Security Systems in Francophone and Anglophone Africa

Niagalé Bagayoko

Abstract This article analyses the commonalities and differences between African anglophone and francophone security systems in the context of security sector reform. Although each country has a distinct political history and tradition, similarities in the security apparatus, rooted in its inheritance from the colonial and post-colonial periods, can be found in both sets of countries. Identifying better ways to harmonise the SSR programmes being implemented all over the African continent requires a deep understanding of the similarities and differences which exist between African countries that belong to different linguistic areas and inherited from colonial rule. Security governance has been improving in an important number of anglophone countries over the last few years, while Francophone African countries are usually presented as not having experienced any significant transformation in security governance. Influencing factors of relative success or failure include institutional patterns; decision-making structures; type of defence and police forces; and training capacities.

1 Introduction: can SSR fit all African Francophone African countries are usually environments? presented as not having experienced any In recent years, anglophone countries have significant transformation in security governance. arguably been more open to changes towards The recent seizure of power by the military – or increased accountability of their security forces with their complicity – in several states is seen as (ministries of defence relatively independent dramatic evidence of the total lack of from the armed forces; parliamentarian improvement in security governance. However, oversight; accountability to audit bodies, the situation is much more complex. It is also ombudsmen, human rights commissions, etc.) important to be aware that an important number than their francophone equivalents. Partly this of countries, including non-democratic ones, have may reflect variations in their respective tiptoed into a process of reform. Most of the time, democratic transition processes. But another those reform processes have been undertaken factor has been the active promotion of security and framed without the SSR label. But they are sector reform (SSR) itself in countries like in fact resulting in more professional and Sierra Leone, Ghana, etc., together with some accountable security forces, which is the cross-fertilisation among anglophone countries, overarching purpose of the SSR approach. as well as the demonstration effects of the South African model. The situation is of course far Identifying better ways to harmonise the SSR from ideal: in many countries, security programmes being implemented all over the ministries still tend to be weak and badly African continent requires a deep understanding resourced; the mechanisms of ‘horizontal’ of the similarities and differences which exist accountability – to audit bodies, ombudsmen, between African countries that belong to different human rights commissions, etc. – are weak in linguistic areas and inherited from colonial rule. essence, and military forces have fared better The issue at stake is neither to provide a than the police forces. But it cannot be denied performance rating of francophone and that security governance has been improving in anglophone security apparatus nor to define an important number of anglophone countries performance benchmarks against which security over the last few years. apparatuses should be systematically assessed.

IDS Bulletin Volume 43 Number 4 July 2012 © 2012 The Author. IDS Bulletin © 2012 Institute of Development Studies Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA

63 This article aims to provide a better understanding appoint the President as the ‘supreme of the institutional, organisational, bureaucratic commander in chief of the armed forces’, the and legal security arrangements operating in adjective ‘supreme’ being directly taken from the Francophone and Anglophone African countries, to American Constitution. highlight their commonalities and differences and to provide an overview of the actors, structures, Initially, institutional arrangements in most and how security systems function. Former French anglophone countries reflected the distinctively territories (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, British heritage, for example parliamentary Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Central Africa, Gabon, government, common law, sharp separation in Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo)1 and principle between external defence and internal former British and American colonies (Botswana, policing, hence between military and police, etc. Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, However, most anglophone countries have shifted Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, toward presidential governance, not least in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, relation to the security sector – hence tending to Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and converge with French-speaking countries. Zimbabwe) are reviewed in this article. Currently, nearly all the constitutions in former British colonies (with the exception of Ethiopia, 2 Institutional patterns Lesotho and Swaziland), provide for the All francophone countries have centralised presidential system of government, as opposed to presidential systems, in which security the Westminster parliamentary system inherited bureaucracies report directly or indirectly to the at independence. Furthermore, in Anglophone President. Although anglophone countries Africa, security governance influences stem from initially had an inherited tradition of models other than the United Kingdom parliamentary government, in reality presidential institutional tradition – either from widespread control has also prevailed in all of them. In the links with other Commonwealth countries or two sets of countries, the prominence of the from the USA – for example, in Nigeria where executive branch has downsized the role of the the federal constitution, presidential government, parliaments, although this is still formally the bicameral legislature and its select recognised by the constitutions. committees etc., reflect the US influence even more than the British. The US influence is also 2.1 The central role of the President paramount in Liberia. As in Francophone Africa, In Francophone Africa, the legacy of colonialism it is worth noting that constitutional provisions and then the adoption of constitutions inspired inspired by the US Presidentialist Constitution by – if not carbon-copied from – the French Fifth have been integrated in a number of other Republic Constitution have resulted in the anglophone countries, especially the provision concentration of power in the executive branch. entitling the President of the Republic as A constant feature of most francophone Supreme Chief of the armed forces. The Constitutions is the President of the Republic constitutions stipulate that the President has presiding over all security apparatuses, whilst ultimate powers to determine the operational use the government – mostly through the ministries of all security forces. The President also appoints of defence, interior/internal security and justice the ministers in charge of the ministries of – is responsible for implementing security defence, home/internal affairs and intelligence. policies. The President also has the power to The President also has the executive power to appoint civilian and military positions (for appoint the operational commanders of the instance the Chief of General Staff of the armed security forces such as the Defence Chief of Staff forces, as well as other heads of the civilian and as well as the Inspector General (in some military administration). The President can also countries called commissioner) of Police, and the hold ‘exceptional powers’ and has the power to Inspector General of Intelligence. declare a state of emergency, though this can only be after consultation with his Council of 2.2 Role of the parliaments Ministers. Furthermore it is important to note In both Anglophone and Francophone Africa, that most of the Francophone African parliamentary oversight of the security services is constitutions have also integrated provisions provided for in most constitutions. Since the 1990s, inspired by the American Constitution: they the francophone constitutions have established a

