The Duboisia , Australian Aborigines and Suggestibility

Marlene Dobkin de Rios, Ph.D: & Ronni Stachalek, M.A:*

Abstract- hallucinogens, such as those of the Duboisia genus called pituri, have been used by tribal elders in Australian aboriginal populations to create managed states of consciousness, to provide their youth with a' fast-paced educational experience, and to inculcate values, beliefs and religious tenets. Use of the suggestible states created by such substances (particularly in pubertal initiatory rituals marking the transition to manhood) are part of this process, which contributes to cultural cohesiveness and survival; their effectiveness is due to the unique ability of the biochemical properties of the plant to evoke suggestibility in those who ingest them. This article draws on research about suggestibility as a psychological characteristic of altered states of consciousness as well as a normal human psychological phenomenon, and examines in great detail the use of the pituri plant, deriving data from a 100-item bibliography generated by the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies in Canberra. Botanical/chemical data on use of the Duboisia genus up to the end of the nineteenth century is examined, as well as the way in which this hallucinogen was utilized as a "psychotechnology."

Keywords-Australian aborigines, Duboisia genus, hallucinogens, pituri, suggestibility

In a recent study by Grob and Dobkin de Rios (1992), biochemical properties of the pituri plant to evoke suggest- it was shown that plant hallucinogens have been used by ibility in those who ingest them made these ideal tribal elders to create managed states of consciousness to catalysts of this process. provide their youth with a fast-paced educational experi- This article, drawing on research on suggestibility as a ence where values, beliefs and religious tenets have been psychological characteristic of altered states of conscious- inculcated. One of the societies that exemplified this pro- ness as well as a normal human psychological phenomenon, cess is the Australian aborigines of the central desert region. examines in great detail the use of the plant pituri (various In sharp distinction from their often irreverent and danger- Duboisia genus) among Australian aborigines. Thanks to ous use in contemporary society, plant hallucinogens the good offices of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal -particularly the pituri plant-were utilized by Australian and Torres Strait Islander Studies in Canberra, a bibliogra- aborigines within a ritualized, sacrosanct, socially-sanctioned phy of over 100 items was available to aid in reconstructing context with the intent to contribute to group cohesiveness the use of this powerful hallucinogen as an agent of sug- and survival, particularly in pubertal initiatory rituals mark- gestibility in adolescent male initiation rituals. These rituals, ing the transition to manhood. The unique ability of the to be described shortly, are connected to austerities that include genital surgeries (circumcision and subincision) *Associate Clinical Professor of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine. during which time the pituri plant was utilized as an anes- *·Department of Biology, California State University, Fullerton. thetic. Please send correspondence and reprint requests to Marlene Dobkin In this article, the authors examine the botanical! de Rios, Ph.D., 2555 East Chapman Avenue, Suite 407, Fullerton, California 92831. chemical data on the Duboisia genus as used by native

