is controlled by the rock types and their major structures. The main water bearing formation in study area is the Nubian sand stone. Groundwater occurs in one main confined aquifer type. The main recharge source of groundwater in shallow aquifers in the study area is the infiltration from rainfall. The deep groundwater aquifers are recharged from the regional groundwater regime and from the river Nile. The hydraulic conductivity (K) ranges between 2.5 and 5.58 m/d while Transmissivity (T) range is 50 and 390 m2/d From Basement rocks, the kanker, kaoline, and clay minerals dominate which increase ion concentrations in groundwater quality. From the TDS map groundwater quality is fresh of good quality in north and west part of the study area

There are two types of groundwater facies in study area ,namely; Calcium- Bicarbonte and Sodium –Potassium -Bicarbonate water type according to Piper diagram Classification.

Groundwater quality at different locations shows that it is potable for safe Drinking, Suitable for agricultural purposes, except at few locations.

6.2Recommendation: Based on the conclusions of the research and to improve the water utilization conditions in the study area and with regard to Groundwater conditions it is recommended that:

- Establishment of a monitoring program for groundwater quality in the boreholes

- For long term studies appropriate observation wells supplemented with automatic water level recorders are needed.

-Develop integrated water resource planning among the different categories of users considering the water demands during rainy and dry season in Alhubaje Alhogna area.

-In the eastern part of the study area, boreholes should be drilled deeper than 180 and made proper cementing for upper aquifer.

-in the southern part of study area drilling should be less than 30m

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Appendix Appendix 1 borehole short information

NO well me lat long S.W.L

1 p. krty 16.846 33.696 33 2 gos alhag 16.834 33.682 26 3 breerab 16.832 33.68 24 4 p. seef 16.686 33.596 34.38 6 p. rggd 16.58 33.724 73 7 giad 16.505 33.802 71 8 dleeg 16.426 33.801 75 9 abo khleaf 16.304 33.958 83 10 wad hmad 16.157 34.049 85.7 11 gheed 16.211 34.058 80.25 12 shraesha 16.384 34.059 70.25 13 hmrany 16.472 33.972 60 14 msllmab 16.551 33.92 48.8 15 um htab khlfa 16.604 33.908 49 16 gleeah 16.662 33.428 14.2 17 fgega 16.649 33.297 13 18 alslam alnor 16.62 33.273 12 19 blplab 16.607 33.221 16 20 deem um traefy 16.561 33.166 12 21 awteeb 16.537 33.155 9 22 mseektab 16.725 33.505 16 23 atra 16.744 33.542 18 24 altragma 16.75 33.569 19 25 alawddab 