64 Bagayoko Security Systems in Francophone and Anglophone Africa system of separation and collaboration between larger parliaments, like Nigeria’s and South the executive and the legislative branches. Most of Africa’s, the parliament has separate committees them state that the parliament is in charge of on defence (in addition to defence, the Senate in declaring war and of ratifying peace agreements. Nigeria has a committee for the army, air force Moreover, as in France, the constitutions of and navy), police and intelligence. In smaller Francophone African states recognise that ‘the parliaments, such as that of Zambia and Ghana, fundamental principles of the general organisation defence and the interior are combined under one of the national defence’ result from the legal committee. There are also committees on domain, which means that their defence policies appropriation and public accounts, which are are passed into law by the legislature, though only meant to debate, approve and review defence, after being reviewed by the appropriate internal security and intelligence budgets. In committee. Furthermore, the national assembly addition, the committees have powers to conduct may call on the security forces to defend national investigations into security matters, and to territory, or to approve or amend any act relating review the management of security by the to new alliances. Most of the time, it has to executive branch as the need arises. This approve any engagement of its armed forces includes the power to summon the President, abroad. In countries such as Benin and Niger, the ministers or heads of the security services to the parliament is entitled to adopt bills that ratify any parliament to defend their actions. international alliance: this includes military assistance agreements. Generally, the national The role of parliaments, as acknowledged by the assembly has the power to monitor the actions of constitutions, is therefore very similar in the government through consideration of the Francophone and Anglophone Africa. However, budget (including a facility to approve the funds in the two sets of countries, the constitutional that are to be allocated to various security provisions related to parliamentarian oversight structures, to revise it downwards or upwards or to have more than often been ignored in practice. redirect budget allocations toward other areas); questions to the government; and parliamentary 3 Decision-making structures standing committees (on national defence, An important difference between Anglophone security, justice and civil protection). Like all other and Francophone Africa is the existence of standing committees, these committees have a collegial organs meant to be fully associated in duty to monitor the actions of the government; the decision-making process. they may hold audiences with ministers, and call before them anyone who needs to be consulted. 3.1 NSC and High Councils on National Defence The committees receive draft bills from the In almost all anglophone countries, the government but, in some countries such as Benin appointments and decisions are supposedly made and Mali, they may also propose laws on security on the advice of collegial organs which are issues. These committees are, however, mainly in established to advise the President on policy charge of carrying out surveys and drafting matters relating to security and consequently amendments. They are not investigative bodies, have an important role in the policy decision- nor are they units that provide direct control of the making process. The Cabinet is the highest activities of the security sector, even if they are decision-making organ of government, and this allowed to call on external expertise. includes national security policy. Moreover, in the last ten years, structures and policy review In anglophone countries under presidential processes, such as Defence Reviews and/or constitutions, the parliament is empowered to National Security Reviews and White Papers, make laws to regulate the President’s have been introduced and interagency decision- constitutional powers as Commander-in-Chief of making structures have been set up. At the top of the security services. As in Francophone Africa, all national security organs is the National parliaments are empowered to form select Security Council (NSC), which coordinates all committees on particular security services for security policy and advises the President on the purpose of oversight. Apart from Lesotho national security matters. The NSC, which is and Malawi, all national parliaments in under the direct control of the presidency, is Anglophone Africa have select committees managed by a National Security Adviser (as in responsible for monitoring the security sector. In Nigeria) or a National Security Coordinator (as