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 155 Voume 31 (2), April - June 1999 Dobkin de Rios & Stachalek Duboisia Genus, Australian Aborigines and Suggestibility peoples of Australia up to the end of the nineteenth BOTANYANDCHEMISTRY OF PITURI century; summarize very briefly the data on hallucinogens and suggestibility; and finally, suggest the way in Duboisia belong to the plant family . Plants which this powerful plant hallucinogen was utilized as a of the Duboisia genera contain tropane alkaloids (Cronquist "psychotechnology" (see Tart 1985) to manage youthful 1981) which are often associated with medicinal, halluci- altered states of consciousness didactically to inculcate con- nogenic and poisonous uses. The D. hopwoodii is a formity and adherence to group norms in order to aid in the three-to-four meter tall shrub bearing attractive and survival of the social polity. Elders assumed a major role in .It is distributed in the arid regions of all main- managing and regulating the induction of hallucinogenic land Australian states except Victoria. The tropane alkaloids experiences in adolescents to facilitate optimally construc- in D. myoporides and D. lechihardtii vary in the types and tive outcomes. amounts produced; these variances depend on geographi- cal source, time of collection and different raceslhybrids. DISTRIBUTION OF DUBOISIA GENUS The primary alkaloids are hyoscine (a levorotatory form of scopolamine), hyoscamine and norhyoscyamine (Evans There are three species of Duboisia in Australia: D. & Peterson 1979). Their effects on the body are depres- myoporides (corkwood), D. leichhardtii, and D. hopwoodsii. sion, immunity to pain and altered states of consciousness. The first has a natural distribution along Australia's eastern Hyoscine was widely used as a childbirth anesthesia in coastal region. The second was found at higher elevations North America until the 1940s. of Queensland, particularly the southeast and the Mulligan- There are differences in the alkaloid content of the Georgiana Rivers areas. D. hopwoodii was found in central plants from different areas. The most commonly traded and western Australia (Griffin 1985). The Duboisia genus pituri had nicotine as its main alkaloid, while plants from was one of the few alkaloid-bearing plants used by the . other areas were high in the more toxic compound aborigines. nornicotine (Low 1987). Pituri was used from the northeastern boundaries of There is a genetic/environmental relationship to the the Simpson Desert of West Queensland and traded over a alkaloids produced in the plant. Although hyoscine and region of 500,000 sq. km., passing along trade routes run- hyoscamine are present together, the proportions of each ning south to Lake Eyre, north to Cloncurry and West into can be manipulated based on the particular plant and envi- the Northern territory. Birket-Smith (1957) delineated trade ronmental conditions to which it is exposed (Hills 1948). routes that linked tribes who traded pituri; they ran from Aborigines favored D. hopwoodii from certain locations the east coast through grasslands down the Diamantina and over those of others. Cooper Creek Rivers to the country around Lake Eyre, and The and the ends of stems were used, and the on to the south coast. Routes from Arnheim Land and Kim- ash of an acacia bush called wirra was added to activate berly to the southwest part of Australia detoured around the the tropane alkaloids (Bonython 1971).Finely ground dried interior deserts. These trade routes (to be discussed under leaves and stems were mixed with wood ash. The ash binds native use) were very important in the redistribution of the with the nicotine and increases its absorption through cel- plant throughout the country. Not all of the plants, how- lular membranes in the mouth when the mixture is chewed. ever, were believed fit for human consumption (Watson, The harvested leaves and young stems were dried by Luanratana & Griffin 1983). pituri clans at intertribal feasts. The rights to process the Different tribes would go on joint expeditions of up to pituri had a totemic basis, involving the same pituri clans 450 km. to gather the D. hopwoodii from the MuIIigan- that comprised the pituri expeditions (Aiston 1937). Georgina Rivers area. According to Griffin (1985), the pituri Details of drying process and temperature and time were located in this area and traded among different hunter/ part of a sacred ritual knowledge possessed by older men. gatherer tribes was the preferred species for human use and It was said that pituri empowered people. The plant was most likely had nicotine as the predominant alkaloid. not harvested until the tribal elders said that the fires were Unlike the two other genera, it was low in nornicotine. burning at an appropriate level, to minimize the loss of Birdsville on the Diamantina River was once a big pituri alkaloids due to halted enzyme action after the material market, and people traveled as far as 650 km. to reach the was picked. market (Low 1989). Many pituri-gathering tribes shared a There was a pituri clan hierarchy in relationship to totemic (mythical) hero who established the route that the the preparation of the plant in the Lake Eyre district. Mem- expedition would take (Watson, Luanratana & Griffin 1983). bership in a pituri clan was by birth, and preparation of the Johnston and Cleland (1933a) indicated that there were pituri was limited to men only. The term pituri was used 19different spellings of the word pituri, since the p/b and dI for the names of members of the pituri patrilineal totemic t are allophonic in native languages. After pituri, a second cult clan. Men and women went to the area where the plant common usage was pitcherie, meaning good, which grew, but only old men with gray beards gathered the pituri expressed the natives' beliefs in its excellent qualities. and prepared it for use; this changed in the 1890s when

Journal vi Psychoactive Drugs 156 Volume 31 (2). April - June I999 Dobkin de Rios & Stachalek Duboisia Genus, Australian Aborigines and Suggestibility

