Security Systems in Francophone and Anglophone Africa Niagalé Bagayoko Abstract This article analyses the commonalities and differences between African anglophone and francophone security systems in the context of security sector reform. Although each country has a distinct political history and tradition, similarities in the security apparatus, rooted in its inheritance from the colonial and post-colonial periods, can be found in both sets of countries. Identifying better ways to harmonise the SSR programmes being implemented all over the African continent requires a deep understanding of the similarities and differences which exist between African countries that belong to different linguistic areas and inherited from colonial rule. Security governance has been improving in an important number of anglophone countries over the last few years, while Francophone African countries are usually presented as not having experienced any significant transformation in security governance. Influencing factors of relative success or failure include institutional patterns; decision-making structures; type of defence and police forces; and training capacities. 1 Introduction: can SSR fit all African Francophone African countries are usually environments? presented as not having experienced any In recent years, anglophone countries have significant transformation in security governance. arguably been more open to changes towards The recent seizure of power by the military – or increased accountability of their security forces with their complicity – in several states is seen as (ministries of defence relatively independent dramatic evidence of the total lack of from the armed forces; parliamentarian improvement in security governance. However, oversight; accountability to audit bodies, the situation is much more complex. It is also ombudsmen, human rights commissions, etc.) important to be aware that an important number than their francophone equivalents. Partly this of countries, including non-democratic ones, have may reflect variations in their respective tiptoed into a process of reform. Most of the time, democratic transition processes. But another those reform processes have been undertaken factor has been the active promotion of security and framed without the SSR label. But they are sector reform (SSR) itself in countries like in fact resulting in more professional and Sierra Leone, Ghana, etc., together with some accountable security forces, which is the cross-fertilisation among anglophone countries, overarching purpose of the SSR approach. as well as the demonstration effects of the South African model. The situation is of course far Identifying better ways to harmonise the SSR from ideal: in many countries, security programmes being implemented all over the ministries still tend to be weak and badly African continent requires a deep understanding resourced; the mechanisms of ‘horizontal’ of the similarities and differences which exist accountability – to audit bodies, ombudsmen, between African countries that belong to different human rights commissions, etc. – are weak in linguistic areas and inherited from colonial rule. essence, and military forces have fared better The issue at stake is neither to provide a than the police forces. But it cannot be denied performance rating of francophone and that security governance has been improving in anglophone security apparatus nor to define an important number of anglophone countries performance benchmarks against which security over the last few years. apparatuses should be systematically assessed. IDS Bulletin Volume 43 Number 4 July 2012 © 2012 The Author. IDS Bulletin © 2012 Institute of Development Studies Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA 63 This article aims to provide a better understanding appoint the President as the ‘supreme of the institutional, organisational, bureaucratic commander in chief of the armed forces’, the and legal security arrangements operating in adjective ‘supreme’ being directly taken from the Francophone and Anglophone African countries, to American Constitution. highlight their commonalities and differences and to provide an overview of the actors, structures, Initially, institutional arrangements in most and how security systems function. Former French anglophone countries reflected the distinctively territories (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, British heritage, for example parliamentary Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Central Africa, Gabon, government, common law, sharp separation in Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo)1 and principle between external defence and internal former British and American colonies (Botswana, policing, hence between military and police, etc. Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, However, most anglophone countries have shifted Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, toward presidential governance, not least in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, relation to the security sector – hence tending to Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and converge with French-speaking countries. Zimbabwe) are reviewed in this article. Currently, nearly all the constitutions in former British colonies (with the exception of Ethiopia, 2 Institutional patterns Lesotho and Swaziland), provide for the All francophone countries have centralised presidential system of government, as opposed to presidential systems, in which security the Westminster parliamentary system inherited bureaucracies report directly or indirectly to the at independence. Furthermore, in Anglophone President. Although anglophone countries Africa, security governance influences stem from initially had an inherited tradition of models other than the United Kingdom parliamentary government, in reality presidential institutional tradition – either from widespread control has also prevailed in all of them. In the links with other Commonwealth countries or two sets of countries, the prominence of the from the USA – for example, in Nigeria where executive branch has downsized the role of the the federal constitution, presidential government, parliaments, although this is still formally the bicameral legislature and its select recognised by the constitutions. committees etc., reflect the US influence even more than the British. The US influence is also 2.1 The central role of the President paramount in Liberia. As in Francophone Africa, In Francophone Africa, the legacy of colonialism it is worth noting that constitutional provisions and then the adoption of constitutions inspired inspired by the US Presidentialist Constitution by – if not carbon-copied from – the French Fifth have been integrated in a number of other Republic Constitution have resulted in the anglophone countries, especially the provision concentration of power in the executive branch. entitling the President of the Republic as A constant feature of most francophone Supreme Chief of the armed forces. The Constitutions is the President of the Republic constitutions stipulate that the President has presiding over all security apparatuses, whilst ultimate powers to determine the operational use the government – mostly through the ministries of all security forces. The President also appoints of defence, interior/internal security and justice the ministers in charge of the ministries of – is responsible for implementing security defence, home/internal affairs and intelligence. policies. The President also has the power to The President also has the executive power to appoint civilian and military positions (for appoint the operational commanders of the instance the Chief of General Staff of the armed security forces such as the Defence Chief of Staff forces, as well as other heads of the civilian and as well as the Inspector General (in some military administration). The President can also countries called commissioner) of Police, and the hold ‘exceptional powers’ and has the power to Inspector General of Intelligence. declare a state of emergency, though this can only be after consultation with his Council of 2.2 Role of the parliaments Ministers. Furthermore it is important to note In both Anglophone and Francophone Africa, that most of the Francophone African parliamentary oversight of the security services is constitutions have also integrated provisions provided for in most constitutions. Since the 1990s, inspired by the American Constitution: they the francophone constitutions have established a 64 Bagayoko Security Systems in Francophone and Anglophone Africa system of separation and collaboration between larger parliaments, like Nigeria’s and South the executive and the legislative branches. Most of Africa’s, the parliament has separate committees them state that the parliament is in charge of on defence (in addition to defence, the Senate in declaring war and of ratifying peace agreements. Nigeria has a committee for the army, air force Moreover, as in France, the constitutions of and navy), police and intelligence. In smaller Francophone African states recognise that ‘the parliaments, such as that of Zambia and Ghana, fundamental principles of the general organisation defence and the interior are combined under one of the national defence’ result from the legal committee. There are also committees on domain, which means that their defence policies appropriation and public accounts, which are are passed into law by the legislature, though only meant to debate, approve and review defence, after being