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The Influence of Prey Abundance on the Feeding Ecology of Two Piscivorous Species of Coral Reef Fish

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The Influence of Prey Abundance on the Feeding Ecology of Two Piscivorous Species of Coral Reef Fish Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 299 (2004) 155–184 www.elsevier.com/locate/jembe The influence of prey abundance on the feeding ecology of two piscivorous species of coral reef fish B.D. Beukers-Stewart*, G.P. Jones Department of Marine Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia Received 16 July 2002; received in revised form 8 April 2003; accepted 29 August 2003 Abstract Despite the potential importance of predation as a process structuring coral reef fish communities, few studies have examined how the diet of piscivorous fish responds to fluctuations in the abundance of their prey. This study focused on two species of rock-cod, Cephalopholis cyanostigma (Valenciennes, 1828) and Cephalopholis boenak (Bloch, 1790) (Serranidae), and monitored their diet in two different habitats (patch and contiguous reef) at Lizard Island on the northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia, over a 2-year period. The abundance of the rock-cods and the abundance and family composition of their prey were monitored at the same time. Dietary information was largely collected from regurgitated samples, which represented approximately 60% of the prey consumed and were unbiased in composition. A laboratory experiment showed that fish were digested approximately four times faster than crustaceans, leading to gross overestimation of the importance of crustaceans in the diet. When this was taken into account fish were found to make up over 90% of the diet of both species. Prey fish of the family Apogonidae, followed by Pomacentridae and Clupeidae, dominated the diet of both species of rock-cod. The interacting effect of fluctuations in prey abundance and patterns of prey selection caused dietary composition to vary both temporally and spatially. Mid-water schooling prey belonging to the families Clupeidae and to a lesser extent Caesionidae were selected for over other families. In the absence of these types of prey, apogonids were selected for over the more reef-associated pomacentrids. A laboratory experiment supported the hypothesis that such patterns were mainly due to prey behaviour. Feeding rates of both species of rock-cod were much higher in summer than in winter, and in summer they concentrated on small recruit sized fish. However, there was little variation in feeding rates between habitats, despite apparent differences in prey abundance. In summary, our observations of how the feeding ecology of * Corresponding author. Present address: Port Erin Marine Laboratory, University of Liverpool, Port Erin, Isle of Man IM9 6JA, UK. Tel.: +44-1624-831038; fax: +44-1624-831001. E-mail address: [email protected] (B.D. Beukers-Stewart). 0022-0981/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2003.08.015 156 B.D. Beukers-Stewart, G.P. Jones / J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 299 (2004) 155–184 predatory fish responded to variation in prey abundance provide potential mechanisms for how predation may affect the community structure of coral reef fishes. D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Coral reef fishes; Diet; Predation; Prey selection; Feeding rates; Predator impacts 1. Introduction Predation may have an important influence on the dynamics of populations (Murdoch and Oaten, 1975; Taylor, 1984) and the structure of ecological communities (Paine, 1966; Connell, 1975; Menge and Sutherland, 1987). Despite a long history of research in other ecosystems, predation received relatively little attention, until recently, as a process that may be structuring coral reef fish communities (Hixon, 1991). Over the last decade, a number of researchers (Caley, 1993; Hixon and Beets, 1993; Carr and Hixon, 1995; Connell, 1996; 1997; 1998a; Beets, 1997; Beukers and Jones, 1997; Eggleston et al., 1997; Hixon and Carr, 1997; Planes and Lecaillon, 2001; Webster, 2002) have attempted to redress this situation and have focused their attention on manipulating densities of piscivorous fish as a means to examining the importance of predation. All of these studies showed reduced prey abundance in the presence of predators, along with a range of other effects such as decreased species diversity (Caley, 1993; Beets, 1997; Eggleston et al., 1997), interspecific variation in mortality patterns (Carr and Hixon, 1995; Planes and Lecaillon, 2001; Webster, 2002), mediation of predation by habitat structure (Hixon and Beets, 1993; Beukers and Jones, 1997; Eggleston et al., 1997) and effects of prey density on mortality rates (Hixon and Carr, 1997; Connell, 1998a; Webster, 2002). However, in almost all of these studies, information on the identity of the species responsible for predation and