Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | , 2 , 1.9– 1 − ´ e, yr 2 − Discussions ´ e, IPGP, , J. Gaillardet Biogeosciences 1 0.2). The residence time ± 0.7 , L. Pastor = 3 ´ e Paris-Diderot, Sorbonne Paris for POC, emphasizing that these 1 − ´ e Paris-Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cit 2.1), while during extreme floods, the dis- , O. Crispi for DIC, DOC and POC, respectively. Floods 4 ± ected by intense meteorological events play- 1 7118 7117 ff − 2.6 yr 2 ´ = e Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cit − ´ eologiques, Universit , E. Lajeunesse 2,3 1 and 8.1–25.5 tCkm 1 ¨ − elmont, 97113 Gourbeyre, Guadeloupe (FWI) for DOC and about 8.4–26.5 TgCyr ´ eochimie et Cosmochimie, Universit yr 1 , C. Dessert 2 − ´ eochimie des Eaux, Universit − 1,* ´ e, IPGP, UMR 7154, CNRS, 75205 Paris, France This discussion paper is/has been under review for the journal Biogeosciences (BG). Please refer to the corresponding final paper in BG if available. Equipe de Dynamique des Fluides G Observatoire Volcanologique et Sismologique de Guadeloupe (OVSG) IPGP, UMR 7154, Equipe G Equipe de G now at: Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, 442 Earth Sciences jor leak for terrestrial(SOC) ecosystems. can be During lixiviated meteorological and events, transferred soil in aquatic organic ecosystem carbon in dissolved form, or can 8.9 TgCyr carbon fluxes are significant and should be included in global carbon budgets. 1 Introduction Soil organic matter containsof 1400 carbon to at 1500 Gt the ofthus Earth carbon represents surface and (Schlesinger, the is 1977; major one Gregory input of et of the al., major organic 1999). pools carbon Soil in erosion aquatic ecosystems and a ma- solved carbon transported is mostly organicof (DIC/DOC the organiclinked carbon to in the Guadeloupean intensityevents. soils Looking of may at meteorological the vary events globalcoming from than carbon from 381 the mass small balance, frequency to the tropical of 1000 total yr, and meteorological export and volcanic of mountainous is organic carbon rivers is estimated about 2.0– and DIC concentrations. The8.6 mean tCkm annual yields rangedand extreme 8.1–15.8 tCkm floods represent 45of to the 70 annual % POC of flux. the43 The % annual DIC of DOC flux the occurs flux, annual essentially andcarbon DIC during more flux the between than is low 80 the water % exported level, inorganic duringnamic only floods. and of The the rivers. distribution of During organicunder the low fraction the dissolved inorganic water is form level correlated (DIC/DOC and to floods, the the hydrody- dissolved carbon is exported In the tropic, the smalling watersheds an are important a rolecarbon on fluxes. the We erosion ofBasse-Terre studied volcanic soils Island the (FWI) and during geochemistry therefore a on four of years the period, three associated by measuring small organic DOC, POC watersheds around the Abstract * Building, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E3, Canada Received: 2 May 2012 – Accepted: 10Correspondence May to: 2012 E. – Lloret Published: ([email protected]) 18 or June M. 2012 Published F. by Benedetti Copernicus ([email protected]) Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. Cit 4 Biogeosciences Discuss., 9, 7117–7163, 2012 www.biogeosciences-discuss.net/9/7117/2012/ doi:10.5194/bgd-9-7117-2012 © Author(s) 2012. CC Attribution 3.0 License. IPGP, UMR 7154, CNRS,3 75205 Paris, France CNRS, Le Hou Are small mountainous tropical watersheds of oceanic islands important for carbon export? E. Lloret and M. F. Benedetti 1 UMR 7154, CNRS,2 75205 Paris, France 5 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | shore (Hedges ff ¨ unz and Schneider, (Hedges et al., 1997; 1 − erences in lithology, vegetations, ff ` egre, 1997; Dessert et al., 2009; Goldsmith ¨ unz and Schneider, 2000; Lyons et al., 2002; 7120 7119 being inversely proportional to the watershed ff which integrate di ... ˜ ni, 2004; Burdige, 2005; Galy et al., 2007). ected by aperiodic intense precipitation events such as cyclones or tropi- ache et al., 2003; Zahibo et al., 2007). Previous studies showed that the soil ff ff ¨ unz and Schneider 2000; Aitkenhead-Peterson et al., 2003), with about 60 % in ` egre, 1997; Dessert et al., 2001, 2003; Rad et al., 2007; Goldsmith et al., 2010; From these observations, the Guadeloupe Island (French West Indies) is an ideal Organic carbon transport from continents to oceans represents around 40 % of the ground flow path is the major source of organic carbon and explains the low DOC coasts are impacted byclones numerous (Sa meteorological events likeerosion could tropical be storms accentuated by and these2006; cy- extreme Dawson meteorological et events al., (Waterloo 2008; etfocusing Hilton al., on et al., spatial 2008a; and LloretDOC temporal et concentrations distribution in al., Guadeloupean of 2011). Rivers, Lloret have dissolved underlinedon et inorganic the the al. importance carbon carbon (2011), of export, (DIC) floods more and thaning 50 floods. % During of floods, the annual riversfrom DOC are export lixiviation fed being by transported of surface dur- solutions freshly enriched deposited in DOC organic resulting matter. Under low water conditions, the weathering and mechanical denudation areAll reported for volcanic lithologyGaillardet (Louvat and et al.,(Colmet-Daage 2012). and Moreover, Bernard, Guadeloupean 1979) presentter soils enriched (10–15 %) surface (andosol horizons (Colmet-Daage and in and organic ferralitic Lagache, mat- 1965; soils) Duchaufour, 2001). Guadeloupean cal storms that canorganic play carbon an released important by these roleGoldsmith systems on et (Waterloo the et al., al., 2008; erosion 2006; Hilton of Dawson et soils et al., al., and 2008a; 2008; the Lloretlocation flux et al., to of 2011). study total theas yield the and impact the of fluxlogic these of volcanic carbon events composition on from such inorganic helpsclimate, small and soil to watersheds organic composition, constrain as carbon and the well age fluxes. influence Its of monolitho- the of bedrock. other In factors addition, such high as rates of chemical sources of POC (Kao andCarey Liu, et 1996; Schl al., 2005;jor Hilton elements et to al., the 2008b), oceanset (Louvat DOC al., and (Lloret 2010; All et Calmelsrivers al., et are 2011) al., a and 2011; dissolved Lloret ma- et al., 2011). Numerous small mountainous and Syvitski, 1992). Recent works have demonstrated that these small rivers are major area (Walling, 1983; Milliman and Meade, 1983; Degens and Ittekkot, 1985; Milliman climatic regimes. Indeed studies generallysippi focus on (Bianchi large et river systems al.,2008), like 2007; the tributaries Missis- Duan of et2006; the al., Aufdenkampe Amazon 2007), et River the al.,Ob, (Moreira-Turcq Ganga-Brahmaputra 2007; Lena et (Galy Bouchez Rivers) al., et (Ludwig et2004; al., 2003; et al., Raymond Johnson al., et 2010), al., 1996a; et largesoils 2007), Dittmar Arctic and al., climate. and