(after contact with pastoralists and as the result of a degra- direct information is available, and much of the present dation of traditional lifestyle ) plant materials were sun dried data has been reconstructed from botanists' reports in the by women. In the old days, younger men and women late nineteenth and early twentieth century. remained at the water supply and made dilly bags and found The first missionaries reached Lake Hope near Coo- food, while the old men camped near the trees and made per Creek in 1866 searching for the Dieri tribe, containing large fires. Once the fires burned down, the men placed the 230 people. They found aborigines congregated at pituri twigs (a maximum of one foot long) in holes dug in Kopperamanna to trade. Pituri was exchanged for red ochre, the sand under the burned fire. The twigs were covered soft wooden shields, stone axes for hardwood boomerangs with hot sand and left to steam for two hours; then they and bowls (Bonython 1971). A sign language for trade were uncovered and allowed to cool and dry. The large twigs developed in Queensland (Roth 1890), and the natives used were discarded and the remainder were put in the bags. message sticks to request pituri. In social situations, the When men showed the first sign of gray in their hair chewed quid was passed from person to person (Griffin and beards, they could accompany the elders to the gather- 1985). ing site and were allowed to fill bags with prepared pituri. When their beards turned gray they could learn the secrets ABORIGINAL USE OF PITURI of cooking the plant. The amount of time required for cook- ing was important and kept secret. The pituri bags were The use of pituri was most likely stumbled upon by made of string from the fibers of the verbena plant in the aborigines of southwest Queensland while searching for Diamentina and Georgina Rivers as well as from the same new food sources (Cleland 1950). From the point of view fibers from the bush on sandhills. The string was dyed with of the colonial whites in Australia, pituri was a threat to red and yellow ochre and blue clay and measured six inches livestock and bird populations. The D. myoporides had a to three feet long. toxic effect on livestock, and so farmers exterminated this The natives used fire stick farming to increase the plant (Grimwade 1954). Nornicotine was three times more number of desired plants: they used fire to burn the older toxic for mammals and was not consumed by the aborigi- branches, which caused an increase in the growth of young nes; they designated only some of the species fit for shoots with a higher nicotine content (Watson, Luanratana consumption. The aborigines bored holes in tree trunks and & Griffin 1983). When the leaves and young stems of D. branches, filled them with a liquid derived from pituri, and leichardtii were harvested, they contained hyoscine and would catch eels by throwing these tree branches into hyoscamine. The plant contained varying amounts of nico- water holes; dazed eels then would surface. Kangaroos were tine and nornicotine (Grimwade 1954). It has sedative, captured with the aid of D. hopwoodi, which was placed in stimulating and addictive effects and has been compared rock holes to stupefy the animals. Johnston and Cleland to tobacco. Several authors argue that the natives were ob- (1933a) wrote that pituri was used in water holes where viously addicted to the drug since they went out of their emus came to drink; birds became stupefied and walked in way to procure it. Roth (1890) reported that pituri was used circles, falling easy prey to natives. The plant was also used by Chinese populations in Australia as an opium substi- to hunt wallabies (Low 1987). tute. Aborigines appeared to have the same desire for pituri One of the main effects of the plant was to suppress that Europeans had for alcohol, and they would trade any- hunger and weariness, and native peoples used it to induce thing, including as Low (1987) reported "their women," to altered states of consciousness during religious ceremonies obtain it. (Cawte 1985). The plant was reported to keep people warm during cold nights when they were lying naked next to a HISTORY OF PITURI USE fire. Central Australian aborigines used pituri as a poison to catch animals, while in the Mulligan-Georgiana area The term pituri has been used in the botanical and an- pituri was traded among different hunter/gatherer tribes for thropological literature for many years. To further human use. complicate the issue, the British called all indigenous chew- Cleland (1951) suggests that D. hopwoodii may have ing tobaccos pituri (Evans & Peterson 1979). Much of the been used for witchcraft. He reported that the plant was knowledge of the aboriginal use of psychoactive drugs was mixed with duniwari (lsotoma petraea), a poisonous plant lost during the period of Australian colonialization. The that made adults drunk or sometimes killed them; thus, he use of pituri died out at the same time that the trade routes reported that pituri was known by the aborigines to kill were abandoned (Low 1987). Captain Cook was reputed to people. In 1860, Vogan (cited in Bancroft 1877) wrote that be the first European to witness the aboriginal drug use pitchurie was alleged to give old men the power to act as when he saw natives storing chewed leaves in their mouth. seers and to obtain power and perquisites. However, in the diaries of the Burke and Wills 1861Expe- Trade was an essential element in pituri use. Many dition, pituri was mentioned for the first time. Since the different materials were exchanged, such as shells for body aboriginal religious life was shrouded in secrecy, little ornaments, red ochre, resin, spears, shields, axeheads,