IDS Bulletin Volume 43 Number 4 July 2012 65 in Ghana and Sierra Leone). NSC meetings are ministers involved in security and defence presided over by the President and are made up matters. Even if supposedly meant to think about of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Defence, strategic orientations of the defence and security Interior, and Finance, and other ministers such policy, these structures are only focused on as the President determines. Other members of defence and military policy. These Councils on the NSC are the Chief of Defence Staff (or National Defence only have an advisory role. alternatively Force Commander), the Inspector They are on no account a decision-making body: General of Police and the directors of the various most of the time, these structures are a hollow intelligence agencies. The influence of those and empty shell. Most francophone countries do NSCs of course varies from case to case. not have any coordination structure to deal with internal security matters. An interesting Two other important national organs that can be exception is Burkina Faso where a coordinating found in many anglophone countries are the unit for internal security forces was implemented Defence Council and the Police Council. Known in 2001 (police, gendarmerie and fire brigade). as the Armed Forces Council in some countries (for example in Ghana and the Gambia), the 3.2 Organisation of the Defence Ministry Defence Council is principally responsible for An important difference between Francophone advising the President on defence policy and acts and Anglophone Africa is related to the division as a mechanism for executive control and within the ministries of defence themselves. In supervision of the defence forces. It is usually almost all anglophone countries, the Ministry of chaired by the President and includes the Defence (or Department of Defence) is organised Ministers of Foreign Defence, Foreign Affairs, along British lines and Western tradition. The and the Interior, the Chief of Defence Staff, as operational commands of the forces usually work well as the service chiefs; the President may together with a civilian bureaucracy of respective appoint other members. The Defence Council is ministries. At the head of the ministry is a only advisory and, in practice, Presidents do civilian minister appointed by the President. The make defence-related decisions without recourse Ministry of Defence, which is responsible for the to it, particularly in countries with weaker development and implementation of national democratic credentials. The Police Council is defence policy, is made up of a defence secretariat principally responsible for advising the President (defence bureaucracy) and a defence on internal public security and safety policy. In headquarters, which are headed by the some countries the Police Council is chaired by (Permanent) Secretary/Minister of Defence and the Vice-President (as in Ghana), and others, the the Chief of Defence Staff (known as Force President (Nigeria), while other members Commander in some countries), respectively. The include the Minister of the Interior, the Secretary is the chief accounting officer for the Inspector General of Police/Police Commissioner ministry and advises the Minister of Defence on and the Attorney General. policy matters. The Chief of Defence Staff is responsible for the operational command of the In Francophone Africa, beyond the Council of armed forces and advises the minister on Ministers (under the authority of the Prime operational matters related to national defence. Minister) which is in theory the first level of The ministry is therefore a crucial mechanism for coordination, there are no integrated processes civil control and executive supervision of the combining external defence, internal security, armed forces. policing, etc. within a single policy frame, coordinated at the national level that can be seen Such a clear distinction between civil and military as comparable to the NSC. In most countries functions is far from widespread in francophone however, the constitution sets up High Councils ministries of defence: on the contrary, MOD are on National Defence which are in fact rather most of the time administered by the military. similar to the Defence Councils that can be found in Anglophone Africa, including with 4 Types of defence forces regard to their lack of real influence. The High A number of defence forces in Francophone Councils of Defence, once again modelled on Africa (such as Presidential Guards and National their French counterparts, are chaired by the Guards) have no real counterpart in Anglophone President of the Republic and bring together all Africa. Furthermore, francophone defence forces

