The Case of Archaic Indo-European Conjunction
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TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR REVIEW I. Parts of Speech Traditional
Traditional Grammar Review Page 1 of 15 TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR REVIEW I. Parts of Speech Traditional grammar recognizes eight parts of speech: Part of Definition Example Speech noun A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. John bought the book. verb A verb is a word which expresses action or state of being. Ralph hit the ball hard. Janice is pretty. adjective An adjective describes or modifies a noun. The big, red barn burned down yesterday. adverb An adverb describes or modifies a verb, adjective, or He quickly left the another adverb. room. She fell down hard. pronoun A pronoun takes the place of a noun. She picked someone up today conjunction A conjunction connects words or groups of words. Bob and Jerry are going. Either Sam or I will win. preposition A preposition is a word that introduces a phrase showing a The dog with the relation between the noun or pronoun in the phrase and shaggy coat some other word in the sentence. He went past the gate. He gave the book to her. interjection An interjection is a word that expresses strong feeling. Wow! Gee! Whew! (and other four letter words.) Traditional Grammar Review Page 2 of 15 II. Phrases A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb in combination. Generally, a phrase is used in the sentence as a single part of speech. In this section we will be concerned with prepositional phrases, gerund phrases, participial phrases, and infinitive phrases. Prepositional Phrases The preposition is a single (usually small) word or a cluster of words that show relationship between the object of the preposition and some other word in the sentence. -
1St Rule: FANBOYS and Compound Sentences FANBOYS Is a Mnemonic Device, Which Stands for the Coordinating Conjunctions: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, and So
1st Rule: FANBOYS and Compound Sentences FANBOYS is a mnemonic device, which stands for the coordinating conjunctions: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, and So. These words, when used to connect two independent clauses (two complete thoughts), must be preceded by a comma. A sentence is a complete thought, consisting of a Subject and a Verb. Conjunctions should not be confused with conjunctive adverbs, such as However, Therefore, and Moreover or with conjunctions, such as Because. 2nd Rule: Introductory Bits When using an introductory word, phrase, or clause to begin a sentence, it is important to place a comma between the introduction and the main sentence. The introduction is not a complete thought on its own; it simply introduces the main clause. This lets the reader know that the “meat” of the sentence is what follows the comma. You should be able to remove the part which comes before the comma and still have a complete thought. Examples: Generally, John is opposed to overt acts of affection. However, Lucy inspires him to be kind. If the hamster is launched fifty feet, there is too much pressure in the cannon. Although the previous sentence has little to do with John and Lucy, it is a good example of how to use commas with introductory clauses. 3rd Rule: Separating Items in a Series Commas belong between each item in a list. However, in a series of three items, the comma between the second and third item and the conjunction (generally and or or) is optional, whereas in a list of four items, the comma is necessary. -
Conjunction Junction WHAT’S THEIR FUNCTION? What Are Conjunctions, Anyway?
Conjunction Junction WHAT’S THEIR FUNCTION? What are conjunctions, anyway? A conjunction is a word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate words in the same clause. What kinds of conjunctions are there? • Coordinating conjunctions (=) • FANBOYS • Correlating Conjunctions • Both…and, either…or, neither…nor, whether…or, not only…but also • Subordinating Conjunctions (< ) • After, although, as, because, before, how, if, since, than, that, though, unless, until, what (whatever), when (whenever), where (wherever), whereas, whether, which (whichever), while, who (whom, whomever), whose • Conjunctive Adverb () • Accordingly, however, nonetheless, also, indeed, otherwise, besides, instead, similarly, consequently, likewise, still, conversely, meanwhile, subsequently, finally, moreover, then, furthermore, nevertheless, therefore, hence, next, thus Coordinating Conjunctions • Coordinating Conjunctions are used to connect two complete sentences(independent clauses) and coordinating words and phrases. • All coordinating conjunctions MUST be preceded by a comma if connecting two independent clauses. Coordinating Conjunctions at Work • Miss Smidgin was courteous but cool. (coordinating adjectives) • The next five minutes will determine whether we win or lose. (coordinating verbs) • This chimp is crazy about peanuts but also about strawberries. (coordinating prepositional phrases) • He once lived in mansions, yet now he is living in an empty box. (coordinating independent clauses) • You probably won’t have any trouble spotting him, for he weighs almost three hundred pounds. • She didn’t offer help, nor did she offer any excuse for her laziness. • I wanted to live closer to Nature, so I built myself a cabin in the swamps of Louisiana. Correlating Conjunctions Correlating Conjunctions connect two equal phrases. Correlating Conjunctions at Work • In the fall, Phillip will either start classes at the community college or join the navy. -
