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COPLAND'S "SINGLE VISION" AND THE PIANO SONATA: A LECTURE
RECITAL, TOGETHER WITH THREE RECITALS OF SELECTED WORKS OF
J. S. BACH, B. BARTOK, L. V. BEETHOVEN, F. CHOPIN,
F. LISZT, W. A. MOZART, J. P. RAMEAU, M. RAVEL,
AND F. SCHUBERT
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
By
Gregory W. Morris, B.M.E., M.M.
Denton, Texas
August, 1990 Morris, Gregory W., Copland's "Single Vision" and
_the Piano Sonata: A Lecture Recital, Together with Three
Recitals of Selected Works of J. S. Bach, B. Bartok,
L. V. Beethoven, F. Chopin, F. Liszt, W. A. Mozart, J. P.
Rameau, M. Ravel, and F. Schubert. Doctor of Musical
Arts (Piano Performance), August 1990, 39 pp., 25 examples,
bibliography, 20 titles.
Difficulties are encountered in any discussion of
Copland's style, for his works cover the spectrum from
harsh, dissonant works to folk music. To avoid the task
of defining a style which encompasses this array of vastly
different pieces, a sharp distinction is frequently made
between the abstract and popular works. However, Copland
has repeatedly objected to such categorization, claiming
that he composed from a single vision.
A careful examination of his total output proves
the validity of his claim. Many common characteristics
are found throughout works from all categories and time periods. These traits include a basic economy of materials, emphasis on thirds, consistent method of development, use of declamation, jazz-influenced rhythms, cyclicism, and a slow/fast/slow sequence of movements, as well as within single movements. This document uses the Piano Sonata as a model of
Copland's style, for it exemplifies these characteristics more clearly than any other major piece for piano. By making numerous comparisons with other works, Copland's single vision is revealed. Tape recordings of all performances submitted as
sssrtation requirements are on deposit in the
University of North Texas Library.
111 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page RECITAL PROGRAMS v LIST OF EXAiMPLES ix COPLAND'S "SINGLE VISION" AND THE PIANO SONATA Introduction 1 History of the "Piano Sonata" 4 First Movement 6 Second Movement 18 Third Movement 26 Conclusion 35 BIBLIOGRAPHY .... 38
IV % rth Texas State University School of Music
Graduate Recital
GREG MORRIS, Piano
Monday, March 2', 1967 5=00 p.m. Recital Hall
Sonata in D, Op. 28. . . . D .. Allegro Beethoven Andante Scherzo: Allegro vivace Rondo: Allegro ma non troppo
Grande Polonaise brillante, Op. 22 rK.„. Precedee d'un Andante spianato Chopin
Sonata . . Allegro moderato Bartok Sostenuto e pesante A1legro molto
Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts presents Graduate Piano Recital GREG MORRIS
Monday, June 6, 1988 6:15 p.m. Recital Hall
Overture in the French Manner Bach Overture Courante Gavotte I Gavotte II Passepied I Passepied II Sarabande Bourree I Bourree II
Echo Sonata in D, K. 576 Allegro Adagio Allegretto
Etudes d'execution transcendante Liszt Ricordanza Chasse-neige
Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
VI TJNIVKk.SII V < )h N( )k lH lKVAC
gVT/H
presents
Graduate Recital
GREG MORRIS, piano
Monday, February 19, 1990 8:00 p.m. RECITAL HALL
Program
Gavotte with Variations Rameau
"Wanderer" Fantasy, Op. 1.5 Schubert
Intermission
Le Tom beau de Couperin Ravel Prelude Fugue Forlane Rigaudon Menuet Toccata
Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
'•NlvfRSni y OF NORTH TEXAS 1890-1990
VI1 raSEESnYDEMMHTEXaS
presents
Graduate Lecture Recital
GREG MORRIS, piano
Monday, July 2, 1990 8:00 p.m. Recital Hall
LECTURE: Copland's "Single Vision" and the Piano Sonata
PROGRAM:
Piano Sonata Aaron Copland (b. 1900)
Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
m NORTH
Vlll LIST OF EXAMPLES
Example Page 1. Initial falling thirds, resting on lower note, Plano f* Sonata, 1st movement, measures 1-4 7 the Kid (1938), measures 1-2 . 7 c. Statements (1935), "Prophetic," measures 1-2 7 Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson (1950), "The world feels dusty," measures 1-3 . . Piano 7 Variations (1930), measures 1-3 8 Dance Panels (1962), I, measures 69-71 8 2. Thirds in serial compositions. a* Connotations (1962), measures 20-22 b- Nonet (I960), ending 8 C* Qua*"tet for Piano and Strings (1950) 8 3rd movement, measures 52-60