66 Bagayoko Security Systems in Francophone and Anglophone Africa are often officially endowed with development protection for the President. Arguably missions, contrary to anglophone armed forces. francophone countries differ mainly in that Presidential Guards have been a more uniform 4.1 The Republican/Presidential Guards and more institutionalised force. Presidential Guards are common in Francophone African countries. Officially, the mission of the 4.2 The National Guards Presidential Guard is to protect the Head of State In Mali and Mauritania, the National Guard when he travels abroad or within the country, and carries out important duties both military and the presidential residences. The Presidential civilian in essence. It contributes to maintaining Guards are usually drawn from the rank of the order and public safety as well as to the general military (officers and non-commissioned officers) policing of territorial communities. It is and the gendarmerie. However, the Presidential entrusted with providing security to political and Guards – called the republican guard in some administrative institutions and is also involved in Francophone African countries which references the prison services. What is specific about the the French Republican Guard – are often National Guard is that it has the ability to grow configured as praetorian bodies. These forces are into a formidable fighting force, capable of usually appointed on the basis of their loyalty serving alongside the army. The National Guard towards the President and recruited according to is managed by the Minister of Defence but in ethnic criteria. The Presidential Guard is the terms of operations is under the authority of the core security body in francophone non-democratic Minister of the Interior. Generally, a Chief of countries. Even if they are formally integrated General Staff heads, coordinates and controls into the armed forces’ chain of command, these the activities and duties of the division Presidential Guards are not accountable to the commanders and the heads of units (who Chief of Staff or to the Ministry of Defence: they command the territorial units in the provinces). are accountable to virtually no one, except to the The National Guard is present all over the President. national territory and works essentially to the benefit of the administration and the population. Presidential Guards can also be found in less It is a highly decentralised force and it traces the authoritarian states. Even if their missions are administrative division of the country. National less challenging, they enjoy special status. The Guards are particularly worth considering Presidential Guards are one of the major because they were reformed during the 1990s in symptoms of the system of competing security order to integrate members of former rebel agencies and parallel chains of command which movements from the Sahelian region. characterise the military in Francophone Africa. The Presidential/Republican Guards are Deploying National Guards is not a common generally better equipped than the other armed practice in Anglophone Africa. Nigeria under forces and they also enjoy virtual immunity for military rule experimented with the idea of a the crimes and abuses they commit. In some National Guard in the late 1980s and early countries, the Presidential Guards have been 1990s, but this was quickly abandoned. reformed however (in Niger for instance). 4.3 Development missions for the armed forces In the past, a number of anglophone countries Traditionally most francophone countries have a sadly experienced Presidential Guards. In role envisioned for their armies in both economic Ghana, Nkrumah established the President’s development and in education. In a number of Own Guard Regiment in the 1960s. Jerry countries, the constitutions state that the armed Rawlings also had his own special protection forces may participate in the economic, social units. Many other anglophone countries have and cultural development of the country. Even if established similar units, though these have those missions are not explicitly mentioned in varied from country to country and period to the constitutions themselves, missions that period. Today, formal Presidential/Republican involve the military in development or Guards are rare in Anglophone African humanitarian projects are often considered as a countries. However, in practice, a few countries possible (and legitimate) role for the armed have specialised brigades within the army, known forces. Because of its resources, the military is as the Brigade of Guards, which provides often seen as the only competent organisation

IDS Bulletin Volume 43 Number 4 July 2012 67 able to perform a wide range of developmental the one hand and the gendarmerie forces on the tasks in more remote areas. The use of the other. The relevance of the latter has been armed forces is also seen as a way of creating a questioned over the last few years. In addition, in combination of interests between the population some countries, municipal police forces operate and the military. The armies of Mali, Senegal alongside these two forces and are under the and Benin have been particularly active in this mayor’s supervision. area (training the public in basic hygiene and sanitation; implementing inoculation and 5.1.1 Organisational, territorial and functional divisions vaccination campaigns; building or repairing between police forces at the national level schools and/or roads; and providing air transport To understand the way in which policing facilities to remote areas). functions in Francophone African countries, it is necessary to make a three-fold distinction: In anglophone countries, only specific units of organisational, territorial and functional. the armed forces, namely the engineering corps (and in some cases the health service), are The first division between the police forces and involved in development missions. the gendarmerie forces is organic/organisational in essence. The National Police, headed by the 5 Police forces General Directorate of the National Police It is worth noting that both in Francophone and (Direction Generale de la Police Nationale – DGPN), Anglophone African countries, the operational come under the responsibility of the minister in capabilities of the police forces have been charge of security (in some cases also called the deliberately undermined by political rulers. In Minister of the Interior). In most cases, the most African countries, police forces have been General Directorate of National Police is divided treated as inferior to the military both in status into the following departments (Kurian 2006): the and resources. Under-resourcing has resulted in department of public security, in charge of the inability of the police to grapple with public maintaining public order and controlling common insecurities arising from high crime rates and offences (assaults, rape, theft, fraud, mugging, serious internal security threats (Anderson and etc.); the criminal investigation department Killingray 1992). The consequent loss of public (judiciary police), which investigates and confidence in the police has led to the de- prosecutes major and organised crime; the legitimisation of the public police and recourse territorial surveillance department, which issues to the military (resulting in a blurring of internal permission to enter or exit the national territory and external security functions) and/or to (counterpart of the so-called ‘police aux frontieres’ in privatised sources of security and protection such France); and the intelligence department, as corporate security companies and vigilantes. responsible for administrative inquiries and individual surveillance. Each department is Consequently, reforming and enhancing the divided into several more general departments, operational capabilities of the police forces are regional departments, provincial departments, top priorities in both Francophone and country desks, and services. In the various regions, Anglophone countries. However, it is paramount departments are placed under the administrative to address the reforms taking into account the authority of the regional governor, and under the very different organisational frameworks of technical authority of the director general. This policing in Francophone and Anglophone Africa. dual layer of hierarchical and technical authority Indeed, one of the defining differences between enables regional governors to carry out their roles francophone and anglophone states rests in large as both regional civil services, and chiefs of part on the kind of security forces that are security in their area of expertise. responsible for the maintenance of internal order. On the other hand, the gendarmerie can be defined 5.1 Police forces in Francophone Africa as a civilian police force with military status. The In most Francophone African countries that used national gendarmerie is part of the military forces, to be under French colonial rule, the policing and comes under the jurisdiction of a general system is modelled on the French system. Two directorate of the Ministry of Defence, which is different services are nationally involved in the responsible for budget, recruitment, education, protection of internal order: the police forces on training, equipment, administration and logistics