rivers However, small Kattner, (Yenisei, mountainousare 2003; rivers less Gebhardt directly studied connected et than toorganic large al., the rivers, oceans matter, although their they yields play an and important runo role in transporting global continental carbon flux varying betweenSchl 0.4 and 0.9 Gtyr the dissolved form (DOC) andestimation 40 % of in the the particulate globalquantitative form organic (POC). studies Uncertainties carbon taking on transfer into the are account partly all sizes due of to watersheds the as lack well of as holistic all type of et al., 1997). Having beenHedges subjected et to al., severe 1994) microbialarriving and attack in aquifers estuaries in (e.g., and soils seas Nelson (Oades,ecosystems. can et 1988; be Nevertheless, al., recalcitrant studies and 1993), have resistorganic riverine to shown carbon DOC the that degradation and is in less POC buried these (Berner, than in 1989; one-third marine Hedges of sediments and terrestrial 2000; and Keil, Gordon 1995; stored and Hedges Go over et geological al., timescales 1997; Schl in particulate form (Lal,organic 2004). carbon During can its beor transport mineralized deposited in and/or and rivers exported stored tovial into (POC) the plains, the in oceans, mangroves) aquatic ocean (Lal, terrestrial ecosystems (DOCis 2004). under and then Once low POC), mineralized, in discharge and/or the (i.e.: buried allu- ocean, in this sediments, terrestrial and/or organic transported matter o be eroded and transferred in aquatic ecosystem or translocated over the landscape 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ) 1 − yr 2 − , respec- 1 − yr and is similar 2 1 − − yr 2 − erent meteorological ff ˆ ateau and Vieux-Habitants erent carbon forms (POC vs. ff , depending on the topography, and 1 − 7122 7121 ´ eo-France pluviometers close to our sampling ´ et 1 m) (Colmet-Daage and Bernard, 1979; Cattan et al., < C and humidity of 75 %. The average annual precipitation ◦ ` ere volcano (1463 m, the highest point of the Lesser Antilles). The maximum 3.4 (Lloret, 2010). The Capesterre and Vieux-Habitants watersheds, located 1.6 (Lloret, 2010). ± ± erent carbon forms, (2) to estimate the impact of the floods on the global carbon The Basse-Terre Island is characterized by a wet tropical climate, with a mean an- The Bras-David watershed located in the center of Basse-Terre Island is essentially These three watersheds are studied as part of the ObsErA (INSU-CNRS; AllEnvi) The aims of this paper are, on the light of POC, DOC, and DIC and particulate To address these issues, we have selected three watersheds, hydrologically mon- ff of precipitation is recorded at the top of the volcano, with annual cumulated rainfalls can vary annually. Yearsa are punctuated wet by rainy a seasontropical dry depressions from season produce July individual from toerosion rainfall January of December. events, to which Guadeloupean During June soils play the and atial and wet weathering major distribution products. role of season, As on precipitations hurricanes showncollected is the in and precipitation strongly Fig. data influenced 1, of by the threepoints easterly spa- M and (Petit-Bourg topography. Duclos, We Gendarmerie Capesterre-Belle-Eau Beausoleil) Neufch and of theof OVSG-IPGP La meteorological Soufri station at the summit 2007), related to theis steep 11.8 slopes of the young volcanic rocks. The averagenual C/N temperature around ratio 23 for the last 20 yr ranges from 1200 to 8000 mmyr previously studied (Buss et al.,volcanoclastic 2010; Sak debris et flows, al., 2010) containingClays, and dominantly rocky consist halloysite, of clasts highly represent at weathered are about various 75 almost wt% stages entirely of of theis Fe(III)-hydroxides weathering. mineralogy 12.9 and and quartz/cristobalite. nonclays respectively The in average the southeastern C/N and ratio by southwestern andesitic parts rocks of linked Basse-Terre, to areand underlain Pliocene covered with and thin Quaternary andosol ( volcanism (Samper et al., 2007) vegetation is mainly dominatedhead by of tropical watersheds rainforest (Rousteau and et by al., altitude 1994; forest Rousteau, type 1996). atcomposed of the Pliocene andesitic andby dacitic a formations very (Samper thick et ferralitic al., soil 2007), (Colmet-Daage covered and Bernard, 1979). Soils of the site were National Park of Guadeloupe in the central part of the volcanic Basse-Terre Island. The dies. This observatory itself(RBV belongs supported by to INSU-CNRS the and French AllEnvi). The network three of watersheds monitored are located watersheds in the the time resolution of sampling. 2 Site characteristics The main characteristics ofFig. the 1. watersheds are given in Table A1 andobservatory summarized in devoted to the study of weathering and erosion in the French West In- the carbon fluxes from small tropical watersheds with the oneitored of for large several rivers. decades,rainfalls. with One of various these size, rivers was elevation, monitoredequipped ages, intensively with with slope, an pressure and automatic water sensor exposure sampler to activated during flood events, increasing significantly not estimated. nitrogen (PN) concentrations, (1)di to calculateexport, the (3) annual to yields characterizeDOC and and the fluxes DIC hydrodynamic of vs. of DOC),event), these related the (4) to to di flood estimate type the (associatedresidence carbon with time mass di of balance carbon at in watershed soil scale and and calculate aboveground the biomass and soils, (5) to compare ous islands under tropical climate rangesto between the 2.5 DOC and 5.7 yields tkm (Moreira-Turq et calculated al., for 2003), the large Orinoco tropical andtively) the rivers (Ludwig Parana like (4.8 et and the 1.4 al., Amazon tkmthe 1996b (5.8 POC tkm and yields were references not therein). considered However and in then Lloret the global et export al. of (2011), organic carbon was concentrations. They also estimated that DOC yields by small volcanic and mountain- 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | . ff 1 − , those of 1 − s 3 for Capesterre River, Bras- and in extreme flood when 1 1 − − s s 3 by Schleicher & Schuell cut o 3 ® in pre-cleaned and pre-combusted 4 ). The Fig. 1 shows the variations of the PO 3 , and 18.0 m , and 2.6 m , and those of Vieux-Habitants River from 0.5 1 7124 7123 1 1 − − − s s s 3 3 3 C in the dark. Filters with the total suspended matter , 9.0 m ◦ , 1.3 m 1 1 ). − 1 − s − s 3 3 C and stored in Petri Dish. ◦ culty of performing manual sampling during floods prevented us from http://www.hydro.eaufrance.fr ffi of rainfalls near the sampling location. Capesterre and Vieux-Habitants . Flood events occurred throughout the years, but they were in greater 1 1 − ), acidified with concentrated H − s 1 3 − Samples used for the measurement of dissolved organic carbon concentrations were An important aspect of our investigation is to assess whether our river sampling cov- The discharges of the studied rivers are monitored