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 157 Vourne 31 (2), April- June 1999 Dobkin de Rios & Stachalek Duboisia Genus, Australian Aborigines and Suggestibility spear-throwers, boomerangs, millstones, dilly bags, fish- euphoria to catalepsy. It was also used to relieve physical ing nets, digging sticks, and ornamental feathers. Trade stress during long treks through the desert. Kemp stated routes were also important in the dissemination of cultural that pituri was chewed prior to painful initiation rituals traditions, information and religious beliefs (Cooper 1948). (cited in Watson, Luanratana & Griffin 1983). In social situ- At male initiation rituals, circumcision and subinci- ations, the pituri quid was passed from person to person to sion were practiced. Johnston and Cleland (1933b) state that encourage fun and camaraderie. Early references suggest the plant was used in genital operations. The pituri wad a shamanistic use (Griffin 1985). was chewed and passed from person to person. It was stored Medicinal use of the plant D. myoporides included behind the ear when it was not in use, where the nicotine helping relieve night sweats of tuberculosis, relieving could be absorbed through the skin, often turning the skin intense pain due to inflammation of the urinary system, of elders a blue-gray color. The plant was used during feasts dilating the pupil, inducing drowsiness and preventing tooth to increase endurance during long journeys. It was also used decay. The plant produces dry mouth, giddiness and to increase combative behavior and to enable men to have delirium. It works faster than atropine as an eye dilator immunity to pain when they walked on hot stones (Low and was a useful calmative in maniacal delirium. It was 1987). Pituri contained two to three times the amount of also employed as a sedative ointment and was useful in nicotine as cigarettes; by adding alkaline ash to the wad, treating inflammation of the cornea (Maiden 1889). there was an increased release of nicotine, which allowed for better absorption into the body. MALE INITIATION RITUALS The pituri trade, which lasted until the 1930s (Aiston 1937) was monopolized by certain tribes. A child born into It is important to note that aside from parenthetical one of these tribes was entitled to all benefits associated references in the early missionary and botanical reports of with its trade. The leaves were dried in sand ovens. Up to pituri use in "primitive operations," there are no first hand 500 people would gather at the specific pituri trade centers descriptions of the plant use in male initiation rituals at to procure bags of leaves. After eating and resting, one of puberty. The following data summarizes these rituals as the pituri traders would throw a bag of pituri to the ground described by various early commentaries. in front of it crowd. Bartering then would then begin, and Durkheim's writings (1915) about these rituals were people who wanted to buy the bag would throw out their based on the fieldwork reports of a variety of scholars, items such as boomerangs, grinding mills, etc. for barter. If who described pubertal rites of initiation and the sacred the pituri trader saw something he wanted, he would pick role that human blood played in the cult. Among the Arunta up the item and the other trader would pick up the bag to (one tribal group in the central desert region) after subin- complete the transaction. The markets farthest from the cision took place the blood was collected and buried. The homeland of pituri tribes brought more profits, and the first youth's mother drank the blood from the circumcision and few trade centers were used by traders to acquire weapons the youth licked blood from the knife. Intergenerational and items needed to make the journey to those more distant conflict was expressed in scarification of the initiates, blan- markets. The knowledge of the dependency properties ket tossing of these youth, their placement on a bed of evoked by pituri was used by drovers, station managers and leaves atop hot coals, and beatings on the scalp to "pro- others who took advantage of native peoples' needs. mote hair growth." The rites of circumcision and Before the turn of the century, pituri was used only by subincision (which have been of interest to psychoanalyti- older aboriginal men who chewed the quid which they stored cally-oriented scholars) were believed to confer power on behind the ear. According to Austin (1959), members of the the genital organs (Bettelheim 1954). The painful mutila- Kalkadoon tribe near the Birdville area were considered to tion of an organ was believed to give a sacred character to be the fiercest fighters of all aborigines. They had access to it, and through the experiences of pain, an individual was the pituri plant which grew along the Mulligan River and said to gain great power and strength. To aborigines, this traded pituri for other items. Medicine men defended the suffering was symbolized as the sign that certain ties plant, which was highly valued by the aborigines for in- attaching the youth to his everyday, secular environment ducing a dreamless sleep, with the user awakening feeling were broken. refreshed. Eliade (1958) described the Bora rites in an eastern The aborigines would grind or chew one tablespoon of aboriginal society, where young men were removed from pituri leaves and the stems, which were stored in a woven the women's area, isolated in the bush, given religious sack which held 1.4 kg. of dried specimen. They added teaching and floggings, and were circumcised and alkaline ash to change the pH which released nicotine from subincised. The boys remained in the bush for one year the plant, allowing for easier transfer of nicotine across the and were subjected to hypervigilant austerities, including cell membranes. During such social occasions as a big talk, sleep deprivation and fasting. They were kept in silence or at feasts, the plant stimulated talking and merriment. It and darkness intermittently during the year The symbol- created a bond of solidarity and induced effects ranging from ogy of death and rebirth-the death of childhood and the