3a. Violin sonata (1943), 1st movement, measures 3-4 k* Third Symphony (1946), 2nd movement, measures 1-2 c" Night Thoughts (1972), measures 1-2 9 9 4. Development of Theme 1. a* Main theme, a + b, measures 1-4 10 b. Development of fragment b, measures 10-16 c. Development of fragment a, inverted, 10 measures 26-33 . . 10 5. Theme 2, measures 58-61, 64-66 11 6a. Theme 2 expanded, measures 90-95 b. Organ Symphony (1924), 3rd movement,* 12 measures 1-8 ... 12 7. "Piu largamente," measure 123 13 8. Allegro" section, measures 133-136 13 9a. Dance Panels (1962), I, measures 23-27 . 14
IX Example Page b* Quiet City (1939), measures 14-17 14 10 fo F h" P"° f l"te and Piano (1971), measures 1-5 14 b- Music for the Theatre (1925), III, measures 1-5 . . . 14 lla* Piano Variations (1930), var. 14, measures 6-9 b. Symphonic Ode (1929),'measures 1-4 15 ~c, Short Symphony (1933), measures 1-6* .' 15 d, Statements (1935), "Dogmatic," 16 measures 24-27 . 16 Piano Sonata, recall of opening motive 17 13. 1st movement, measures 15-16. Arpeggios 18 14. 2nd movement, measures 1-6 19 15. Wedge motive, measures 1-2, 7-9, 10-13, 14 -19 19 16. Repetition and addition. a* Music for the Theatre (1925), I, measures 16-20 .... ' b- Symphonic Ode (1929), measures 8-11* ." * 20 C* Sonata for Violin and Piano (1943), 1st* 20 movement, measures 3-10 20 Twelve poems of Emily Dickinson *M ' Going to Heaven," measures 2-11 e. Dance Panels (1962), VII, measures 1-10* 21 21 17at.' S°W P ' for Piano and Sfrin.c . Quartet (1950), 2nd movement, measures 67 21 74 22 18a. Wedge motive, measures 54-55 b. Measure 71 25 c. Measures 90-91 . . 25 25 19. Trio section. a. Measures 191-193 b. Measures 201-204 . 26 26 20. 3rd movement, measures 1-2 26 21. 3rd movement, measures 6-12 27 Example Page 22. Piano Sonata, 3rd movement, measures 19—23 . 27 23. Two-part contrapuntal writing. a- Two Pieces for String Orchestra (1928), I, measures 25-30 .... 28 b- Sonata for Violin and Piano (1943), 3rd* movement, measures 27-30 28 c- Third Symphony (1946), 3rd movement, measures 12-17 29 d* Quartet for Piano and Strings (1950), 3rd* movement, measures 41-45 29 e- Connotations for Orchestra (1962), measures* 182-184 29 24. Bell effects. a- Piano Sonata, 3rd movement, 2nd theme, measures 46-48 29 k* Piano Fantasy (1957), ending 30 c- Duo for Flute and Piano (1971), 2nd movement, measures 1-3 30 25a. Ostinato in original form, measures 34-36 30 b. Ostinato as melody, measures 53-71, 79-83, 99-103 [ # 31 c. Ostinato as accompaniment to Theme 2, measures 136-138 31
XI Introduction
Any writer discussing Copland's music, particularly
his style, is faced with a difficult task. The composer
has covered the spectrum from dissonant avant-garde works
to simple folk music which appeals to the most uninitiated
of listeners. Because of this array of vastly different
pieces, the temptation is strong to speak of different
styles, to categorize his output and deal with each group
separately. Usually a distinction is made between the
"serious" concert music and that which, by Copland's own
admission, was written to appeal to the widest possible
audience. The inference is that the latter category is not
as serious and is lacking in substance. Some have turned
to a chronological approach as a means of categorization.
Julia Smith divides Copland's life into three style periods
(French-Jazz, Abstract, and American Folksong) with further
sub-divisions.1 Considering that her book was written
in 1955, she probably would be forced to add at least one more period today.
Although these approaches are not entirely without merit, they—like most easy solutions—contain serious
1* Co!^ai955K' Aaron ^P-iand (New Yo^kl mTtton and flaws. This is obvious with the chronological method.
Copland has repeatedly demonstrated the ability to move
from one "style" to another with ease. Vitebsk (1928),
a tiio based on a Jewish melody and containing quarter
tones and harsh dissonances, came in the midst of what
Smith terms the French-Jazz period. The serial Quartet
for Piano and Strings was written in 1950, during the
American Folksong period. This particular year is an
excellent example of the chronological method's
shortcomings. It is the date of composition for three
distinctly different works: Old American Songs. Twelve
Poems of Emily Dickinson, and the quartet. Old American
Son
The song cycle based on Dickinson's poems is tonal but
decidedly not folk oriented. The quartet is even further
removed, being a twelve-tone serial work.
The general distinction between the "serious" and the
popular has its problems as well. The first is practical.