68 Bagayoko Security Systems in Francophone and Anglophone Africa of the gendarmerie forces. However, in operational hierarchy between the different forces: the matters, the gendarmerie has to respond to the National Police are the first class of force who agency that requires and asks for its services, can maintain public order. The gendarmerie namely the Ministry of Interior on the one hand becomes involved as the second category force. and the Ministry of Justice on the other. The Under exceptional circumstances (e.g. in a state gendarmerie is made up of two sub-divisions, the so- of emergency), the armed forces may be called in called Great Commands (grands commandements): as a third category force to back up the police the territorial gendarmerie (gendarmerie territoriale) and gendarmerie forces. and the mobile gendarmerie (gendarmerie mobile). The territorial gendarmerie is the cornerstone of the The judiciary police could be described as gendarmerie and is responsible for national territory repressive; it is responsible for the detection and surveillance, gathering intelligence, and the investigation of crime, and the arrest of suspects. execution of judiciary, military and administrative The judiciary police units of the gendarmerie and the police missions. The mobile gendarmerie is National Police are specifically trained to be specifically responsible for law enforcement all responsible for discovering crimes, gathering over the national territory, and for the protection evidence, and seeking out offenders. In both of the authorities. It has absolutely no judiciary organisations the judiciary police are answerable police missions and its members are therefore not to the Minister of Justice. When they act as judiciary police officers. judiciary police, the police and the gendarmerie forces come under the authority of the courts, The second division relates to the territorial particularly the juge d’instruction (examining sharing of responsibilities between the National magistrate) and the procureur (prosecutor). Police and the gendarmerie forces. Police units Furthermore, it is important to stress the fact that, usually carry out their duties in urban areas and in addition to their judiciary and law-enforcement cities, whereas the gendarmerie intervenes in rural duties, gendarmerie forces also have a military areas, and at borders (sometimes along with defence function (military police, gathering forest security and customs units). intelligence, protecting sensitive sites) and perform several more directly combat-related Thirdly, there is a legal/functional division tasks in the event of war. Finally, both National between the functions of the administrative and Police and gendarmerie forces are increasingly taking judiciary police, although this distinction is not part in international peacekeeping missions. always apparent, since police personnel can act in both functions. Indeed these two functions are 5.1.2 Are the gendarmerie forces an anachronism?2 exercised by both the National Police and the To a number of observers, the gendarmerie forces gendarmerie. Members of the two police are seen as something of an anachronism, or organisations have, therefore, the status of both anomaly, since they represent the continuation of administrative and judiciary police. The a military presence in domestic security, and administrative police are characterised as being, therefore legitimise the involvement of the essentially, for preventive purposes, responsible armed forces in internal security matters. The for the protection of persons and property, and existence of the gendarmerie has been accused of for law enforcement. Both the National Police being a violation of the basic principle of the and the national gendarmerie are in charge of liberal-democratic state with the distinction responsibilities such as maintaining order, between the police and the military. Due to their controlling and preventing crime, enforcing militarised status, the gendarmerie is sometimes public peace, looking after public health, and associated with authoritarianism and repression regulating traffic. With particular regard to tendencies. One of the core problems that are maintaining law and order, special units of the common to a number of Francophone African National Police (generally called ‘Compagnie countries is the insufficient separation and Républicaine de Sécurité’ (CRS)) and the blurred responsibilities between the police and gendarmerie mobile (including, in most sensitive the military forces. Militarised police forces such situations, the so-called ‘Groupement d’Intervention as the gendarmerie are consequently seen as de la Gendarmerie Nationale’ (GIGN)) are making this tendency worse. Moreover, the mobilised. It is also important to note that with difference that is defined between the police and regard to law and order enforcement, there is a the gendarmerie lies in their jurisdiction: cities as

