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Information to Users INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type o f computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zed) Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 “A LINGERING WAR MUST BE PREVENTED:” THE DEFENSE OF THE NORTHERN FRONTIER, 1812-1871 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Joseph M. Schweninger, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 1998 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Allan Millett, Adviser Professor William Childs Adviser Professor Randolph Roth Department of History UMX Number : 9834063 Copyright 1998 by Schweninger, Joseph Michael All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9834063 Copyright 1998, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 ABSTRACT This dissertation examines how the United States defended its northern frontier between Maine and Lake Superior from the War of 1812 to the signing of the Treaty of Washington in 1871. Plans addressed all of the “elements of national defense,” namely fortifications, naval forces, regular troops, militia, and internal improvements. Geographical considerations, British global policy, cultural connections along the border, technological advances, and population growth were important factors also. As a frontier contiguous with “enemy” territory, the northern frontier required some level of defense. The population there had a powerful voice that politicians could not ignore. Based on manuscript sources at the National Archives, official War and State Department records, and Congressional documents, this study discusses the various crises that threatened to bring war to the northern frontier. To Americans, Britain was the only obstacle to their “Manifest Destiny” to control the continent. To the British, the border was the only one where they faced a modem nation possessing great potential strength. Canada was both a hostage used by the United States to ensure Britain’s good behavior and a British bridgehead that could be used to exert leverage on the United States. The Patriot Rebellion, Oregon Crisis, Trent Affair, Confederate raids on Lake Erie and 11 Vermont, and the Fenian raids threatened to upset what were ordinarily good Anglo- American relations. American strategy on the northern frontier rested on two principles: seizure of the St. Lawrence River to cut British communication with the interior, and naval supremacy on the Great Lakes. Given logistical considerations, this was an effective strategy. A quick drive against the British lifeline placed the American strength, the ability to marshal superior communications, population, and industrial resources, against the British weakness, dependence on the St. Lawrence. American strategic goals on the northern frontier were in harmony with national resources. The question remained, however, whether or not success against Canada would be enough to achieve success in a war with Britain. Ill Dedicated to Ann IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Professor Allan Millett for his support throughout the project. Professors Joan Cashin, William Childs, and Randolph Roth also provided valuable advice and insight. 1 am thankful to DeAnne Blanton and Mike Musick at the National Archives. Mike always responded quickly to my requests and was a valuable asset to my research. The Inter-Library Loan staff at The Ohio State University also provided valuable assistance, and Ron McLean of University Technology Services produced the maps. My Mom and Dad instilled in me the values of faith, hard work, responsibility, and attention to detail that have helped me immeasurably in my personal and professional life. Thank you! Most of all 1 am grateful to my wife Ann for the enthusiasm, patience, and love that have helped me through my years as a graduate student. She is God’s greatest blessing to me. Without her support my work would not have been possible. Ann kept me grounded in reality, helped me to enjoy my life outside academia, and held my feet to the fire as necessary. Professor Millett warned me that graduate school would be a significant sacrifice. No one knows that more than my wife, and it is to her that I dedicate my work. VITA September 26, 1964 Bom - St. Louis, Missouri 1996 M.A, The Ohio State University 1993 - 1998 Graduate Teaching and Research Associate, The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS 1. “Sustaining the Civil Authorities: The Ohio National Guard and the Cincinnati Riot of 1884.” Accepted for publication in Queen City Heritage: The Journal o f the Cincinnati Historical Society. 2. "Fort Davidson and the Battle of Pilot Knob." Fortress 17 (May 1993): 37-45. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: History Minor Fields: Military History Early Modem European History United States History to 1877 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Dedication ...............................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................... v Vita..........................................................................................................................................vi List of Tables ........................................................................................................................viii List of Maps ............................................................................................................................ix Abbreviations ...........................................................................................................................x Chapters; 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 2. The War of 1812 and the Northern Frontier ............................................................ 13 3. Development of a Strategy, 1815-1824 ................................................................... 60 4. Neglect of the Frontier’s Defenses, 1825-1837 ..................................................... 118 5. The Patriot Crisis, 1838-1840 .................................................................................155 6. Border Tensions and the Boundary Settlement, 1841-1842 ................................. 201 7. The Frontier Between Major Crises, 1843-1860 ...................................................235 8. The Civil War, 1861 -1863 ...................................................................................... 284 9. The Decline of the Military Frontier, 1863-1871 ..................................................333 10. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 380 Maps .....................................................................................................................................396 Appendices ...........................................................................................................................399 Bibliography .........................................................................................................................405 Vll LIST OF TABLES Table Page 3.1. U.S. regiments and artillery corps on northern frontier, 14 March 1815 ................63 3.2. Number of troops posted on northern frontier, 1816-1824 ..................................... 65 3.3. U.S. force on the lakes, 1 January 1816 ................................................................... 79 4.1. Number of troops posted on northern frontier, 1825-1837 ....................................121 5.1. Number of troops posted on northern frontier, 1838-1840 ....................................164 5.2. Military installations recommended for northern frontier, 1840 ...........................190 6.1. Number of troops posted on northern frontier, 1841-1842 ...................................204 7.1. Number of troops posted on northern frontier, 1843-1851 ...................................249 7.2. Estimates to complete defenses o f northern frontier, 1851 .................................
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