by the DEAL (French Water sampling high discharges. filtered through glass0.7 fiber µmoll filters (GF/Fglass Whatman bottles and stored(TSM) were at dried 4 at 60 of flow discharges toThe the distributions distribution of of flowthe sampled discharges “Direction discharges Regionale were de for calculated l’Environnement”. each using Figureautomatic 2 water river the clearly sampler on flow shows allowed that rate us Fig. the tocase chronicles 2. use cover of of of a the an representative Capesterre range River. ofRivers This flow as rates is the in not di the the case for Bras-David and Vieux-Habitants ferent hydrological stages correspondingrivers. to An low automatic water waterThe levels sampler, temporal and ISCO-6712, variation from was floods one set for flood12 up to the another or on flood three 24 the was samples explored Capesterre and werening for River. taken to each event, with end a of timeevents. the step flood). ranging We from were 15 able min to to collect 2 h 27 (fromers flood begin- a events including representative range 5 of extreme flow rates. This was done by comparing the distribution 3.1 Sample collection Pristine water samples(Fig. 1). were The sampling collected, of surface upstream water of was done any manually from anthropogenic 2007 to activities 2010 at dif- 3 Methodology discharge exceeds 3.9 m discharge exceeds 37.0 m David River and Vieux-Habitantsrivers were River, in respectively. flood The and in number extreme of flood is days listed when in Table the A1. ing strong rainy eventsand and two tropical storms storms that likethe occurred the DEAL DEAN on discharge cyclone the dataset (17mined 05 and that August May according studied 2007), 2009 to rivers the and arein frequency the in extreme of 19 flood flood discharges, June during we during 10 2010. % deter- 0.1 Based of % on the of year the (Lloret year. et Rivers al., 2011), are and then considered in flood when rainfalls (about 4000 mmyr Survey agency; instantaneous discharges for thestantaneous three discharge of rivers Bras-David duringCapesterre River River the from ranges 0.5 2007–2010 to from 119.7 period.to m 0.2 44.9 The m to in- 25.7 m numbers during the wet season. We can observe significantly high discharges dur- David and Capesterre watershedseasterly and are present located also high onThe annual the precipitations, Vieux-Habitants between windward watershed, 2000 coast and located1100 4300 influenced mmyr mmyr on by the leewardwatersheds have coast, the same receives basin on head, where average they receive the same annual cumulated varying between 4100 and 5100 mm during the 2007–2010 studied period. The Bras- 5 5 15 20 10 20 10 15 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ) 1 1 − − 4.3 and is ± (Table A2) and are ) (McDowell and As- 1 and are significantly 1 − − 1 − ) (McDowell and Asbury, ) (Kao and Liu, 1996), in 0.8 and 16.4 1 1 − − ± 0.001 mg DW) and analyzed in ± (Table A2) and represent between 1 − ) (McDowell and Asbury, 1994), and in 1 − 7126 7125 ) (Hilton et al., 2008b). POC concentrations in 1 ) (Carey et al., 2005), and for tropical mountain- − 1 − ) were measured on pre-weighted GF/F filters and dried 110–180 µmoll 1 − ≈ ) (McDowell and Asbury, 1994), or temperate mountainous 200 µmoll 1 − ≈ analyzer, after overnight (12 h) acidification under concentrated fluxes and weathering rates calculations. The titrations of alkalinity in- 2 ) (Kao and Liu, 1996), tropical mountainous watersheds of Puerto Rico 1 − and the precision was 2 %. 1 Thermofisher − acid vapor prior to the determination of organic carbon. The precision was 6.96 to 61.8 mgl C before and after the filtration. POC and PN were assessed directly from 4 = ◦ PO For the Capesterre River, Bras-David River and Vieux-Habitants River, the contribu- The calculations of DIC are made using in-situ pH, temperature, corrected alkalinity All watersheds have the same DOC concentrations, between 29 and 479 µmoll The contribution of the organic matter in the measure of the alkalinity could have an The solid transport, associated to the soil erosion, mainly occurs during floods. TSM TSM concentrations (mg l 5 %. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations were measured using a Shi- 3 and ionic strength measurements performed in the laboratory. The following simplified that the organic matter isthat 70 mainly % composed of of this organic fulvictons matter consumed acid is during as reactive the (Jouvin in titration et naturalcan by al., ecosystem the be 2009), and organic corrected. then matter the is amount calculated of pro- and the alkalinity tion of the organic matterto represents 4.9 % respectively 0.3 of to the 16.1 measured %, alkalinity. 0.2 to 10.6 %, and 0.2 influence on CO clude some reactive site of thefinal dissolved result organic matter, especially and when thusthen can the needed overestimate to DOC the remove its contribution contribution becomes tomatter the important. is measured estimated alkalinity. A The using charge correction of the is organic NICA-Donnan model (Benedetti et al., 1996). Assuming higher than data obtained1994). for The Puerto mean Ricosimilar annual (0.02–0.08 to mgl C/N the ratio C/N ratio varies of between local soils 13.7 given in(Table A2). the DOC site concentrations are description similar section. rivers to the of one New measured Zealand for small ( ous mountainous rivers of Puertotributaries Rico of the ( Amazon (Mounier et al., 2002; Moreira-Turcq et al., 2003). in a subtropical mountainoustropical mountainous river watersheds in of Puerto Taiwanbury, Rico (0.1–30 mgl 1994), (0.19–1.73 mgl or in(Hilton a et temperate al., mountainous 2008b).system. These river PN high in values concentrations New are range Zealand the (0.10–2.25 between results mgl 0.02 of and the intense 4.9 mgl erosion in this the three rivers range between3.5 and 0.3 23.5 and % 75 of mgCl the TSM (Fig. A1). They are significantly higher than values reported and particulate fraction (TSM,corresponding POC number and of PN) samples analyzed. are reported in Table A2,concentrations as for the well three as rivers the in range agreement between with 6 values andto from 476 mgl 4000 subtropical mgl mountainous rivers(TSM in Taiwan (TSM from 2 river in New Zealand (9.6–660.3 mgl 4 Results 4.1 Carbon distribution for the threeThe watersheds minimum, maximum and average concentrations of dissolved fraction (DIC, DOC) at 60 GF/F filters. One eightha of CHNS- each filter wasH weighed ( < madzu TOC-VCSH analyzer (Sugimura20 µmoll and Suzuki, 1988). The detection limit was Temperature, pH and conductivity weresured measured at the in-situ. laboratory Alkalinity with values anwith were automatic Schott acid-base mea- probe) titration by stand the (Radiometer TIM840 Gran method with a precision of 1 %. 