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 158 Volume 31 (2), April- June 1999 -

Dobkin de Rios & Stachalek Duboisia Genus, Australian Aborigines and Suggestibility rebirth of the individual into a new adult status-figured a person's propensity to respond to suggested communica- prominently. The initiates did not report negative experi- tions, or a particular state of mind favorable to suggestion. ences such as fear and anxiety, but rather revelations which Eysenck (1975: 1077) defined suggestion as a process allowed them to view the world and themselves as sacred. " ... where one or more persons cause one or more indi- No doubt the use of pituri in these genital operations in viduals to change without a critical response of their high septic environments provided an amnesiac experience judgments, opinions, attitudes or patterns of behavior." in much the same way as the alkaloid scopolamine (which Psychologists and psychiatrists have differentiated com- was popular in 1940-1950s obstetrics) induced the twilight ponents of suggestion by examining who elicits it: sleep which was a major form of Western childbirth anes- suggestion which is interpersonal in nature is called thesia. heterosuggestion, whereas self-induced suggestion is called Male blood was seen as a symbol of strength and fer- auto suggestion. Other distinctions are made based on tility. To separate men from their mothers, male blood was whether the suggestion is verbal or nonverbal, whether it used through the initiation rites. Van Gennep's (1984) stages is a request or a command, and whether the communicator of transition in initiation rituals-including separation, is a high-status individual. Experimental data has shown liminality and reintegration-can be used to describe the that moderate levels of anxiety increase social influence- rites among aborigines in which pituri would have played ability (Schumaker 1991). The term dissociation is widely an important role (especially in the third and fourth stages used in the hypnosis literature to acknowledge the fact that listed below): consciousness is not a singular and continuous state, but a • segregation of novices into special isolated camps hierarchical system of cognitive control where information • education about sacred matters received from elders is processed along multiple, independent pathways. Vari- • operations on the body such as circumcision and sub- ables such as volition, self-initiative and critical awareness incision are higher levels of control from which a person can be • disclosure of meanings of ritual objects presented to disengaged if the need occurs. novices in secret ceremonies Certainly anthropologists evaluate and analyze reli- • final cleaning of all traces of the sacred world and the gious rituals that are engendered through dance, movement, ceremonial return to ordinary life. repetitive activities or drug ingestion. Schumaker (1995) The symbolic concept of death and rebirth which was argues that shamanic practices are dissociative when the the outcome of hallucinogenic plant drug use is widely person in this state is removed from his/her higher order found among traditional societies of the world (see Dobkin executive control functions and the individual overrides de Rios 1984). It is so profound in aboriginal societies that conscious monitoring authority. mothers behave as if their sons were dead and mourned From a biological point of view, Simon (1990) perceives them accordingly. The aboriginal elder who performed the of suggestibility as an adaptive device that affords the circumcision was believed to be a designate of a super- individual a capacity for denial, illusion and false or overly natural being. Five or six weeks after the circumcision, optimistic beliefs to enable him to cope with stress and subincision was performed; this custom of cutting the male situational conflicts. An overall psychological and biologi- urethra was believed to be done to rid the body of the cal homeostasis can be maintained which confers crucial mother's female blood. Cawte (1987) queried elders of one survival advantages. Schumaker (1991)reasons that we have aboriginal group with whom he had studied and found that evolved as suggestible animals because of our survival the elders stated that subincision was done to make the needs. Such states allow us to transcend reality, to create human penis appear like the bifurcated penis of marsupi- social cohesion and to permit social control, emotional dis- als. After a series of hazings and ordeals, the young man charge and flight from the self (which is useful as an escape was said to be a changed person, ready to fully participate from trauma and irreconcilable conflict). At a cultural level, in adult society. suggestibility and trance contribute to psychological well While it is unfortunate that a first-hand description of being and identity as well as cohesion and unity. Culture pituri ingestion during initiation rituals has never been determines the content of our suggestions in conditions of described, the linkage between ingestion of this plant drug danger, where immediacy is important for survival: indi- and suggestibility need to be explored. In the following viduals who do not weigh all contingencies and probabilities section, the literature on hallucinogens and suggestibility are in better positions to act quickly (Ludwig 1969). Simon is reviewed. terms this "bounded rationality"-a human tendency to learn from others or to accept social influence, which he HALLUCINOGENS AND SUGGESTIBILITY sees as a product of natural selection. Human fitness, from a Darwinian perspective of survival, can be enhanced by It is interesting that anthropologists rarely use the term docility, which induces individuals to adopt culturally-trans- suggestibility, while in the psychological, psychiatric and mitted behaviors without independent evaluation of their hypnosis literature, suggestibility is often used to indicate contribution to personal advantage. Docility in its genetic