Using-Conjunctions.Pdf
GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS Using Conjunctions A conjunction is the part of speech used to join or link words, phrases, or clauses to each other. Conjunctions help to provide coherence to your writing by connecting elements between or within sentences and from one paragraph to the next in order to most effectively communicate your ideas to your reader. TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS Coordinating conjunctions or coordinators (and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet) connect ideas of equal structure or function. The instructor was interesting and extremely knowledgeable about the subject. The play was entertaining but disappointing. I am a highly motivated and diligent worker, so I should be considered for the job. Correlative conjunctions come in pairs and function like coordinating conjunctions to connect equal elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are either . or, neither . nor, not only . but also, whether . or, and both . and. Either Miranda or Julia will fill the recently vacated position. Both the music and the lyrics were written by the same composer. Subordinating conjunctions or subordinators such as if, when, where, because, although, since, whether, and while introduce a subordinate or dependent clause that is usually attached to an independent clause and signal the relationship between the clauses. If the director is unavailable, I will speak with her assistant. When the speaker finished, the audience responded with tremendous applause. As a general rule, if a subordinating or dependent clause precedes the independent clause, use a comma to separate the two clauses. Since the secretary was unable to find the file (subordinating or dependent clause), the meeting was cancelled (independent clause). -
Constituency Tests Ling201, Apr
Constituency Tests Ling201, Apr. 14 The following tests help us to determine whether a string of words forms a constituent. Key: Constituents are underlined. Non-constituents are wavy-lined. Warning: Not all tests will work for all constituent types! Fragment Answers Only a constituent can answer a question, while retaining the meaning of the original sentence. That ismy rother. → !: "ho#s that$ A: &y rother. 'e is making a mess. → !: "hat#s he doing$ A: &aking a mess. The keys are on the ta le. → !: "here are the keys? A: On the ta le. I want two of those apples. → !: 'ow many apples do you want$ A: *)wo of. 'e#s preserving in wa* the earwigs I gave him. → !: "hat#s he doing with the earwigs? A: *+reserving in wa*. I gave the dog the keys. → !: "hat did you do with the keys? A: *,ave the dog. Coordination Only constituents -of the same type) can e coordinated using conjunction words like and, or, and but. 'er friends from +eru went to the show. → &ary and her friends from +eru went to the show. "e peeled the potatoes. → "e peeled the potatoes and shucked the corn. /hould I go through the tunnel$ → /hould I go through the tunnel or over the ridge$ The doughnuts were full of 0elly. → The doughnuts were full of 0elly ut slightly disappointing. 'er friends from +eru went to the movies. → *'er friends from and two guys interested in +eru went1 "e peeled the potatoes. → *"e peeled the and washed the potatoes. /hould I go through the tunnel$ → */hould I go through or I go around the tunnel$ The doughnuts were full of 0elly. -
CLIPP Christiani Lehmanni Inedita, Publicanda, Publicata Pleonasm and Hypercharacterization
CLIPP Christiani Lehmanni inedita, publicanda, publicata titulus Pleonasm and hypercharacterization huius textus situs retis mundialis http://www.uni-erfurt.de/ sprachwissenschaft/personal/lehmann/CL_Publ/ Hypercharacterization.pdf dies manuscripti postremum modificati 23.02.2006 occasio orationis habitae 11. Internationale Morphologietagung Wien, 14.-17.02.2004 volumen publicationem continens Booij, Geert E. & van Marle, Jaap (eds.), Yearbook of Morphology 2005. Heidelberg: Springer annus publicationis 2005 paginae 119-154 Pleonasm and hypercharacterization Christian Lehmann University of Erfurt Abstract Hypercharacterization is understood as pleonasm at the level of grammar. A scale of strength of pleonasm is set up by the criteria of entailment, usualness and contrast. Hy- percharacterized constructions in the areas of syntax, inflection and derivation are ana- lyzed by these criteria. The theoretical basis of a satisfactory account is sought in a holis- tic, rather than analytic, approach to linguistic structure, where an operator-operand struc- ture is formed by considering the nature of the result, not of the operand. Data are drawn from German, English and a couple of other languages. The most thorough in a number of more or less sketchy case studies is concerned with German abstract nouns derived in -ierung (section 3.3.1). This process is currently so productive that it is also used to hy- percharacterize nouns that are already marked as nominalizations. 1 1. Introduction Hypercharacterization 2 (German Übercharakterisierung) may be introduced per ostensionem: it is visible in expressions such as those of the second column of T1. T1. Stock examples of hypercharacterization language hypercharacterized basic surplus element German der einzigste ‘the most only’ der einzige ‘the only’ superlative suffix –st Old English children , brethren childer , brether plural suffix –en While it is easy, with the help of such examples, to understand the term and get a feeling for the concept ‘hypercharacterization’, a precise definition is not so easy. -