3.2 Analytical methods 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 20 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ), 1 − ` egre, for the , leading cients of 1 1 ffi − − 80 µmoll = ) and instanta- i C ) of TSM, POC, PN, m activity coe C = 2pH) 2 − γ A2 pK ect with high discharges. The + ff and A1 1 (pK ´ eunion rivers (Louvat and All γ ) is then used: 10 · first and second acidity constants of 2 + 2 γ = for the Bras-David River, 192 and + A2 pH) 1 − − and H A2 − (pK 7128 7127 and K 10 · 2 1 γ γ A1 cor + ect of the timing of the event and its strength with in only 90 min. This rapid increase in flow leads to 1 ff 1 Alk + − ) s A2 3 ). The monthly particulate concentrations (TSM and POC) pK 1 − − (pH 10 · 2 1 γ γ ), using the formula: i + 1 Q pH) − 180 µmoll when the DOC concentrations increase from 87 to 338 µmoll for the Vieux-Habitants River (Table A2). They are similar from one A1 = 1 (pK alkalinity corrected of organic acids, 1 i − − i 10 Q = · i 1 Q γ C 1 cor + n 1 = P 1 i n = P i = = Calculated DIC concentrations range between 65 and 726 µmolCl m to an increase ofhas already the been DOC/DIC observed ratio. inemphasized This all the rivers major increase of impact of Basse-Terre of Island heavytablished DOC/DIC (Lloret rains into ratios et which the al., modify during aquifers the 2011). during floods chemicalin This low equilibrium a water es- level single conditions. hydrological Theseentire event temporal illustrate flood variations when the we importance attemptcarbon of to within an characterize the accurate the context sampling of bio-hydro-dynamic of small of tropical the all mountainous forms watersheds. of the the timing of sample collection isextreme critical. As flood an from illustration of 17 the Augustis temporal 2007, variations, shown the associated on to Dean Fig.increases Cyclone from 4. of 1.5 The Capesterre to overall River significant 30.0 modifications global m in sampling carbon timeto export: 145 is µmoll the one DIC concentrations day decrease and from the 350 discharge and C/N ratios (Fig.variations from 3b) one in month rivercould to do another. be The related not lack to reveal ofrespect a a to seasonality combined the in seasonal previous e suspended trend, events transport in with the year. generally4.3 little Concentration-discharge relationship In the specific hydrological context of mountainous and tropical Guadeloupean rivers, versely to the discharge,monthly indicating DOC concentrations a (Fig. partial 3a)calculated dilution reveal a for e seasonal the pattern, driest withand minimum maximum months values values calculated (January, for February the mosttober; or rainy median months March; (August, September median and Oc- Results are reported in Fig. 3. The monthly DIC concentrations (Fig. 3a) vary con- The large number of measurementssampler obtained allows a on better Capesterre resolution Riverchemical of from fluxes temporal the calculations. variations automatic and Average monthly thusDIC a concentrations better and ( resolution DOC in wereneous discharge calculated ( from instantaneous concentrations ( C DIC Cameroun rivers (Benedetti et1997), al., where 2003) the and alkalinities the are not R DOC contribution corrected. 4.2 Monthly variations for Capesterre River formula (neglecting concentrations of OH with Alk ions mono-charged or bi-charged, K carbonate system, respectively. Capesterre River,574 µmolCl 163 andyear to 698 µmolCl another andLloret et are al. similar (2011), to forsmith other results et al., volcanic obtained 2010; islands in Gaillardet as et Mont other al., Serrat parts 2012), and and of the to Dominica Guadeloupe the lowest (Gold- by values measured in Mount 5 5 25 15 20 10 20 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | . α   t d 1 + β Q ) Q ) are higher than 1 ln( − 2 1 t Z yr t 2 α ); where the slope is the −   x α F β 2 β log( were then calculated with the + ) and Vieux-Habitants (1.9– + ∆ ∆ 1 + β x x − ) F + yr Q α 2 x α − F ∆ log( α = α β ∆   = t ≈ ) d x # 1 7130 7129 + C Q β ln Q 2 ) 2 for the years 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010: + Q ) of each element + β x x Q β ln( 2 inst 1 t " Z t F were all fitted by: β   x ∆ β α ) in the Capesterre river (for Bras-David and Vieux-Habitants in + + ∆ x Q   F 1 t 2 + d β 1 β + + ∆ are proportionality constant and exponent, respectively. If we plot this β ) of each element β t αQ x ). Capesterre watershed is more exposed to rainfalls because of its β Q d + 1 F 2 1 = 1 and the Y-intercept is the logarithm of the proportionality constant t Z − x t + F β   Q β yr and x 2 β Q α α 2 α − C 1 t α ∆ Z t tersheds αQ = α = ∆ = x = x x = The DOC yields calculated for Capesterre (4.9–8.6 tkm The discharges of the three studied rivers are monitored by the DEAL with aThe time instantaneous fluxes ( F F x x inst ∆ 2.7 tkm windward localization and presents steep slopes (Lloret et al., 2011) leading to an Assuming one can neglect thethe error annual on flux the is flow given rate by: measurement, the uncertainty on ∆ Leading to: considered as a gap inthe the annual data. averaged Gaps fluxes were of notof DIC, taken gaps DOC into account varies and in POC. between the In 0fluxes calculation % general, is of and the weak. cumulated 30 % Only duration duration so the of that Vieux-Habitants gaps their is River 60 influence may %should on be for 2009 therefore the problematic and be calculated as 95 annual % considered the inthese with cumulated 2010. fluxes caution. The on corresponding The the values surface yields of area fluxes corresponding of to the watershed the areyields ratio displayed of in calculated Table 1. for Bras-David (2.4–4.2 tkm aged fluxes ( F Note that any interruption of the discharge record on a period longer than 24 h was Integrating these curves with respect to time allowed us to compute the annual aver- same time resolution using the calibrated concentration-dischargeF relationships: power law in a graph withlaw, logarithmic with scales, the the power following lawexponent relationship: graph is log( a polynomial linear step varying typically fromsurement one every measurement hour every at 15 low mintime flow. step during These equal floods discharge to to data 15 were min. one interpolated mea- on a regular log-log plots, suggesting powertionships law for dependencies. each The element concentration-discharge rela- C where the carbon mass balancecarbon fluxes at from the small tropical scale rivers of with small those5.1 from tropical large watershed rivers. and Mean compare annual the yields of particulate and dissolvedFigure fraction 5a, for the b three displaytion the wa- of the concentrations discharge of ( Fig. DOC, A2). DIC, Despite TSM, a POC lot and of PN scatter, as the a concentration func- data follow linear trends on these The following discussion will firstfrom focus January on 2007 to the December annual 2010. carbonthe Then impact yields the of discussion for will floods the address on three thethe carbon rivers question type export of and of the meteorological distribution events of (tropical carbon forms storms, according cyclones). to Finally we will estimate 5 Discussion 5 5 20 15 10 20 25 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | . ) 1 1 − − yr yr 2 2 erenti- − − ff , Table 1) 1 ` egre, 1997; − ) or Orinoco 1 , Table 1) are yr 1 − , Carey et al., 2 1 − , Table 1). It is − yr 1 − yr 2 − yr 2 − , McDowell and As- yr 2 − 1 2 − − − , Table 1), are higher yr 1 2 − − yr 2 ) are close to the yields cal- − 1 − yr 2 − , McDowell and Asbury, 1994; Burns 1 − yr 2 − 7132 7131 49 %) related to the young age of rock formation > ) (Lewis et al., 1999 and references therein). This is 1 − ) (Beusen et al., 2005). This is likely due to the strong 1 yr FL: low water level and floods). Three extreme floods are − 2 − + yr 2 − erent straight-lines. This ratio varies between 0.1 and 2.3 and is ff ) (Cai et al., 2008). This emphasizes that the geochemical system un- POC). 