17.112 33.76 35 26 gbaty 17.198 33.78 25 27 alaayab 17.299 33.864 23 28 shendi sq 8 1 40.625 3325.454 14 29 alaang proj. 16.61461 33.35389 36 30 umashera nourth 16.74656 33.85253 39 31 alshaty proj. 16.88372 33.77094 42 32 shendi sq5 16.68583 33.439 11 36 shendi sq18 16.68583 33.439 15 38 shendi sq44 16.67525 33.44278 14 39 shendi hospitel 16.67228 33.44819 15 40 shendi sq44 16.67311 33.45453 14 41 algleah mustfa 16.66008 33.40644 14.3 42 greesh east 16.66058 33.40733 14.6 43 algleah algoos 16.67092 33.38153 11.2 44 alber&altagwa 16.66258 33.36953 17 45 hosh banaga 16.66194 33.35211 20 47 bant alahamda 16.65175 33.33628 18.1 48 aldweealdweematmat 16.65753 33.31547 16.55 49 alengaz 16.65806 33.36407 17.5 50 algeyada 16.7094 33.44261 14.2 51 alshgalwaalnoorab 16.71941 33.46297 15 52 almesaktab alaoshra 16.71551 33.48903 19 53 almesaktab hospitel 16.72589 33.49607 11 54 almesaktab algoos 16.72835 33.50771 15 55 wad alhmad efad 16.15722 34.04925 93 56 algheed 16.17592 34.09408 84 57 algngal 16.43894 34.10911 63 60 almak ageeb 16.603 33.398 25 61 alhfyan 16.605 33.396 26 62 khaled proj. 16.614 33.334 33 63 alzakyab 16.605 33.283 20 64 fayt proj. 16.629 33.317 17 70 ber albasha 16.701 33.551 22 71 hssen proj. 16.706 33.546 18.7 72 wad abo 16.716 33.597 32 73 barmeedo 16.754 33.614 26.7 77 dshen shgla 16.745 33.611 22 78 hyeedr proj. 16.915 33.729 33 79 algrabaa 16.981 33.741 52 80 albraweya west 16.972 33.725 24 85 alrafdab 16.63273 33.28805 19.55 86 al atlab 16.64245 33.29774 16.2 87 Omer proj.10in 16.6442 33.52415 32 88 khalid 16.64678 33.53102 33 89 abd alwhab 1 16.64258 33.52874 31 90 abd algbar 16.58406 33.4904 52.7 91 wad frah 16.64116 33.44451 21 94 khalid saeed 16.69972 33.4753 15 95 alwefag 16.69212 33.47075 17 97 wadi aldan 17.014 33.737 26 104 tandub alshamab 16.57863 33.19806 11.2 105 omer. A project wel1 16.55237 33.33343 29 110 Elmikhaimram 16.64273 33.3574 26 111 slama adlanab 16.58746 33.21046 14 112 alkofonga 16.59634 33.20773 11.2 125 goos alnour 16.55061 33.18644 21 127 aldodab 16.63439 33.29296 17 128 alkhtebab 16.77813 33.62381 19.85 129 algblab 16.78028 33.60777 19.9 130 dsheen krarer 16.76563 33.58497 16 131 tra.awlad abdalh 16.74015 33.57324 21.33 132 ftrab 16.73458 33.56228 23.3 133 aldmboo 16.74052 33.53642 14 134 helt alshekh 16.73146 33.51243 25 135 zhra 1-2 16.71539 33.47225 12 136 alrahamab 16.577 33.217 11.2 137 krateeb 33.515 16.275 100 138 alngaah 33.248 16.25 84.2 139 kamal no ( 1 ) 33.245 16.585 25 140 algornah 33.871 16.579 56 141 hssany 33.861 16.672 57 142 gorna & beneber 33.88 16.62 49 143 abdtab 33.425 16.455 91 144 adaleen 33.522 16.623 35.2