Many pieces do not clearly fit into either category,
but contain elements of both. Indeed, few of Copland's
works are untouched by the popular jazz style. The second
problem is created by the composer himself. He has
repeatedly objected to such divisions, emphasizing that he took all of his work seriously. if Copland's words are given any weight, it is difficult to ignore such strong statements as made in his book The New Music;
I can only say that those commentators who would like to split me down the middle into two opposing personalities will get no encouragement from me. I prefer to think that I write my music from a single vision . . . .
Lawrence Starr1s analysis of such diverse works as
Music for the Theatre, Billy the Kid, and Quartet for
Piano and Strings supports Copland's assertion.^ Especially
convincing is his study of Billy the Kid. He uncovers
surprisingly sophisticated compositional techniques (to be
discussed later) which are very similar to those used in
Copland's "serious" works. The discoveries challenge those
who view the work as nothing more than popular fluff. Among
these pieces traditionally viewed as representing very different styles, Starr notes the existence of several striking similarities.
His basic approach, which concentrates on stylistic elements common to all of Copland's music, is used in the following analysis. A careful search reveals that many common characteristics are to be found throughout his mature works. Of the major pieces for piano, the Sonata best exemplifies these traits. By making comparisons with
2* Aa^°n Copland, The New Music (New York: W.W. Norton, 1968)t 168.
3. "Copland's Style," Perspectives of New Music XIX (Fall 1980/Summer 1981), 69-89. " other works, Copland's "single vision" is revealed more clearly and completely.
History of the "Piano Sonata"
In August of 1941, Copland began a four-month tour of
Latin America. He was sent by the Committee for
Inter-American Cultural Relations in association with the
office of Nelson Rockefeller, the President's Coordinator of
Inter—American Affairs. The nine-nation tour was a part of
the Roosevelt administration's Good Neighbor Policy.
Copland was in Santiago, Chile, during that country's
September national holidays when he completed the Piano 4 Sonata. The composer gave its first public performance
one month later, on October 21. The setting was an
all-American concert in Buenos Aires sponsored by La
Nueva Musica, an organization similar to the League of
Composers in this country.
Like most of his compositions, the Sonata was written
over a long period of time. Copland actively worked 1939 — 1941, but sketches date from 1935. During an interview, he commented on the sonata and on his slow pace of composition in general:
I worked hard on that piece. I'm a slow worker actually. As I say, it isn't that I work every
4. Copland, op. cit., 163. ~~ day, but I need to get away from my work for a while in order to judge what I've done more coldly . . . . You need perspective. So the Sonata was written thus, over a period of time>5
The work was received coolly at its New York premiere on January 9, 1943, despite a reportedly brilliant
ft performance by John Kirkpatrick. Nevertheless, the Piano Sonata is now considered "a landmark of American 7 piano music," having joined the Piano Variations (1930) an(3 Piano Fantasy (1957) as important contributions by
Copland to the pianist's standard repertoire.
The sonata has been the subject of surprisingly little discussion. In contrast to the Variations and Fantasy, it has not received detailed analysis. John Kirkpatrick's early review (written less than five months after the sonata was completed) is understandably general; it outlines the basic form of the work and describes its character.8
Other analyses have been limited to brief passages contained within larger studies. The most informative of these is by Douglas Young, who devotes three pages of his article 5- "Copland and Smit at Harvard," record jacket notes — for Aaron Copland: The Complete Music for Solo Piano, Leo Smit, perf. (CBS 35901, 1979 ).
6. Smith, op. cit., 233-234.
7. Carlton Gamer, "Current Chronicle," Musical Quarterly LIX/3 (July 1973), 463.
8. "Aaron Copland's Piano Sonata," Modern Music XIX/3 (March/April 1942), 246-250. " on Copland's piano music to the sonata.9 The work has
not been studied as a model of Copland's style.
First Movement
Ihe first movement is cast in typical sonata form;
it contains an expos ition with two themes, a development,
and a recapitulation that would satisfy the most
conservative textbook definition. It is marked "molto
moderato" and is in B-flat minor.
One of Copland's most recognizable trademarks is
found at the outset: the melodic interval of a third.
It is, of course, among the most common intervals for any composer. Copland's use, however, is far more than ordinary. Both major and minor thirds are emphasized commonly in his music, and numerous works begin with the interval. Frequently it wil1 be found opening a movement as it does here (Example 1), descending and resting on the lower note. Thirds predominate in his themes, often even in compositions utilizing serial techniques (Example 2). This emphasis on thirds is not limited only to melodic intervals in the Sonata, but includes harmonic as well. in the exposition, the left hand is harmonized almost exclusively with minor thirds
(not including the major sixth created by octave doubling)
9• "The Piano Music," Tempo, Winter 1970-1Q71. 18-21. Example 1. Initial falling thirds, resting on lower note, is. Piano Sonata, 1st movement, measures 1-4.