IDS Bulletin Volume 43 Number 4 July 2012 69 the police forces’ jurisdictions versus the occupy an intermediary position between internal countryside as the gendarmerie forces’ jurisdiction. and external security forces. The gendarmerie forces Yet, in many francophone countries, this are organised along military lines and are thus distinction is no longer respected. more centralised and hierarchical than the civilian police forces. They are also equipped with Nevertheless, despite such critiques, the heavier equipment than common police forces gendarmerie is often considered an elite corps: that (armoured cars, light infantry weapons). Finally, is why its recruitment may be more stringent as mentioned above, the gendarmeries have a double than for other services, such as the army or the affiliation with the Ministry of Defence and the National Police forces. Gendarmes generally enjoy a Ministry of Interior and carry out their judiciary better reputation than the other security forces: police missions under the supervision of the they appear to be a disciplined corps respectful of Ministry of Justice. hierarchy. The gendarmerie has generally experienced fewer mutinies than other security Due to the fact that they combine both the forces. More often than not they have not been characteristics of police and military forces, the involved in any forcible takeovers of power. gendarmeries are seen by some observers as However, the gendarmeries have been viewed as a particularly appropriate institutions to deal with central unit that protects the regime, and has challenges that emerge in Africa. They are seen sometimes been used as a tool of repression as a relevant force that can easily be mobilised to against opposition movements. In other deal with: countries, they are seen as a rival to the army. z border control to respond to various A number of francophone countries have transnational challenges (fighting arms and suppressed their gendarmerie forces, as with drug trafficking). Gendarmerie forces are Belgium in Europe, or Burundi and the increasingly mobilised for border enforcement, Democratic Republic of Congo in Africa. There sometimes along with the armed forces; is currently a debate in France, where a number z peace operations, especially in the attempts at of voices have been pleading for the suppression post-war reconstruction. African crises are of the gendarmerie, in the context of budgetary often characterised by the gravity of the restrictions that makes the dual police system offences and crimes that have been unaffordable. Conversely, Switzerland decided to committed, mostly against civilians, by create a gendarmerie-type force in early 2000. troublemakers. Due to their double affiliation, gendarmerie forces can be deployed both under In contrast, it seems to a number of specialists civilian (for law enforcement as well as that the intermediary, gendarmerie-type of security judiciary missions) and under military force is growing in significance (Lutterbeck 2004). command (their military skills enabling them According to them, the emergence of a growing to engage in fighting missions in cases of the number of transnational risks and threats that deterioration of situations from post-conflict increasingly challenge the traditional distinction to war). It has also been suggested that the between internal and external security make the gendarmerie forces could act as judiciary case for more agencies that are located between auxiliaries to the International Penal Court. levels of internal and external security. The distinction between external security on the one Such views have inspired a new project: the hand – identified with mainly military threats Organisation des Gendarmeries Africaines (African coming from the aggressive behaviour of other Gendarmeries Organisation, OGA). A states; and, on the other hand, internal security – Convention setting up the OGA was signed and identified as criminal, or otherwise disturbing adopted by a number of Francophone African activities, within the boundaries of a state, are countries which belong to three different areas being increasingly blurred. This implies that both in Francophone Africa: North (Maghreb, Mali crime and war have tended to meet and, and Niger); Western African countries (Senegal, consequently, the role of the military and the Cote d’Ivoire, Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso, police forces have increasingly coincided. In a Guinea); and Eastern and Central Africa (Chad, number of aspects, such as with formal affiliation, RCA, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Djibouti and internal structures and armoury, the gendarmeries Madagascar). Senegal hosts the Secretariat of