1 − + yr 2 − DOC + The PN yields calculated for Guadeloupean Rivers (0.6–1.7 tkm The POC yields calculated for Guadeloupean Rivers (8.1–25.5 tkm The DIC yields for Capesterre River (11.3–15.8 tkm POC) yield calculated for Capesterre River varies between 19.4 and 41.2 tkm orological events, high DOC exportshydrologic have flow typically been paths associated that with intersect near surface DOC rich forest floor and superficial soil layers reported, resulting from rainslocalized related rainfall to (13 the April Deanevent, 2008) a cyclone and minimum (17 of the August 140 Otto mm 2007),data), of cyclone a rain illustrating (7 heavy was the October recorded at 2010).the intensity the During transport volcano of each summit and these (OVSG-IPGP dynamicserve events. of that The the carbon event transport (Fig. of intensitythan 6). carbon strongly DOC Apart is mainly fluxes. impacts from inorganic, This thesehigh with trend DOC/DIC three DIC ratios fluxes events, is generally we around reversed higher 2 ob- during for extreme the floods, Dean resulting Cyclone samples. in During unusual extreme mete- The instantaneous DOC versus DICbetween fluxes 2007 are and reported 2010 on foron the Fig. the Capesterre 6 Fig. River. for 6 DOC/DIC all by ratiofunction data the values of acquired di are the illustrated flood intensity. Inated this from figure, the extreme others flood (LWL samples (EXT) are di higher than yields determined forical small mountainous climate rivers (0.00–0.39 and tkm largeprobably rivers due under trop- to the watershedgions, slopes inducing steeper that in soil Guadeloupe erosiontropical than is watersheds. in higher other in tropical Capesterre re- watershed than in5.2 these other Hydrodynamic of annual carbon export of soils layersand enriched POC in (slopes organic higher+ matter than and 49 %) leadingIndeed (Lloret this to et organic important al., carbon(DIC 2011). export yield The represents of organic more DOC than carbon 50 (DOC % of the total carbon yield erosive power of rainfalls and the steep slopes of watersheds allowing pull up parts or Orinoco (1.6–5.1 tkm for the large rivers under(5.5 tkm wet tropical climate, likeder Amazon investigation (5.0 tkm is mostlyDessert controlled et by al., volcanic 2001, lithology 2003; Goldsmith (Louvat et and al., All 2010;are Gaillardet et similar al., to 2012). therivers yields and calculated Sepik for River from smallbury, Papua tropical 1994; New mountainous Burns Guinea; 0.4–17 rivers et tkm mined (Puerto al., for Rico 2008). the The large POC rivers under yields wet were tropical often climate, higher like than Amazon yields (1.1–2.6 tkm deter- than for Bras-David andlikely due Vieux-Habitants to Rivers theand (8.1–12.7 tkm steeper high slopes precipitations ( Terre in island this (Lloret watershed et al.,these located 2011; three in Gaillardet Guadeloupean the et rivers southeastern al., are 2012). of significantly The the DIC higher Basse- yields than calculated the for yields determined the DOC yields ofculated the for small studied mountainous riversRiver rivers (1.9–8.6 from under tkm Papua wet New tropical Guinea;et (Puerto 1.6–11 tkm Rico al., rivers 2008) and and2005). Sepik Finally, temperate for climate the all (New2007 3 and Zealand; rivers, 2008, 0.6–5.2 the tkm as DOC 2009floods yields events. and are 2010 higher were in the 2009 most and rainy 2010 years than with in significant extreme Vieux-Habitants compared to Capesterre areto probably rainfalls. due Vieux-Habitants to watershed the locatedthan watershed on exposure Capesterre. leeward The coast receivesHabitants higher less could DOC rainfall be yields relatedenrichment found in to organic for the carbon Bras-David (6–9 soil % compared for thickness the to for 10 first Vieux- Bras-David cm) River (Lloret, as 2010). More well generally, as soil intensification of the erosion of soils, and thus higher yields. The lower DOC yields for 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ´ on, 11.8 (Lloret, 2010). The appropri- C most enriched and most mobile 1). However, Wu et al. (2007) re- = 13 < versus organic matter characteristics C isotopic composition of DOC as well 13 δ DOC C ected by the monsoon. An explanation would 7134 7133 13 ff δ erent tropical region like in Southeastern Asian ff 1) in Asian rivers a > C less enriched and less mobile organic matter molecules. Conversely, the versus 1/DOC and between 13 DOC C The distribution of POC/DOC ratio is controlled by erosion over watershed, including The most common pattern observed in many rivers in the world associates a varia- The contribution of floods and extreme floods on the global carbon export, during the 13 suppose that the highRiver annual are likely POC/DOC due ratios to (1.35–1.67) the observed mountainous topography for which Capesterre may lead to fast flushing of between 1.35 and 1.67,rivers does like not Parana, follow Orinoco the and same1983; Amazon and Richey trend et its observed al., major in tributaries 1990;part the (Milliman Moreira-Turcq et large and of al., Meade, tropical 2003), the whereported total the POC/DOC DOC organic ( flux carbon is thebe flux major that (POC/DOC these rivers haveprimary extensive areas production where and organic exported matter inallowing would particulate be “older form generated geogenic” (Burns by POC et remobilization al., that 2008) or will flood-plains modify the POC/DOC ratio. We ratio is sometime characteristic(1976) of have the observed in type the of Mississippion River event, a for the variation of instance type POC/DOC Malcolm of ratios depending creases. and meteorological We Durum observe events, the with same an trendof increasing in POC Guadeloupean export ratio Rivers, higher when indicating than an DOC the export. increasing discharge The Capesterre in- River, with annual ratio varying source which corresponds to localate soils and with exhaustive a sampling C/N ofestimate FL correctly and the EXT DOC typestudies and of limiting POC the events fluxes scope is and or thereforebalance. this the a is impact key not of issue always the to done obtained in results in watershed terms ofclimate global and mass vegetation, geomorphology anderal compositions geotectonic, as and previously even demonstrated chemical by and Ludwig et min- al. (1996b). The POC/DOC 1982; Hedges et al.,served for 