1 &- iiy CE t y- p- w •f fWC- If £ m ¥ m3 lb- Billy the Kid (1938), measures 1-2. -)-rlr-T2—0 t=ti
lc. Statements (1935), "Prophetic," measures 1-2,
-2l3
^ -#• i ^—# 35
Id. Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson (1950), "The world feels dusty," measures 1-3. il J i LJ"TNt i J„ -feelJ,s ilj) ^ |J^,| | J—^ r T f le' Piano Variations (1930), measures 1-3, M3
£ #- 1:(. ~ I J-JD 2 £ P lf* Dance Panels (1962), I, measures 69-71.
#- 1 F—1 -5- # f—\ f • 4j-J
Example 2. Thirds in serial compositions. 2a- Connotations (1962), measures 20-22. nri 3 ^3 *i3
-JL uL at I.,I r r I,TI 'f r n r (•
Nonet (1960), ending *
fn 5
2c, Quartet for Piano and Strings (1950), 3rd movement, measures 52-60. The opening theme is characteristically short,
consisting of only six notes plus a punctuating chord
at the end. Copland's compositions are studies in making
the most of minimal material. In the Piano Variations,
he achieves considerable variety with a primary motive of only four notes. The first movement of the Sonata
Violin and Piano and the second movement of the Third
Symphony feature five-note themes (Example 3). The late
Night Thoughts, written for the 1973 Van Cliburn
Competition, is based on a three-note motto. (Notice that these themes also prominently feature thirds.)
Though not all of Copland's themes are this compact, rarely does he employ a long melodic line.
Example 3a. Violin sonata (1943), 1st movement, measures 3-4.
Third Symphony (1946), 2nd movement, measures 1 2 •
3c- Night Thoughts (1972), measures 1-2, 10
In building the first part of the exposition, Copland develops thematic fragments through a process of repetition and addition. This unique method is common in his works.
The second half of the initial phrase is developed first.
He repeats the fragment, adding to it each time. This process .of repetition and addition is then applied to the opening gesture in inversion (Example 4).
Example 4. Development of Theme 1. 4a. Main theme, a + b, measures 1-4, a. 1 r 0^ CL pudi 4b. Development of fragment b, measures 10-16. . k , , b' nhuJiii ^ Ijijj j'tj l
4c. Development of fragment a, inverted, measures 26-33.
i!8 afsr 11
It is Copland's usual practice in sonata forms to
economize by fashioning the second and any following
themes out of the opening material. In the Organ Symphony,
Symphonic Ode, Short Symphony, and Sonata for Violin
and Piano, the main theme serves as a motivic source
for all that follows. The Piano Sonata is unusual
in that it contains a true second theme. Yet even here,
the second theme is strikingly similar to the first in
both content and treatment (Example 5). It borrows the
melodic and harmonic emphasis on thirds, as well as the
J J rhythm and brevity of the opening statement. This
section is likewise constructed solely through repetition
Example 5. Theme 2, measures 58-61, 64-66 r
and extension of this single phrase. One other Copland technique of development is seen here: a continual expansion of range. This is graphically demonstrated by the proportions reached in the last line of the
10. For further detail on this technique, see analyses in Peter Evans, "The Thematic Technique of Copland's Recent Works," Tempo Spring/Summer 1959, 2-13. 12
exposition, shown in Example 6. This same sort of treatment is found in the opening bars of the Organ Symphony finale.
Example 6a. Theme 2 expanded, measures 90-95.
6b- Organ Symphony (1924), 3rd movement, measures 1-8.
The frugal handling of thematic material is continued in the development section, where nothing new is presented.
Nevertheless, he creates considerable contrast. In the
"Piu largamente" section, themes 1 and 2 are combined.
Theme 2 appears in the right hand with only rhythmic changes, while the left repeats the opening three-note motive in inversion (Example 7).
Ihe following "Allegro" section is further removed from the original. It is based on the second theme minus the second note (Example 8). As before, it is developed by repetition, addition, and expansion of range. Despite 13
example 7. "Piu largamente," measure 123,
tf|» fi >L m Sf«=S U
these similarities, its character is greatly changed.
The tempo is nearly doubled, it is marked forte instead
of piano, and marked "ritmico" instead of "with sentiment."
The meter changes frequently between 2/4, 3/4, 3/8, 4/8,
4/4, 5/8, 6/8, and 7/8 (another trademark of Copland's style).
Example 8. "Allegro" section, measures 133-136.
This portion of the development section also illustrates one form of Copland's declamatory style.
His pieces frequently take on a rhetorical nature, simulating impassioned speech. These passages feature unison writing and most commonly present short groups of notes which center about a single pitch. Often, Copland will emphasize the declamatory nature of these sections 14
by making indications such as "in a narrative manner,"
"recitative style," and "declamatory." In Dance Panels
and Quiet City, shown in Example 9, a single line of
repeated notes conjures up images of a religious chant.