Suppletion Replication in Grammaticalization and Its Triggering Factors
Language Dynamics and Change 5 (2015) 52–91 brill.com/ldc Suppletion Replication in Grammaticalization and Its Triggering Factors Eugen Hill University of Erfurt [email protected] Abstract The paper tries to account for several instances of emerging suppletion by estab- lishing a cross-linguistic tendency of suppletion replication in grammaticalization. It can be shown that words which acquire new grammatical functions and therefore enter a different class of lexemes tend to copy suppletion patterns already present in other members of this class. This development can be triggered by factors of differ- ent nature, either internal to the language in question or rooted in contact between different languages or dialects of the same language. The suppletion replication ten- dency is demonstrated on several cases of grammaticalization of demonstrative or relative pronouns into 3rd person pronouns. This typologically common development is known to have led to the creation of new suppletion in several languages of Europe. In the present paper, three particularly telling cases from Slavonic, dialects of Lithua- nian and early West Germanic dialects spoken on the continent are discussed in detail. Keywords inflectional morphology – suppletion – pronouns – Slavonic – Baltic – Germanic 1 Introduction In recent years, suppletion in inflectional paradigms has often been the sub- ject of linguistic studies. Many instances of inflectional suppletion, both known and newly discovered, have received high-quality detailed descrip- © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2015 | doi: 10.1163/22105832-00501003 suppletion replication in grammaticalization 53 tions.1 On this empirical basis, substantial advances in the synchronic under- standing of suppletion and its place in the inflection of natural languages have been made.2 The time seems ripe for an attempt to gain deeper insight into the diachronic dimension of suppletion in inflectional paradigms, i.e. -
O'zbekiston Respublikasi Oliy Va O'rta Maxsus Tahlim
O’ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI OLIY VA O’RTA MAXSUS TAHLIM VAZIRLIGI ZAHIRIDDIN MUHAMMAD BOBUR NOMIDAGI ANDIJON DAVLAT UNIVERSITETI XORIJIY TILLAR FAKULTETI Ingliz tili fonetikasi kafedrasi Mirzahamdamov Zokirjon (407-guruh) INGLIZ VA O’ZBEK TILLARIDA PLEONAZM VA TAVTOLOGIYANING STILISTIK MOHIYATI 5111400 – xorijiy til va adabiyoti (ingliz tili va adabiyoti) ta’lim yo’nalishi bo’yicha bakalavr akademik darajasini olish uchun yozilgan BITIRUV MALAKAVIY ISH Ish rahbari: assistant O. Yuldasheva Andijon – 2016 3 MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIALIZED EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN ANDIZHAN STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER ZAHIRIDDIN MUHAMMAD BOBUR FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHONETICS Mirzahamdamov Zokirjon Stylistic essence of pleonasm and tautology in English and in Uzbek languages 5111400-English language and literature GRADUATING QUALIFICATION PAPER written to get academic degree of Bachelor Supervisor of the work: Assistant O.Yuldasheva Content: 4 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..3-8 Chapter 1. The stylistic essence of pleonasm and tautology in English and in Uzbek languages 1.1. The stylistic essence of pleonasm and tautology in English language…..…9-12 1.2. The stylistic essence of pleonasm and tautology in Uzbek language…….13-20 Chapter 2. Tautology and pleonasm as a stylistic device 2.1. The stylistic functions of tautology……………………………………….21-26 2.2. The stylistic functions of pleonasm……………………….………………27-34 Chapter 3. Types of tautology and pleonasm 3.1. Types of tautology and pleonasm in English and Uzbek languages…...…35-53 3.2. The usage of pleonasm and tautology in the texts………………………..54-59 3.3. Plan of the demo lesson with different activities and tasks in teaching pleonasm and tautology……………………………………………..…………60-64 Methodological recommendation…………………………….……………..65-66 Conclusion…………………………………………………….………………67-69 Bibliography………………………………………………………………….70-71 5 Plan: Introduction Chapter 1. -
32. Affix Pleonasm 1. Introduction