70 Bagayoko Security Systems in Francophone and Anglophone Africa the OGA. On 20 June 2006, the French Minister command at the national level (Hills 2000, 2007). of Interior officially announced that France was Most police forces are therefore territorially willing to support the setting up of an African organised into national headquarters, provincial, gendarmerie force, similar to the European divisional and district commands. However, the gendarmerie force, which was launched within the different specialised functions of policing also framework of the European Security and determine the organisation of the police. While Defence Policy (ESDP) (Franceschi 2006, 2007). the regular police enforce the law and work to prevent, detect and fight crime, paramilitary Beyond Francophone Africa, the debate around police concentrate on the preservation of public the relevance of civilian police forces with military order. The paramilitary police, commonly known status may be of interest for Anglophone Africa. as Police Mobile Unit or Police Mobile Force, are present in many countries, including Botswana, 5.1.3 The municipal police Malawi, Nigeria (the Police Mobile Force ), The municipal police are generally controlled by Mauritius, Malawi and Lesotho. Paramilitary the Ministry of Territorial Administration. police forces are known as the General Service Supervising municipal police services is one of Units in Kenya, the Police Intervention Unit in the responsibilities of the municipalities. The the Gambia, and the Rapid Response Unit in municipal police, therefore, come under the Uganda: personnel of these specialised police are authority of a mayor, and operate under a drafted from the regular police and given special municipal police commandant. They are a police training. These mobile units can be compared to of proximity. Their attributions are to: the CRS of the police forces and to the mobile units of the gendarmerie in francophone countries. z ensure the safety and the convenience of In some cases, paramilitary police are deployed public activities on streets, public highways, together with the military in internal operations and other public facilities – notably cleaning, during periods of disorder. In some countries, lighting, the removal of congestion, the paramilitary police forces have access to hard demolition or repair of unsafe buildings; military weapons, including helicopters, gunships repress infringements on public order (fights, and armoured personnel carriers. Paramilitary crowds, noise and night-gatherings); policing has therefore been the hallmark of z maintain order during large gatherings; policing in Anglophone Africa, particularly when inspect the accuracy of measures of foodstuff it comes to dealing with serious internal crises. sold by weight or by measure and the healthiness of edible food on sale; There are no counterparts to the municipal police z ensure the protection of persons and of public forces that can be found in a number of and private goods; francophone countries. However, the practice of z and guarantee the preservation of public ‘proximity policing’ developed by the francophone places like waterways, forests, hunting and municipal police may be interestingly compared fishing services. to the practice of ‘community policing’ developed by anglophone police forces. Municipal policemen have an obligation to report all occurrences falling under the 6 Training capacities jurisdiction of the National Police, and to give In Francophone Africa, of special interest is the assistance to repress breaches of the peace, concept of ENVR (Ecoles Nationales a Vocation morality and neatness of the city. Regionale – National Schools with Regional Vocation). The ENVR’s aim is to adapt the In some francophone countries, municipal police training that is traditionally taught in French forces operate alongside National Police forces military schools to the particularities of the based in towns. However, in many countries, African continent. The ENVRs are supported by municipal police forces only exist in theory. France and are meant to welcome trainees who come from all francophone countries. 25–50 per 5.2 Organisation of the police forces in Anglophone cent of the available positions are booked for Africa trainees who originate from the host nation. In Anglophone Africa, all the police forces are Trainees have to pass an entrance examination nationally controlled, i.e. they have a central to have access to the schools. Some of these