(In the latter, these are specifically motivated by Jewish
Example 9a. Dance Panels (1962), I, measures 23-27.
9b. Quiet City (1939), measures 14-17,
elements which enter the play for which it was written.)
Elsewhere, these solo passages are more in the manner of recitative (Example 10).
Example 10a. Duo for Flute and Piano (1971), measures I^r- - _
-finely, ' re&Hzcfive style
10b- Music for the Theatre (1925), III, measures 1-5 • 15
Here, however, Copland employs his most common and
distinctive form. it consists of short groups of single
notes broken up by a recurring note or punctuating element.
In this instance, the punctuating elements are accented
octaves on A (see Example 8). At a fast tempo, this
type of declamation becomes toccata-like. There are
numerous instances of this kind (Example 11).
The recapitulation faithfully brings back the
exposition's material in its original form, including
the tempo. The return to moderato from the allegro
Example 11a. Piano Variations (1930), var. 14, measures y. (Punctuating elements are bracketed.)
Hb. Symphonic Ode (1929), measures 1-4. 16
Short Symphony (1933 ), measures 1-6.
i i ppip
Hd. Statements (1935), "Dogmatic," measures 24-27,
development section results in a slow/fast/slow scheme for the movement, a frequent feature of Copland's compositions. The first movements of Dance Symphony, Music for the Theatre, Sonata for Violin and Piano, Third sYmPhony/ Quartet for Piano and Strings, and Duo for Flute and Piano, all progress in a similar manner. 17
Another stylistic fingerprint of Copland is the
recall of the opening motive at the very end (Example 12).
The aforementioned violin sonata, Third Symphony,
Quartet for Piano and Strings, as well as the first movement
of the Organ Symphony end with recalls also.
Example 12. Piano Sonata, recall of opening motive,
The most pronounced characteristic of the movement
is its extreme economy of materials. Every phrase,
including transitions, has its root in the two very brief
main themes. Furthermore, the themes share similar rhythms,
shapes, intervals, and methods of development. Filler
is completely absent; no accompanimental figuration or
thick chords are present. The only arpeggios within
the first movement consist of a single minor third (Example
13). This brings up one of the most surprising examples of economy. The left hand accompaniment is almost entirely made up of minor thirds. It is not coincidental that this is also the predominating melodic interval of the main theme. Of the 314 chords found in the left hand (most have only two notes), 284 consist solely of minor thirds. 11 18
Example 13. 1st movement, measures 15-16. Arpeggios.
let
Second Movement
A scherzo and trio form the second movement of the
sonata. In many respects, it resembles the "Allegro"
portion of the first movement's development section.
The most obvious parallels include fast tempo, shifting meters, and a predominantly single—note line.
Copland's distinctive declamatory style first seen in the development section is also found here. The repeated punctuating elements are the parallel major sixths in the left hand (Example 14). Unlike the first movement, this declamatory style is not confined to a brief section, but permeates the entire scherzo.
An expanding range is present in two forms. It is in its most concise form as the wedge-shaped main
include the major sixth intervals created F the l0WSr note* 0f the remaining 30 chords, 12 consist of a major sixth (the inversion of a minor third) and 14 contain only major and minor thirds. 19
Example 14. 2nd movement, measures 1-6.
delicate,
motive. It is also used, along with repetition and
addition, to develop the motive (Example 15).
Example 15. Wedge motive, measures 1-2, 7-9, 10-13, 14-19. 'jft- jf-ihTf dt
This method of enlarging upon a theme is not unique to this sonata. It is one of the most consistent elements of the composer's style. It is present throughout his 20
career and in various genres, as demonstrated by the
following passages in Example 16. The addition is sometimes
m the form of an interpolation, as in the violin sonata
(Example 16c). In his article, Lawrence Starr discovers the technique permeating works as diverse as Music for the
Theatre <1925) and Billy the Kid (1938). Although such repetition would seem in opposition to serial techniques,
Example 16. Repetition and addition. 16a- for the Theatre (1925), I, measures 16-20.
16b. Symphonic Ode (1929), measures 8-11.
16c. Violin and Han. (1943), 1st movement, 21
16d. Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson (1950), "Going to Heaven," measures 2-11.