Appindex 2 hydro chemicalcal parameters ( cationes)

Well name longtute latitiute K Na Mg Ca almak ageeb 1 33.3980 16.6030 14.14 147.47 119.07 92.00 wad kelyan 33.3150 16.6460 7.32 52.44 24.78 48.80 beer albasha 33.5510 16.7010 5.00 197.80 37.91 27.20 hassen projcet 33.5460 16.7060 5.72 313.88 34.02 37.60 Goosalhag 33.6720 16.8400 10.20 48.93 15.07 28.80 aldragab 33.7440 16.9810 1.06 67.00 13.08 35.20 alhmmadab 33.7000 16.9150 18.81 42.08 15.55 34.40 gos alhag 33.6820 16.8340 12.65 131.39 13.12 31.20 wad gnga 33.6460 16.6370 7.76 32.19 14.05 43.20 dleeg 33.8010 16.4260 3.50 92.50 42.28 61.60 abo khleaf 33.9580 16.3040 1.70 72.68 24.30 37.60 gheed 34.0580 16.2110 2.34 70.77 32.08 39.20 hmrany 33.9720 16.4720 2.82 74.59 54.92 33.60 gleeah 33.4000 16.6620 19.85 176.92 65.61 165.24 Deem umtrefy 33.1660 16.5610 6.46 33.81 43.25 18.40 atra 33.5420 16.7440 5.10 29.00 20.90 27.20 altragma 33.5690 16.7500 5.21 19.75 20.90 33.60 gbaty 33.7800 17.1980 6.14 24.31 21.87 52.80 barmeedo 33.6140 16.7320 10.20 27.80 13.85 28.00 bjrawiah 1 33.4630 16.7194 10.20 42.42 8.75 46.40 hosh banaga 33.3560 16.6610 10.20 50.00 43.25 22.40 beer alshef 33.4961 16.7259 0.19 52.12 14.40 22.40 alshikhab 33.4980 16.6680 10.20 135.50 13.12 36.00 Abdallaalhapj. 33.3340 16.6130 10.20 221.50 34.99 30.40 almrekhab 33.2185 16.5939 10.20 192.10 122.96 73.60 wagadat 33.2631 16.6120 10.20 232.60 15.70 5.68 alsurorab 33.1978 16.5554 10.20 309.40 16.91 12.40 alatalab 33.2880 16.6327 10.20 199.70 43.78 22.16 Deam umtrafy 33.1592 16.5677 10.20 58.00 5.64 10.24 goz almutrak 33.2650 16.6250 10.20 96.00 10.74 9.20 almisaktab bant 33.5045 16.7268 10.20 29.80 21.63 5.00 Alsurah BH 33.1661 16.5543 10.20 244.80 35.33 22.08 m.o project 33.5043 16.7271 10.20 164.60 6.32 24.00 aljodab 33.2380 16.5927 10.20 489.50 32.56 13.60 tandubalshamab 33.1981 16.5786 10.20 143.70 35.48 31.20 argabah 33.5950 16.6000 10.20 139.20 31.59 83.20 OmerAprojwel1 33.3334 16.6390 10.20 297.86 38.88 56.00 alrahmab 33.2260 16.5890 10.20 88.20 4.86 28.80 altomab 33.2149 16.5913 10.20 450.00 17.01 32.00 almusiab 33.4627 16.6968 10.20 72.70 8.70 23.28 alzhraa no (1) 33.4722 16.7154 10.20 145.90 28.19 36.00 abudomshaker1 33.4780 16.6580 10.20 92.86 23.33 52.00 abu domat 33.4830 16.6670 10.20 60.80 10.90 28.50 shendi sq 8 33.4242 16.6771 10.20 25.83 18.47 52.80 Elmikhaimram 33.3574 16.6427 10.20 154.50 44.23 31.20 slama adlanab 33.2105 16.5875 10.20 128.50 58.32 28.00 alber&altagwa 33.3695 16.6626 10.20 52.20 29.16 20.80 alangaz 33.3580 16.6550 10.20 40.70 17.98 21.60 alkofonga 33.2077 16.5963 10.20 123.60 65.61 16.80 wad alhmad 34.0493 16.1572 10.20 63.60 26.24 61.60 shraishah2 34.0590 16.3840 10.20 159.30 35.48 83.20 alniaamab 33.3490 16.6540 10.20 128.90 54.92 21.60 kamal no ( 1 ) 33.2450 16.5850 10.20 121.50 88.45 56.00 algornah 33.8710 16.5790 10.20 171.77 26.39 120.96 alaobied 33.9870 16.6050 10.20 147.04 11.66 104.00 wadi aladan 33.7370 17.0140 10.20 54.91 6.32 31.20 sardya west 33.4700 16.7220 10.20 18.19 3.89 27.20 aalyab h.koko 33.8260 17.3511 10.20 151.80 4.62 12.00 wadi gbaty 33.7842 17.2144 5.60 94.58 1.92 4.80 hssany 33.8610 16.6720 10.20 96.81 93.31 214.40 gorna& beneber 33.8800 16.6200 10.20 128.00 34.99 128.00 shendi sq 5 33.4301 16.6983 10.20 12.90 14.58 33.60 shend hospital 33.4423 16.6634 10.20 58.70 18.95 48.80 alngaah 33.2480 16.2500 10.20 337.10 28.19 113.60 abdtab 33.4250 16.4550 10.20 45.00 20.90 64.00 adaleen 33.5220 16.6230 10.20 124.40 41.31 44.80 krateeb 33.5150 16.2750 10.20 80.70 18.47 57.60 Abdalwhabproj. 33.5287 16.6426 10.20 71.80 17.98 48.80 alshaty proj. 33.7692 16.8836 10.20 25.86 16.52 29.60 shgalwa 33.4630 16.7194 13.02 94.54 6.80 5.00