1 32. Affix pleonasm 1. Introduction 2. The definitional scope of pleonasm 3. Pleonasm in language 4. Types of affix pleonasm 5. Why affix pleonasm? 6. References Abstract Affix pleonasm is a cross-linguistically widespread phenomenon both in inflection and derivation. This article reviews the terminological confusion that has arisen around this term, surveys pleonasm in language in general and, narrowing down the scope, focuses on occurrences of pleonastic affixation in derivation in the languages of Europe. Additionally, theoretical approaches to the motivations of pleonasm are critically discussed. 1. Introduction While the concept of pleonasm in grammar has not escaped the interest of scholars of language, the terminological landscape surrounding it has been all but homogeneous. As a result, Malkiel’s (1957: 84) complaint about the harmful absence of any terminological agreement on the phenomenon still applies to the current state of linguistic research. The terminological proliferation seems to begin with the introduction of the German term Übertreibung der Kongruenz by Franz Nikolaus Finck (quoted in Glässer 1954: 429), followed by Überkennzeichnung (Horn 1939: 3–4), and the more widespread term ‘hypercharacterization’, which translates the German original Hypercharakterisierung coined by Eduard Schwyzer (1941) and has also been relabeled ‘overcharacterization’. More recent coinages encompass ‘double marking’, ‘exuberant marking’, ‘multiple exponence’, ‘affix repetition’, and sometimes ‘blending’. Focusing on affixation, Meyer-Lübke (1921, § 34) coined the label Einreihung, which Migliorini (1943: 451) rendered in Italian as inquadramento suffissale. The term ‘affix pleonasm’, which is adopted in this article, goes back to the German Pleonasmus, originally used in rhetorics and stilistics and later introduced into linguistics, most prominently, by Paul 1880 (Pleonasmus von Bildungselementen; see also the use of Pleonasmus with respect to the form Prinzessin in Oertel 1830 (s.v. -
New Latin Grammar
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR BY CHARLES E. BENNETT Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles: Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat. —HORACE, Ars Poetica. COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT PREFACE. The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax. C.E.B. ITHACA, NEW YORK, May 4, 1918 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings -īs, -īmus, -ītis are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive. Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged. -
Phrasal Conjunction and Symmetric Predicates
.. '-~ ·... ]" '· MODERN STUDIES IN ENGLISH Readings in Transformational Grammar Edited by DAVID A. REIBEL " University of York SANFORD A. SCHANE Univertit1 of CJifornill. at San Diego . '~ I ~.' 1-" c c ! . ,' ' ." ':- ····- .. :', : ·.~:·· ,,,··· ""''·· l,_ '·• ;'. ,.41•, ' L ;.,_ ~ L~ -'1 Loft':-"! • ~~~ ..... <t ' l'lp: ~·~·,. ~. ''·""-~•· ', . .-.~; :: •, ~ ! :~,...~~ ~~X.::.~f-~,-~~:: ·l' ·~";j<iJ'-. :'ll!_:~t:::'""'~.,%ITPWt{:.f:~_?· ~~y}. ~~ E''-l~5 .I .·,, )~ :,. '. '0':, f' ·.·· . :,f ...... '112 ~- (204) Tryl1.1l4 ~tell me. (205} Do m8 o /arcr tm4 #I t/owtt. The intorlation contour for such sentences seems quite difl'erent from that asso-: ciated with C:OtVoined X-C-X. If that is so, such occurrences can be treated much like modal verbs, the and being classified as similar to infinitival to. Evidence for the oddity of this use, beyond the difference in intonation contour, is its un 10 systematic nature: (a) where affixes are required on the verb forms, this usage is ,,l. avoided (e.g. They try and get it,· but • He tries 411d get It; He tries to get it),· and I: (b) iteration is not uniformly allowable (e.g. Do me a favor and run and get It; Phrasal Conjunction but ?Run and do me a favor and get it.) 2. •• AND" AS AN JN'Il!NSIFIER. (xxvi) disallows the conjunction of identical constit and Symmetric Predicates uents, because (xxiv) does not mark them. However, we often find and between identical words and phrases without contrastive stress (e.g. We went around and around, She hit him and hit him.). Such repetitions have the effect of suggesting GEORGE LAKOFF and STANLEY PETERS continuous or repeated or increasing action~ They are not allowable on all constit uents conjoinable by (xxvi) (e.g. -
Constructions and Result: English Phrasal Verbs As Analysed in Construction Grammar
CONSTRUCTIONS AND RESULT: ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS AS ANALYSED IN CONSTRUCTION GRAMMAR by ANNA L. OLSON A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Master of Arts in Linguistics, Analytical Stream We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard ............................................................................... Dr. Emma Pavey, PhD; Thesis Supervisor ................................................................................ Dr. Sean Allison, Ph.D.; Second Reader ................................................................................ Dr. David Weber, Ph.D.; External Examiner TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY September 2013 © Anna L. Olson i Abstract This thesis explores the difference between separable and non-separable transitive English phrasal verbs, focusing on finding a reason for the non-separable verbs’ lack of compatibility with the word order alternation which is present with the separable phrasal verbs. The analysis is formed from a synthesis of ideas based on the work of Bolinger (1971) and Gorlach (2004). A simplified version of Cognitive Construction Grammar is used to analyse and categorize the phrasal verb constructions. The results indicate that separable and non-separable transitive English phrasal verbs are similar but different constructions with specific syntactic reasons for the incompatibility of the word order alternation with the non-separable verbs. ii Table of Contents Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................