A* I A* [
"fa fie Go-in^-fo flearVCr\l 16e. Dance Panels (1962), VII, measures 1-10. I 1 he also notes that Copland occasionally uses this method of development in compositions based on a row.^ One such example is the serial Quartet for Piano and Strings. In the middle of the second movement, the piano hesitantly begins revealing a prime version of the row (Example 17). Example 17a. Row P1, Quartet for Piano and Strings. Starr, op. cit. , 69-89. 22 17b. Quartet (1950), 2nd movement, measures 67-74. i- t. fftff f \) y ^ I fpfYf7| ' m .—u # 3 c J * -5 #• V f\ „ t) *' J r • /* mm • = 3 i The scherzo's constantly changing "odd" meters (predominantly 5/8, 6/8, 7/8, 9/8) represent another fingerprint of Copland's style. This is such a common feature of his music that it hardly requires demonstration through examples. As a whole, works for large groups shift meters less often than solo pieces. The reason behind this is purely practical. Copland learned early in his career that irregular bar lines only invited rebellion from orchestra members. When the Boston Symphony began rehearsal 23 on symphonic Ode, the players experienced considerable difficulty reading the alternating time-signatures. Copland resisted simplification, despite the conductor's suggestion. After briefly rehearsing the orchestra himself, the composer promptly rewrote the offending section in 1 ? a single meter. Changing meters are among the most prominent of Copland's much talked-about "Americanisms,""'"4 being a direct result of the influence of jazz. During the 1920's, he experimented considerably with the popular style. The Piano Concerto is the most notable example. He found the expressive range too limited, however, and abandoned wholesale use of the idiom. The rhythmic potential, on the other hand, fascinated him. Copland began writing on jazz rhythms and their influence on concert music in 1927.15 The essence of his observations is that common jazz rhythms such as flip are more accurately notated mil Jin , because they are not true syncopations but unequal collections of eighth notes. 13. Smith, op. cit. , lTT^ — 14> Ibid., 223. 15" unde^the'tiM^T1 qU°^ed' of these writings appeared Jaz,f Structure and Influence," Modern music IV/2 (January/February 1927), 9-14. — 24 ^ his book Music and Imaqination, Copland statss that these unequal groupings are a result of the fact that American's collective rhythmic sense is not symmetrical. We feel rhythm as separately pulsating eighth or sixteenth notes, while traditional Western music is felt in terms of the largest common denominator: the measure. These individual eighths or sixteenths, when combined, likely to add up to musically unconventional totals of five, seven, or eleven by contrast with the more familiar combinations of two plus two, or of three plus three. 16 Many years later, Copland linked these rhythmic ideas directly with the piano sonata's second movement: I always think of the scherzo as being rhythmically quite American. That was a big pre-occupation of mine during those years. The idea of writing a music—a serious concert music—that a European would recognize as having been written by an American .... And I think the Piano Sonata's scherzo had rhythms that I never would have thought of if I weren't familiar with jazz .... It's a sort of dependence on the eighth note as a basic rhythmic element—different collections of eighth notes.17 The scherzo is an outstanding example of economy. Except for one portion of the trio section, everything 16. Aaron Copland, Music and Imagination (Cambridge; ' Harvard University Press, 1952), 87, 88. 17. "Copland and Smit at Harvard," op. cit. 25 is clearly derived from the short wedge motive (Example 18). Its various guises include a) using only the top line of the wedge, b) octave displacement, and c) sounding the notes simultaneously. Even the parallel major sixths Example 18a. Wedge motive, measures 54-55. " >—-1- E 1 m 18b. Measure 71.* • CL : =—n— kbits'^1 !Tf 18c. Measures 90-91. ~ "j § • " a-j. > r* a T it '/ - that form the left hand accompaniment trace their origin to the motive, which has that interval as its goal. The trio section, in turn, employs parallel sixths in the melody (Example 19). The only theme not derived from the wedge nevertheless prominently features sixths and is accompanied by them. (Note that this theme, shown in Example 19b., begins with a falling third.) The economy of this movement is made more impressive with the realization that the major sixth interval is itself borrowed: it is the inversion of the minor third which permeates the first movement. 26 Example 19. Trio section. 19a. Measures 191-193. p _ 0 !( v?L f-4j 1 -5— >1 1 —n- 4-> U -n 19b. Measures 201-204. M3 Third Movement The three descending chords opening the third movement are reminiscent of the sonata's beginning (Example 20). Not surprisingly, the melodic interval of a third is present. As before, it descends and rests on the lower note. Example 20. 3ird movement, measuires 1 — 2 • >^i jb=*i '3 T & In these opening measures, Copland once again employs his declamatory style consisting of short groups of notes broken up by a recurring punctuating element. The theme 27 is taken from the Trio (compare Example 21 with Example 19) This merely underlines anew his basic conservation of materials. As throughout the sonata, the theme is revealed gradually by means of repetition and addition. Example 21. 