Appindex2 anions well name longtute latitiute NH3 NO2 F Cl SO4 HCO3 NO3 almak ageeb 1 33.3980 16.6030 0.146 0.003 2.060 97.63 132.00 488.00 11.880 beer albasha 33.5510 16.7010 0.01 1.31 1.090 46.15 130.00 329.40 14.960 hassen projcet 33.5460 16.7060 0.098 0.116 0.940 139.16 190.00 353.80 14.080 goos alhag nourth 33.6720 16.8400 0.134 1.31 0.210 8.52 25.00 158.60 5.280 aldragab 33.7440 16.9810 0.01 0.013 1.220 27.69 45.00 146.40 14.960 alhmmadab 33.7000 16.9150 0.01 0.030 0.380 48.28 18.00 134.20 2.640 gos alhag 33.6820 16.8340 0.091 1.31 0.020 99.40 55.00 158.60 3.080 wad gnga 33.6460 16.6370 0.122 0.017 0.020 26.27 21.00 170.80 8.360 dleeg 33.8010 16.4260 0.037 0.023 0.180 90.88 100.00 207.40 12.320 abo khleaf 33.9580 16.3040 0.085 0.023 0.230 41.99 56.00 207.40 7.480 gheed 34.0580 16.2110 0.012 0.026 0.740 41.18 48.00 219.60 0.40 hmrany 33.9720 16.4720 0.037 0.040 0.470 67.45 56.00 256.20 0.40 gleeah 33.4000 16.6620 0.146 1.313 0.570 48.64 340.00 183.00 22.000 deem um traefy 33.1660 16.5610 0.024 1.31 0.020 12.07 1.00 219.60 0.40 atra 33.5420 16.7440 0.01 0.017 0.520 14.20 23.00 146.40 12.320 altragma 33.5690 16.7500 0.01 0.010 0.520 12.78 14.00 158.60 4.840 gbaty 33.7800 17.1980 0.01 0.020 0.440 12.78 18.00 195.20 21.120 barmeedo 33.6140 16.7320 0.01 0.145 0.250 12.78 17.00 231.60 3.520 bjrawiah garah 33.4630 16.7194 0.01 1.31 0.470 44.73 20.00 183.00 11.000 hosh banaga 33.3560 16.6610 0.342 0.080 0.180 54.67 57.70 256.20 5.720 beer alshef 33.4961 16.7259 0.01 0.026 0.190 12.00 19.00 110.00 3.100 alshikhab 33.4980 16.6680 0.01 0.033 0.960 45.44 77.50 268.40 28.600 abd alla alhag pro. 33.3340 16.6130 0.061 0.297 1.000 16.47 240.00 402.60 2.640 almrekhab 33.2185 16.5939 0.146 1.31 0.740 16.33 300.00 634.40 3.960 wagadat 33.2631 16.6120 0.007 0.020 0.970 35.50 165.00 317.20 7.480 alsurorab 33.1978 16.5554 0.171 0.066 1.520 10.44 190.00 353.80 13.200 alatalab 33.2880 16.6327 0.024 0.046 0.710 30.53 79.00 524.60 4.840 deam umm trafi 33.1592 16.5677 0.101 0.030 0.120 14.20 4.00 146.40 2.200 goz almutrak 33.2650 16.6250 0.060 0.033 0.480 13.49 12.00 195.20 2.460 almisaktab bant 33.5045 16.7268 0.012 0.132 0.080 4.26 1.00 244.00 0.880 alsurah bore hole 33.1661 16.5543 0.024 0.340 1.270 11.43 210.00 280.60 2.460 m.o project 33.5043 16.7271 0.073 0.135 0.740 20.59 42.00 366.00 4.400 aljodab 33.2380 16.5927 0.061 0.017 1.740 106.50 250.00 915.00 3.960 tandub alshamab 33.1981 16.5786 0.043 0.010 1.300 39.76 200.00 341.60 0.044 argabah 33.5950 16.6000 0.256 0.330 1.040 90.88 94.00 341.60 16.720 omer.project 