1986; the Moreira-Turcq suspended etnual materials al., POC/TSM of 2003). ratio Capesterre This is Riverseems relatively (Fig. trend to constant A1). is be over Also the not the same theing for clearly years mean the the (ca. ob- an- studied studied 0.11). period. period Indeed, The suggests the that POC constant the source C/N POC ratio in (14.7) river dur- comes more likely from the same rivers (Ittekkot et al., 1985) and in South American rivers (Depetris and Lenard ter and has been reported in the di explain alone 35 % of thisyears annual of flux. This the carbon study, export exceptwater partitioning for level. is 2007, observed It an for emphasizes unusual all once “dry”years to again year estimate the mainly carbon characterized great exports by interest as low to representative monitor as rivers possible in overtion tropical several in context. POC concentration1985). to Then the an discharge increase anderally in the causes liquid TSM discharge a concentration associated decreasetern (Ittekot with in et an has the al., increase been percentage in shown POC TSM to in gen- TSM be (Meybeck, a 1982). result This of pat- the dilution of organic matter by mineral mat- 2007–2010 period and foressentially Capesterre during River is the shown lowcarbon in export water Fig. occurs level, essentially 7. representing during TheDOC floods 57 DIC is % and exported fluxes extreme of floods. during occur the Around floodsmore 45 annual and than % 25 flux. 80 of % % the Organic during of extreme the floods. annual Our POC results flux show occurs that during floods and that extreme regime (aromaticity, molecular weight) ining Guadeloupean between rivers two which end-members. correspond Onelevel with to of lowest these the concentrations end-members mix- indrophilic, represents DOC the associated low to water largest,other most end-member aromatic, less represents hy- theated floods to with smallest, highest less concentrationsorganic aromatic, matter most in molecules. hydrophilic, DOC associ- events, low DOC exportstime are with associated the to organic a richinterpretation vertical is top supported soil flow for layer in LWL (Johnson eventsas soil by et the and al., organic a 2006; matter Lloret short characteristics.δ et Lloret contact al., et 2011). al. This (2011) have shown a trend between (Boyer et al., 1997; Hagedorn et al., 2000; Hornberger et al., 1994). For LWL and FL 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | , 2 1 1 1 − − − − yr yr yr 2 2 2 − − ; value − 1 − consump- for tropical 2 2 − groundwater) and is about 2 1.7 tCkm DOC Y ± ; DEAL data). The erent carbon inputs 1 ff . The CO − 1 s . The DOC yield from from the mineralization − 1 3 . The DIC yield in rivers 2 − yr 1 2 − yr − 2 yr 0.7 m − erent parameters: the carbon 2 ff − ± 0.9 tCkm 2.6 tCkm ± for the clayey soil under tropical rainforest ± 1 − (Bray and Gorham, 1964; Rodin et al., 1967; carbon outputs 7136 7135 1 yr − − 2 − (average of the four studied years; Table 2). The yr . It is also necessary to define the carbon stock 2 1 1 − − − LWL yr yr 2 Q 2 · − − LWL carbon inputs erence between the DOC yield in river and the DOC yield . = ff 1 7.4 tCkm − [DOC] ± yr = erent inputs and outputs depend on di for the Guadeloupean rainforest (Lloret, 2010). The benthic decay 2 ff − 1 , the mean DOC concentration during low water level (0.7 mgl − yr 2 LWL − 2.0 tCkm time , the mean discharge during low water level (1.3 groundwater ± erence between the NPP and the litterfall, ranges between 700 and 1500 tkm The parameters defining the soil carbon inputs are the litterfall, the root produc- The soil carbon mass balance is defined from the soil carbon outputs and inputs. ff LWL DOC 440 tCkm of the litterfall in the river could be a source of organic carbon during low water periods Q yield of DOC fromsoil groundwater erosion is is aboutfrom 1.7 the groundwater and di iscomes approximately 5.7 essentially from14.1 the dissolution of soil andtion atmospheric and CO the root respiration rate. The organic carbon yield from litterfall is about could be calculated with the following equation: Y with [DOC] for the Ravine Quiock, which is directly fed by soil solution from groundwater), and of organic matter is aboutin 1022 tCkm Brazil (Silver etthe al., 2005). same This soil valuecomes characteristics, can essentially be climate, from used the temperature soil for erosionriver and our during is site, meteorological rainfalls. about events because The and 18.3 it itsDOC POC yield presents in in in the rivers rivers normallysoil comes erosion from during groundwater during floods. Thereforeaverage low the of water DOC the level, but yield four also in studiedthe from the years) DOC river is yield (7.4 the from soil sum erosion. of The the DOC DOC yield yield from from groundwater groundwater ( and Martinique which are similar tobetween 0 Guadeloupean and andosol, 30 to cm be of equal depth to (Blanchart 13 and 000 Bernoux, tCkmThe 2005). three parameters defining thematter, soil the carbon soil outputs erosion, are the the groundwater mineralization contribution. of The organic CO with an average ofin 1100 soils. tkm This value was estimated (between 0 and 30 cm depth) for andosol from The carbon stock in aboveground biomassforest was (Baudin estimated et to al., 20 2007). 000 tCkm Thefor net the primary tropical production rainforest (NPP) (Waugh, ismated about 2002). between 2200 700 The tkm and litterfall 1500 forMadge, tkm the 1965; tropical Hopkins, 1966) rainforest with istion an esti- value average of of 1100 tropical tkm di rainforests, which corresponds to the vegetation growth and the soil, the soil carbon massatmospheric balance inputs in with river soil and carbonare the outputs defined river and and degassing soil (Table calculated, 2; carbon or Fig.or estimated inputs, 8). for with the These watersheds values parameters with obtained same for characteristics the (soils, Capesterre vegetation, River climate,Carbon . mass . . balance ). The carbon mass balanceGuadeloupean allows watersheds, us on to the determinebasin. light carbon To dynamic of build the at the carbon the observationsand mass scale outputs made balance, at of on we the the the need watershedin scale, to Capesterre river. including know These the the di carbon di inputsfluxes and from outputs rivers in to soil ocean, and the primary production and the litterfall, the carbon stock in are directly connected toErosion the of oceans soils and andPOC/DOC ratio present the observed. steep strength slopes of and the no event5.3 flood-plains. are probably the Carbon mass major balance at drivers the watershed of scale, the carbon transfer and residence sediments (Burns et al., 2008). Unlike the large rivers, the small rivers of Guadeloupe 5 5 25 15 20 10 20 25 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erent ff ) (Blanchart and Bernoux, 2 − for a clayey soil under tropical rain- 1 − yr , the high slopes, and the high organic ff 2 − . If we consider that average DOC and 2 7138 7137 POC ` ere and