3rd movement, measures 6-12. r The borrowed melody is then accompanied by a second voice in the left hand, made from fragments of the theme in inversion (Example 22). Thin texture is common in Copland's Example 22. Piano Sonata, 3rd movement, measures 19-23. T hesitant", cte/icftfe music. Already, his penchant for single-line writing has been seen. Even what appear to be thick chords are rarely more than three different notes with octave doublings. Two-part contrapuntal writing, such as found here, is 28 another facet of this trait. It is present in early, middle, and late works and in all genres (Example 23). Bell effects are used in the second theme, a common device in Copland's piano writing (Example 24). The upper melody features the now-expected interval of a third in alternating fashion 18 Example 23. Two-part contrapuntal writing. 23a. Two Pieces for String Orchestra (1928), I, measures 25-30. 23b* Sonata for Violin and Piano (1943), 3rd movement, measures 27-30. VI Pno, 18. Copland's frequent use of this interval throughout the sonata is representative of his extraordinary emphasis on it. 29 23c. Third Symphony (1946), 3rd movement, measures 12-17. 23d. Quartet for Piano and Strings (1950), 3rd movement, measures 41-45. 23e. Connotations for Orchestra (1962), measures 182-184. Example 24. Bell effects. ^4a* Piano Sonata, 3rd movement, 2nd theme, measures 46-48. 30 24b. Piano Fantasy (1957), ending, JT \£ ^ bJ A v IW r if y it 24c. Duo for Flute and Piano (1971), 2nd movement, measures 1-3. I fr-ll. -I+»V f•oreo . bell- like) 25 i PUP A simple ostinato serves as yet another example of Copland's refusal to waste any musical material. Its original appearance is as an accompaniment to the first theme (Example 25). In the middle portion of the movement, it returns three times as the melody and is developed in a familiar manner by gradually increasing Example 25a. Ostinato in original form, measures 34-36, rb - w p> * y. r i • # - - —// 4 • [i ^ rrp IM T —= / Lf to)i i 1 5L _ 4—L M 31 25b. Ostinato as melody, measures 63-71, 79-83 99-103. ' 25C* aS accomPaniment to Theme 2, measures 136-138. the range. Near the end it resumes its accompanimental status, this time to the second theme. The mam theme of the first movement is brought back several times. it first appears in full form midway through the movement. At the end, it is reduced to its essence: the falling minor third. Cyclicism is frequent m Copland's music, appearing in single as well as 32 multi-movement works. Billy the Kid and Dance Panels conclude by recalling their opening material. Music for the Theatre, Short Symphony, the violin sonata, Third Symphony, and Nonet for Strings do likewise. The sonata ends in a non-traditional fashion. In contrast to the usual flashy finish, Copland often does just the opposite. Wilfrid Mellers described the sonata's conclusion as the "quintessential expression of immobility,"19 a phrase the composer most heartily agreed with. . . . he's written about my own music in a most perceptive way .... He wrote about the last movement of my Sonata in a way I was very pleased read, because he seemed to say in prose what I had in my mind when I was writing it. And he even said things I really wasn't aware of consciously, but I immediately recognized them as true when I read about it. He said that the end of the last movement was a 'quintessential expression of immobility.'2Q This is a common effect for Copland, especially at endings. There is a slowing of movement, frequently recalling faintly an earlier theme. The atmospheric quality is achieved by soft dynamic levels, thin texture, and wide spacings. Some works, such as Quiet City and Night Thoughts, portray this mood throughout. The Piano 33 FantasY' 52Hat_a for Violin and Piano. Dance Panels. Appalachian Spring, Statements, and Nonet for Strings all end by slowly dying away. The indication "elegiac" on the last page of the piano sonata is very descriptive of the effect. The final movement, like the first, progresses in a slow/fast/slow sequence. The same pattern applies to the ordering of the movements. This reversal of the classical fast/slow/fast arrangement is repeated over and over in Copland's compositions. it is found in single movements, in the ballets Billy the Kid and Appalachian S£rin£, and in works as diverse as the Organ Symphony and Uartet for ° and Strings. Works with mQre than, three divisions, such as Symphonic Ode and. Music for the Theatre, are often arranged in a slow/fast/slow/fast/ slow or similar order. Interestingly enough, Copland was apparently never consciously aware of his predilection for this arrangement. When asked about it, he replied, 'Ah, that's a brand new thought. Slow/fast/slow."21 Like many composers of this century, Copland is very clear in his indications to the performer. in addition to the traditional Italian and French, he uses descriptive English terms. The sonata is full of remarks such as "crystalline," "eloquently," "with sentiment," "delicate, 34 restless," »„ith suppressed excitement," "crudely," "transparent," and "a trifle faster." Although he is always precise, his ensemble scores do not contain the extreme quantities of English indications that the solo pieces do. (Emblems, for large band, is a notable exception.) Of the solo works, the Piano Fantasy contains the most, having over 150 directions in English. Economy of material is at the core of Copland's mature style. It would be impossible to demonstrate this fully here, as