33.3334 16.6390 0.049 0.073 0.390 14.20 150.00 183.00 11.880 well1 alsalama alrahmab 33.2260 16.5890 0.012 0.030 0.820 41.89 40.00 341.80 6.160 altomab 33.2149 16.5913 0.049 0.026 1.410 113.60 160.00 549.00 7.480 almusiab 33.4627 16.6968 0.070 0.190 0.030 12.07 26.00 146.40 3.080 alzhraa no (1) 33.4722 16.7154 0.012 0.050 0.300 22.01 39.00 353.80 0.40 abu domat shaker 33.4780 16.6580 0.183 0.014 0.640 69.58 57.00 219.60 9.240 abu domat 33.4830 16.6670 0.244 0.030 0.660 15.97 13.00 225.70 4.400 shendi sq 8 33.4242 16.6771 0.01 1.31 0.070 12.07 3.00 219.60 3.520 Elmikhaimram 33.3574 16.6427 0.146 1.31 0.350 41.18 52.00 427.00 7.920 slama adlanab 33.2105 16.5875 0.294 0.013 0.080 17.75 40.00 488.00 4.840 alber&altagwa 33.3695 16.6626 0.366 0.036 0.760 19.88 23.00 402.00 6.160 alangaz 33.3580 16.6550 0.01 0.007 0.020 99.40 15.00 402.60 1.320 alkofonga 33.2077 16.5963 0.037 0.003 0.490 16.33 2.00 512.40 5.720 wad alhmad 34.0493 16.1572 0.012 0.063 0.800 75.26 42.00 256.20 3.080 shraishah2 34.0590 16.3840 0.098 0.083 0.230 201.64 80.00 219.60 38.280 alniaamab 33.3490 16.6540 0.085 0.224 0.710 71.00 110.00 305.00 3.960 kamal no ( 1 ) 33.2450 16.5850 0.01 0.033 1.280 745.50 225.00 866.20 3.960 algornah 33.8710 16.5790 0.520 0.090 0.280 198.80 150.00 256.20 20.240 alaobied 33.9870 16.6050 0.085 0.020 0.440 308.85 150.00 109.80 42.240 wadi aladan 33.7370 17.0140 0.061 0.007 0.370 54.67 27.00 146.40 9.240 sardya west 33.4700 16.7220 0.01 0.129 0.030 15.62 2.00 134.20 7.920 aalyab h.koko 33.8260 17.3511 0.549 0.020 0.740 41.18 28.00 231.00 17.600 wadi gbaty 33.7842 17.2144 0.665 0.012 0.460 34.00 11.90 110.00 3.960 hssany 33.8610 16.6720 0.049 0.040 0.150 571.55 42.00 231.80 2.200 gorna & beneber 33.8800 16.6200 0.085 0.122 0.850 18.46 165.00 207.40 0.088 shendi sq 5 33.4301 16.6983 0.049 0.013 0.050 10.65 2.00 183.00 0.044 shend hospital 33.4423 16.6634 0.012 1.056 0.190 14.20 1.00 219.60 6.160 alngaah 33.2480 16.2500 0.01 1.31 0.581 164.72 370.00 524.60 0.053 abdtab 33.4250 16.4550 0.073 0.026 0.020 85.91 76.00 134.20 0.40 adaleen 33.5220 16.6230 0.01 0.023 0.640 85.20 102.00 366.00 8.360 krateeb 33.5150 16.2750 0.024 0.020 0.800 52.54 80.00 256.20 8.800 abd alwhab proj. 33.5287 16.6426 0.01 0.017 0.760 86.62 96.00 268.40 2.640 alshaty proj. 33.7692 16.8836 0.01 0.010 0.180 51.83 13.00 122.00 2.200 shgalwa 33.4630 16.7194 0.01 0.023 0.480 44.73 25.00 158.60 11.440

Appendix(3) stiff diagram

Appindex 4 lithological type

Appendix 5 pumping test result

Algheed well No1

Algafary well No3

Algheed well No1 Alkofnga