Merwart), and maximum discharges of 100, Y SOC + (Lloret, 2010). the organic carbon yields (Table 2). The SOC in the 1 − Stock DOC Y yr POC 2 Y = − were recorded for Capesterre, Bras-David and Vieux-Habitants 1 , respectively for the Guadeloupe (Lloret, 2010). These atmospheric and − 1 s − 3 , respectively. Including the errors bars to these estimations, the soil the organic carbon stock in soils (13 000 tkm yr 1 DOC 2 − Y − yr SOC 2 − The surface of volcanic rocks in oceanic islands and island arcs under wet trop- The Guadeloupean soils exhibit variable residence times, from 381 yr in 2010 to The output and the input fluxesIt is for possible soil to calculate represent the approximately residence times 1058 of organic and carbon in soils with the ical climate representsPOC about exports of 319 800 Guadeloupean km rivers is representative of DOC and POC exports by For Guadeloupean rivers, theextreme major meteorological part events of andintensity organic is of carbon linked precipitation export to leading three occursmatter to important during contents high the parameters: in runo the andosolsoccurs high essentially and in particulate ferralitic form. soils.pare From these Moreover the observations, the organic it carbon is organicwith interesting export carbon large to from com- rivers export and small continents. volcanic and tropical mountainous islands 343 and 380 m Rivers, respectively (Morell, 1990). Thenificantly associated impact fluxes the of over DOC all and carbon POC budget could for sig- the5.4 Guadeloupe island. Globalization 1000 yr in 2007 (Tableand 2), depending not on only theevents their overall for strength number, of 83 since meteorological floodsevents in events for while 141 2007 and in there 99could 2009 floods, was be respectively. Organic and 3 under carbon 2010 only and exportscennial over and there extreme estimated, residence extreme meteorological was time respectively flood since 12 ventcur. between extreme During like 2007 such meteorological and the an 2010 Hugo event,Basse-Terre a between summits Cyclone de- 400 (La (17 and Soufri September 600 mm 1989) of rain did was not recorded oc- at di hydrologic flow paths that intersecting DOC rich meteorological forest events. floor Moreover andand these superficial no soil rivers floodplains layers are dur- allowing small temporarytime and POC of present storage carbon, that steep as could observed slopes increase for large the river residence systems. the lixiviation of soil surface layers and litters and the enrichment in DOC of the surface (Hilton et al., 2008b). Fortime Capesterre (about and 506 yr Rio and Icacos 759 watersheds, yr) the is short due to residence the large exports of DOC and POC, related to with Stock 2005) and Capesterre watershed exhibits residencesmall times tropical similar watershed to oftainous the Puerto watershed ones Rico of calculated (Rio New for Icacos)the Zealand the ones and (Waitangitaona) obtained the for but large small shorter watersheds(Brazil) temperate like residence (Table 2). the moun- times The Mengong Waitangitaona than (Cameroun) watershed andgeological exports the particulate Amazon large organic amounts carbon, of dueinducing modern to a and its rapid localization on erosion an and active indeed mountain a belt short residence time of organic carbon in soils following formula: Residence time of OC DOC in rivers0.015 tCkm with precipitations andinputs transprecipitations are negligible and compareyield are is to about about soil 77 tCkm 0.011 erosion and and groundwater. The934 tkm river degassing carbon mass balance can be considered at steady state. neglected for this study.respectively The estimated root to 115 production and andforest 379 in tCkm the Brazil (Silver root et respiration al.,scale 2005). rate To we define have also the been carbon need massScalley the balance at atmospheric et the inputs watershed al. in (2007) river have and the shown river that degassing. the Heartsill- atmospheric inputs could be a source of (Johnson et al., 2006) but cannot be estimated using the available data and is thus 5 5 25 15 20 10 20 25 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erent ff ) Rivers. The 1 − erent in term of ff yr ). 2 1 − − ). The Guadeloupean 1 − yr 2 − ected by humans. Dams are a lead- ff and are higher than POC yields from 1 − yr 2 − 7140 7139 ) or the Orinoco (4.81 tkm 1 − yr 2 , respectively. This corresponds to an average DOC − 1 ) or 20 times less than the south American rivers that and are close to the DOC yields of the large tropical − 1 (Fig. 9a). The average POC export from these islands 1 − − and the mean annual POC yield varies between 8.1 and 1 − yr 1 2 − ) is in the range of particulate nitrogen flux reported for the − 4) and it is equivalent to a fourth of Northern American rivers 1 yr − 2 = 1) and the high POC yields observed for these rivers. − n ( > 1 − (Table 1). The resulting global export of DOC and POC are about 0.6– ) is similar to POC export calculated for North American, the African or 1 1 and 2.6–8.2 TgCyr − − 1 yr − 2 − The Guadeloupean rivers present very high DOC and POC yields. The DOC yields The floods and extreme floods, which represent 10 % of the annual discharge, rep- In addition the role of these islands could become more important with time as a di- According to the short residence time of organic carbon into Guadeloupean water- The same calculations were done for the POC and PN fluxes (Fig. 9). The aver- In Fig. 10, we have reported the POC/DOC ratio for each continent and for the small the POC/DOC ratio ( extreme floods, the organic carbon is the dominant form. range from 1.9 torivers, 8.6 tkm like the AmazonPOC (5.84 tkm yields vary between 8.1 andlarge 25.5 tropical tkm rivers (Amazonrivers and are Orinoco, about directly 1.5 connectedplains. tkm Erosion to of the soils and oceans strength and of the present event steep are thus slopes probably and the major no drivers flood- of resent between 45 andPOC 70 flux. % The of DIC annual fluxesof DOC occur the essentially flux, annual during and flux. the moreorganic The low than form water repartition level, seem 80 of % with to dissolved about offloods, depend carbon 57 the the % on fraction dissolved annual the between carbon hydrodynamic. inorganic is Then, and essentially during exported low under water inorganic level form, and while during dam site for organic matter quality and total carbon flux to the6 ocean. Conclusions This study provides insight oncarbon temporal and variations dissolved inorganic in carbon particulatetropical in and climate. small dissolved volcanic organic and mountainous rivers under canic and tropical mountainous islands. minishing fraction of the world’s riversing remains una cause of disruption by leavingins, few 2012). major They free-flowing could river induce systems significant (Finer modification and downstream Jenk- and upstream of the cycle models must take into account the organic carbon export from these small vol- sheds and the quantity of organic carbon exports