it would require a complete anaiysis of each work. The best Snow„, and perhaps most severe, example of economy is the Piano A number of studies have been written on this important piece in which the composer wrings twenty contrasting variations Plus an extended coda out of a four-note motive. The sonata as a whole is a prime illustration of Copland's ability to compose using the minimum quantities required. One interval and its inversion serve as the germ for everything that occurs. Themes and motives are never used once and discarded but are re-employed in various guises. The texture is predominantly thin. The accompaniment contains no filler such as decorative arpeggios, normal piano figuration, or thick chords. In this regard, the Piano Sonata is representative of his total output• 35 Conclusion There is no question that Copland's music covers a broad spectrum. He can compose in a popular and accessible vein or write works that challenge the experienced listener, He has experimented with various mediums and methods at different times. Like any composer, he has undergone a maturing process. Nevertheless, contrary to the opinion of some writers, Copland is not a musical schizophrenic. He possesses an identifiable style which can be traced throughout the course of his long career, but it must be searched for carefully. Failure to recognize it is the result of looking in the wrong places, being caught up in surface details and initial impressions. The P:*-ano Sonata serves well as a model for studying his style. Numerous elements within it are found in works from all "categories," whether serious, folk, serial, solo, chamber, orchestral, early, or late. The most important of these style characteristics are: D Economy—includes the frugal treatment and length of themes and motives, thin texture, and lack of standard musical filler. 2) Emphasis on thirds, both melodic and harmonic. 3) Development of themes through repetition, addition, and expansion of range. 4) Frequent use of declamation. 5) Jazz-influenced rhythms, shifting meters. 36 6) Cyclicism. 7) Slow/fast/slow sequence of movements, as well as within single movements. The tendency for slow, atmospheric endings is one facet of this. The sonata is the best choice among the piano works for demonstrating these elements of style. The Variations are commonly referred to as being representative of Copland's style, and indeed they do exhibit most of the above characteristics. As a set of variations, however, they can not demonstrate certain traits. Cyclicism is an obvious example. Another primary feature of Copland's works is the use of a single theme as the motivic source for an entire movement, but that is inherent in variation form. Similar problems exist with the Piano Fantasy. As a serial composition, the entire work is expected to be derived from the opening theme. Furthermore, its row does not emphasize thirds to the degree found in the other pieces. The Piano Sonata not only features all of the above elements, but does so more clearly than either the Variations or the Fantasy. As has been shown, these characteristics are to be found throughout Copland's works/both abstract and popular. Other writers have made similar observations only in a limited fashion. Starr emphasizes the unity of such compositional procedures as repetition and addition, yet fails to mention the prevalence of thirds, declamation, 37 and jazz rhythms. others make note of only a few traits, or apply them to a single category of works. This study reveals more common characteristics, and demonstrates them more clearly through the use of numerous examples, than any other to date. Despite all the variety his musical output contains, these fundamental elements of style have remained remarkably consistent from the Organ Symphony in 1924 to Night Thouchts m 1972. They are found in all genres for all mediums. It is with justification that Copland lays claim to "a single vision." BIBLIOGRAPHY Berger C NeWYork: 0xfOTd an^Y ti-, &r- Jf™" -Musical Quarter! y B utter„orth, ^^^Music^f^aron rnp11n,. New COlS ' Spring 1966, 2.6, r MusA iv'/2 (JanLrJ/FebruLri927)!l-J4:" 11^^^S.JjC..and Tmafn"a + ^n Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952. . The New Musir. N[oW Ynrl-- TnT r,i n . — incw xorK. w.w. Norton, 1968. Hill, lab°.LlS ''''n F°r In M"'s1r- Ne« York: McGraw "C°pland^^Smit at^Rarvard," record jacket notes for — uP-*-Qna« The Comple-fcc* Musir fnr -n • P 1 pelLurmed by Leo Smit. CBS 359ol? !g/a "" °' a"..-. ~ " MUSlCal O^t.eny Klrkpa Cop S Pla ^«; MuS; »£r?H ir' "° *>«*. ' " - ^usxc XIX/3 (March/April 1942), 246-250. MUSiC In fl New York: KOrthC Notes 0n ?";r/?^?-,„" Copland," Musical Tim„ CXXII/1653 (November 1980), 686-68?: Smith,c^l'a-ssAaron^land. New York; Dutton ^ 38 39 Starr, Lawrence. "Copland's Style," Perspectives of New Music XIX (Fall 1980/Summer 1981), 69-89. Stevens, Elizabeth. The Influence of Nadia Boulanger On Composition In the United States. D.M.A. dissertation, School of Fine and Applied Arts, Boston University, 1975. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 75-18,547. Young, Douglas. "The Piano Music," Tempo Winter 1970- 1971, 15-22. Unpublished Works Jones, Philip. "A Stylistic Evaluation Of Aaron Copland's Piano Variations." Master's thesis, School of Music, North Texas State University, 1973. Rickman, Michael. "Aaron Copland's Piano Fantasy." D.M.A. lecture recital, School of Music, North Texas State University, 1977.