IDS Bulletin Volume 43 Number 4 July 2012 71 schools are called upon to work closely with rather than research centres, networks or think regional organisations, including the African tanks – are working on SSR topics in an isolated Union (AU) and, in the long run, to become way. It is important to note, however, that these excellence training centres for the AU standby people, if not numerous, do generally have a very brigades. Currently, there are 14 ENVRs in deep knowledge of African francophone security Africa, located in 10 francophone countries: systems. Often, they belong to research centres Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Togo that are specialised in international relations, in West Africa, and Cameroon and Gabon in strategic studies or geopolitics (see for instance Central Africa. They offer 50 different types of N’Diaye 2007; Agokla 2010; Sangaré 2006; training, which generally relate to three major Toulabor 2005; Bryden et al. 2008). A lot of areas: military general training; support of peace francophone practitioners have also developed operations; and specialised training. A number of specialised skills in the field of security reform. If these training areas are bilingual connected to a strong network, these academics (French/English). The most recent ENVR is the and practitioners could make invaluable so-called EIFORCES (International Security contributions to SSR in Francophone Africa. Forces Training School) in Awaé, Cameroon, meant to train both police and gendarmerie forces It is important to acknowledge that difficulties in for peacekeeping-related missions. conducting research in most of Africa, and particularly Francophone Africa, constitutes in The ENVR works with the same principles as the some cases a wilful obstacle to knowledge Kofi Annan Peacekeeping Centre in Accra and production for analysis and sound policy the National War College in Abuja. formulation: it is in itself a major hurdle to the improvement of security provision and stability. 7 State of the art research on SSR Furthermore, the ‘secrets’ that these practices are An important amount of knowledge has been supposed to protect are often common knowledge. accumulated on the security sector in Anglophone Africa, thanks to the expertise and 8 Conclusion research activities carried out by a lively network The time is ripe to share and build upon the of research centres such as the African Security experience of both Francophone and Anglophone Sector Network, African Security Dialogue and (and Lusophone) Africa within shared policy Research, the Centre for Democracy and frameworks/concerns, either by extending the Development, the Southern African Defence and theory and practice of SSR to francophone Security Management Network, and the Centre countries, or through other less intrusive forms for Policy Research and Dialogue, based in of experience-sharing. Yet institutional Eastern, Western and Southern Africa. variations matter and have to be understood and built into policy and practice on SSR. The In contrast, carrying out documentary research general principles of SSR are no doubt relevant into institutional security development in to Francophone Africa as well. However, for SSR Francophone Africa is a real challenge: there is programmes to be efficient in Francophone little information and few materials – either as Africa there is a need to recognise that, beyond primary or secondary sources – available in the sharing a common language, the majority of public domain. Only a few states have compiled Francophone African states share a specific the statutory rules of their civil service, and texts model from an institutional, organisational and relating to the special statutes that characterise procedural standpoint. Today, the major most of the defence and security forces in international actors involved in SSR acknowledge Francophone African states are unavailable. As a that the peculiarities of French-speaking African consequence, priority must be given to European environments have not been sufficiently taken or North American research or documentation into account in the original conceptualisation of centres when carrying out documentary research SSR as well as the implementation of policies on into the security sector of an African the ground. A thorough knowledge of these francophone country. In addition, there are no features is consequently necessary to ensure the organised SSR-focused research capabilities of success of reforms in Francophone Africa, both in any importance that can be identified in post-conflict environments and conflict Francophone Africa. Individual academics – prevention strategies.

72 Bagayoko Security Systems in Francophone and Anglophone Africa Notes 2 This title refers to the analysis of Bayley 1 Former Belgian colonies are not reviewed (1985) who viewed the persistence of the here. gendarmerie as somewhat of an anachronism.

References Hills, A. (2000) Policing Africa: Internal Security and Agokla, K. (2010) ‘Le Cadre Institutionnel et le the Limits of Liberalisation, Boulder CO: Lynne Système de Sécurité au Togo’, in K. Agokla, Rienner N. Bagayoko and B. N’Diaye (eds), La Réforme Kurian, G.T. (2006) World Encyclopaedia of Police des Système de Sécurité et de Justice en Afrique Forces and Correctional Systems, 2nd edn, Detroit: Francophone, Paris: Organisation internationale Thomson Gale de la Francophonie (OIF) Lutterbeck, D. (2004) ‘Between Police and Anderson, D.M. and Killingray, D. (1992) Policing Military: The New Security Agenda and the and Decolonisation: Nationalism, Politics and the Rise of Gendarmeries’, Cooperation and Conflict: Police, 1917–1965, Manchester: Manchester Journal of Nordic International Studies Association University Press 39.1 Bayley, D.H. (1985) Patterns of Policing: A Comparative N’Diaye B. (2007) ‘Security “A la Française”: International Analysis, New Brunswick, New Francophone Africa’s Security Sector Non- Jersey: Rutgers University Press Transformation’, draft paper Bryden A.; N’Diaye, B. and Olonisakin, F. (dir. Sangaré, N. (2006) ‘Mali’, in E. Hutchful and publ.) (2008) Gouvernance du Secteur de la W. Omitoogun (eds), Budgeting for the Military Sécurité en Afrique de l’Ouest: Les Défis à Relever, Sector in Africa: The Processes and Mechanisms of Zürich and Berlin: Lit Verlag Control, New York: SIPRI (Stockholm Franceschi, P. (2007) ‘Plaidoyer pour la Création International Peace Research Institute), de Forces de Gendarmeries Africaines’, Défense Oxford University Press Nationale et Sécurité Collective 10: 179–86 Toulabor, C. (2005) Les Forces Armées Togolaises et le Franceschi, P. (2006) ‘La Régionalisation du Dispositif Sécuritaire de Contrôle (1&2), Articles sur Maintien de la Paix en Afrique: Une Evolution la Toile à l’adresse, www.ufctogo.com/Les- des Rapports entre les Gendarmeries forcesarmees-togolaises-et-le-1082.html Africaines’, Revue de la Gendarmerie Nationale 220 (accessed 8 March 2010) Hills, A. (2007) ‘Police Commissioners, Presidents and the Governance of Security’, Journal of Modern African Studies 45.3

IDS Bulletin Volume 43 Number 4 July 2012 73