the rates at which they were consuming prey was either lacking or sparse. Clearly, a full understanding of the role of predation on coral reefs requires detailed descriptions of spatial, temporal and ontogenetic changes in diet, prey selection and feeding rates of piscivorous fish and how these interact with prey dynamics (Jones, 1991). However, the use of descriptive studies for studying the role of piscivorous fish on coral reefs may be problematic (Connell and Kingsford, 1997). The most common method for elucidating the identity and diet of coral reef piscivores has been the study of gut contents (e.g. Hiatt and Strasburg, 1960; Randall, 1967; Harmelin-Vivien and Bouchon, 1976; Norris and Parrish, 1988; Blaber et al., 1990; Connell, 1998b). Many of these studies examined a large number of potentially piscivorous species and so were very useful for identifying piscivores, but this meant samples sizes for individual species were often low (less than 50). Low samples sizes, combined with a large number of empty stomachs and advanced digestion of prey has generally prevented detailed description of diet for individual species (Connell and Kingsford, 1997; but for exceptions see Kingsford, 1992; Nakai et al., 2001; St. John, 1999, 2001; St. John et al., 2001). In addition, lack of information on digestion rates has also often prevented conversion of stomach content data into estimates of daily feeding rates. B.D. Beukers-Stewart, G.P. Jones / J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 299 (2004) 155–184 157 Another problem with gut content studies is that they generally require the removal of large numbers of the piscivorous species in question from study sites. This makes it difficult, if not impossible, to examine temporal variation in diet without spatial variation potentially confounding results. One way to bypass this problem is to remove gut contents from live fish (Hyslop, 1980) so that repeated sampling of the same individuals becomes possible. This has been achieved by stomach flushing in some freshwater and temperate fish (Andreasson, 1971; Meehan and Miller, 1978), but has only rarely been attempted for coral reef fish (Light, 1995). Piscivorous coral reef fish are often considered to be generalist, opportunistic predators, whose diet reflects the abundance of prey available (Harmelin-Vivien and Bouchon, 1976; Parrish, 1987). This common perception is surprising given that only one study on coral reefs (Shpigel and Fishelson, 1989) has attempted to compare predator diet to the availability of prey at the same place and time. This is despite the widespread use of this approach for examining prey selection in other fish commu- nities (Laur and Ebeling, 1983; Jones, 1984; Schmitt and Holbrook, 1984; Cowen, 1986). The predators studied by Shpigel and Fishelson (1989) did appear to concentrate on the most common prey available, but results were only reported in qualitative terms. A more detailed study of how predatory coral reef fish respond to variation in prey availability could reveal the mechanisms for several recent observations in coral reef fish ecology. These include higher mortality of schooling/grouping prey species compared to more solitary species (Connell and Gillanders, 1997), high mortality of slow growing individuals or small species of fish (Jones and McCormick, 2002) and density dependent mortality within species (Hixon and Webster, 2002; Jones and McCormick, 2002). Indeed, Hixon and Webster (2002) state that further mechanistic studies of piscivory in reef fishes are sorely needed. For example, the high mortality of schooling species of fish could be related to patterns of prey selection by piscivorous fish. If some species suffer proportionally higher predation than others, this will have important implications for community structure (Carr and Hixon, 1995). Likewise, if predators exhibit a functional response (an increase in feeding rate with an increase in prey density) in combination with aggregation at high-density patches of prey (e.g. Hixon and Carr, 1997; Stewart and Jones, 2001), this could account for observations of density-dependent mortality (Murdoch and Oaten, 1975). In fact, a type 3 functional response alone, whereby predators feed disproportionately on certain types of prey when they are abundant but ignore them when they are scarce (Begon et al., 1986), could also induce density-dependent mortality (Hixon and Webster, 2002). Strong density-dependent mortality has the potential to regulate populations of coral reef fish (Caley et al., 1996; Hixon and Webster, 2002). This study examined the diet and feeding rates of two piscivorous species of rock- cod, Cephalopholis cyanostigma and Cephalopholis boenak (Serranidae) at Lizard Island on the northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Dietary information was largely collected from regurgitated samples so that the same populations could be monitored over
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