by small tropical rivers, the carbon This indicates that thequality organic and matter reactivity exported from by theultimate these organic fate for islands matter particulate is exported and by di dissolvedphysical organic the matter largest pathways may rivers. result than more A from contrasting di the separate chemical case compositions of (Hedges tropicalinputs, et could islands settle al., organic rapidly 1997). through matter,to the In suboxic dominated marine depths water by of column particulate coastal andto marine typically a organic sediments accumulates more matter favoring rapidly a degradable long dissolved term organic storage matter compared (Hedges et al., 1997). (5.93 TgCyr the European continents (Fig. 9b). volcanic and tropical mountainous islands.for We small can volcanic observe and that this tropical ratio mountainous is islands very compared high to continental values. flux of 2.36 TgCyr input to the ocean (9.10are TgCyr the biggest contributors of DOC to the worldage ocean (43 PN TgCyr flux (0.4 TgNyrSolimoes and the Amazonof river magnitude by smaller (Moreira-Turcq than et the al.,ing contribution 2003) from of the and 1.69 major always to subcontinent one 4.65 watersheds TgNyr order rang- bon exports of thesetinental islands large and rivers. compare Thetween 1.9 it mean and with annual 8.6 tkm organic DOC25.5 tkm carbon yield exports for from Guadeloupe2.8 TgCyr con- Island varies be- volcanic and tropical mountainous context, we can estimate an annual organic car- 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 20 10 15 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ´ e ´ et doi:10.1016/0031- ` ere de l’Ecologie et ect on atmospheric ff , pp. 25–70, 2003. ` ere Organique, Soci ` egue, J., Fritz, B., Chauvel, C., , 2005. ´ eo France Guadeloupe for rainfalls ´ et , 2007. , 2007. ´ equestration du carbone et spatialisation , J. 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T., Waugh, D.: Geography: an Integrated Approach, Nelson Thornes, Cheltenham, UK, 2002. 5 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ` ere yr in soils 2 − tCkm Biomass carbon C stock Residence time 2 − erent tropical water- ff Soil Aboveground Organic tCkm 1 − b yr 2 − GPP tkm 1 − a yr 2 − NPP tkm 1 − yr 2 − DIC Y tCkm 1 − yr 7154 7153 2 ect. − DOC ff Y tCkm 1 − yr 2 − POC tCkm TropicalTropicalTropical 4 1.76 0.575 3.15 9 5.7 5 0.31 10 2200 2200 2190 3000 3000 3000 15 10 340 300 10 000 20 20 000 000 20 000 2445 2098 769 Temperate 39 2 3.5 1100 28 000 15 000 683 20072008 Tropical20092010 8.1 18.4 4.9 21.2 25.5 7.4 11.3 8.6 8.6 2200 14.2 15.8 15.2 3000 13 000 20 000 1000 504 436 381 c d,h d,e g Calculations of residence times of organic carbon in soils for di Sites Climate Y d,f Map of the Basse-Terre with the location of the three studied watersheds. Instantaneous NPP: Net Primary Production. GPP: Gross Primary Production. Baudin et al. (2007). McDowell and Asbury (1994). Boeglin et al. (2005). Estimation for the Martinique soils (Blanchart and Bernoux, 2005). Hilton et al. (2008b); Carey et al. (2005); Whitehead et al. (2002); Coomes et al. (2002). New Zealand Waitangitaona Puerto Rico Rio Icacos Amazon SW CamerounGuadeloupe Mengong Capesterre Moreira-Turcq et al. (2003). Fig. 1. water discharge and2007 monthly to cumulated December rainfalls 2010. aresurements. Long The presented dashes absence represent for the of eachrepresent minimum discharge bars river the for or the from minimum flood linesvolcano January discharge level have corresponds and been for short to corrected dashes the to an the extreme absence wind flood of e level. mea- The rainfalls at the Soufri a b c d e f g h Table 2. sheds including the Capesterre watershed. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | , and (a) for the Capesterre River. Monthly cumulated (b) 7156 7155 Comparison between the distribution of discharges (black line) and the distribution of Variations of average monthly concentrations in dissolved fraction DIC and DOC Fig. 3. in particulate fraction (TSM, POC and C/N) Fig. 2. sampled discharges for the Capesterre, Bras-David and Vieux-Habitants rivers. liquid discharges (grey bars) aredischarge represented on and each particulate graph and to dissolved allow concentrations. comparison between river Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | (see β αQ plotted as = (b) 7158 7157 , TSM, POC and PN concentrations (a) ) for the Capesterre River. Long dashes represent the minimum Q DOC and DIC concentrations Hourly follow up of an extreme event in the Capesterre River: 17 August 2007, associ- a function of the discharge ( discharge for the flood level and shortflood level. dashes Lines represent correspond the to minimum the discharge best for fit the of extreme the data by a power law: concentration Fig. 5. Supplement, Table A3). ated to Dean Cyclone. Variationsthe of event. DOC and DIC concentrations, and DOC/DIC ratios during Fig. 4. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ) and 1 − s 3 3.9 m ≥ ). 1 − s 3 ), and their distribution according to DIC F 37.0 m ≥ and DOC F 7160 7159 DOC versus DIC fluxes (respectively The average repartition of the annual cumulated discharges and fluxes for LWL, FL and Fig. 7. EXT representing 90, 9.9 and 0.1 % of the cumulated discharge, respectively. Fig. 6. the water level: low water level, floods (maximum instantaneous discharge extreme floods (maximum instantaneous discharge Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 


  
 " 
 




  
  
 

) from small volcanic and 1 − 
(Tg yr (b) 


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and POC 7162 7161 (a) 



  
 



  
 
 # 

  


 "
. Underlined values were obtained for our watershed. Other values are from other 1 − yr 2 − Comparison of annual fluxes of PN Summary of the carbon mass balance at the Guadeloupean watershed. The yields are "
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Fig. 9. tropical mountainous islandsbeen and calculated each to continent. sumzon, Parana The literature and values mean Orinoco of Rivers, fluxesYukon North mainly and American of large rivers: Columbia, each rivers. Mississippi, Asian Mackenzie, SouthAfrican continent St. rivers: rivers: American Lawrence, have Changjiang, Zaire/Congo, rivers: Huang Niger Ama- Danube, and He, Nile, Kolyma, Ganges/Brahmaputra European Rhine, and and Rhone, Indus, 1996b Russian Garonne (and Rivers: and associated Yenisei, Ob, references); Po Lena, Dittmaret (Moreira-Turcq al., and et 2002; Kattner, Rachold al., 2003; et 2003; Gebhardt al.,Dittmar 2004; et and Ludwig Meybeck al., Kattner, and et 2003). Ragu, 2004; 1996; al., Holmes Romankevich and Artemyev, 1985; tropical watersheds (Bray and Gorham,Blanchart 1964; Madge, and 1965; Bernoux, Hopkins, 2005; 1966; Silver Rodin et et al., al., 2005; 1967; Heartsill-Scalley et al., 2007; Lloret, 2010). Fig. 8. in tCkm Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 7163 POC/DOC ratio for small volcanic and tropical mountainous islands and for each con- Fig. 10. tinent.