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 159 Voume 31 (2), April - June 1999 Dobkin de Rios & Stachalek Duboisia Genus,Australian Aborigines and Suggestibility component is bestowed, not chosen, and such behaviors can with a special consciousness state that contributed to the confer net benefits to the population. survival success of the community. The states heightened Wallace (1969) has argued that suggestibility in human learning of sacred knowledge and created a bonding among affairs is manifested by the hundreds of thousands of dif- members of the cohort group such that individual psychic ferent religions that span human history. A 1984 Gallup poll needs were subsumed to the needs of the social group. that shows that 54% of American adults believe in angels, Cohort identity was fostered by austerities and painful con- perhaps showing that many Americans are suggestible. sciousness changes that accompanied genital mutilations, Ardila and Moreno (1991)present biochemical and cul- sleep deprivation and beatings.A key feature of these ritu- tural data on hyoscine intoxication as a model of transient als was the cultural utilization of the hypersuggestibility global amnesia. In Colombia, hyoscine extracts from Datura induced by use of the drug plants themselves. In this or Brugmansia genera are used to inculcate anterograde altered state of consciousness managed by adult tutors, ado- amnesia and submissive behavior; for centuries, plants of lescent behavior patterns were framed, religious and secular these genera have been widely used in shamanism and values internalized, and the emotional patterns appropri- witchcraft to produce unguents with anesthetic properties ate to the culture were modeled for the youths by their which create the feeling of levitation in ritual ceremonies. elders. While we would not expect to find homogeneity in The individual in these ceremonies maintains an apparent outcomes for all youths subject to such rituals, it is cer- behavioral integrity but presents an abrupt onset of very tainly one way that a culture has available to inculcate severe anterograde amnesia. The tropane alkaloids produce conformity in young people to patterns that might contrib- impairments in memory performance that involve both stor- ute to group survival and harmony. age and retrieval. Warburton (1985) has shown how hyoscine Psychotropic drugs have played an important role in can cause auditory hallucinations. Sjoberg and Hollister the lives of human beings since the beginnings of human (1965) argued that many attempts were made to induce sug- history. The incorporation of these plants into group ini- gestibility by use of drugs including tropane alkaloids; they tiation rites is widespread in tribal societies. Such drugs hypothesized that hallucinogenic drugs enhance primary have been accepted to be of sacred origin and have been suggestibility to a degree comparable to that produced by treated with awe and reverence. In such societies the plants inducing hypnosis. were in limited supply and protected from abuse and pro- fanation by deviants insofar as they remained under adult CONCLUSION control and administration. The death and rebirth theme found among the aborigines is one in which the life of the It is clear that hallucinogenic plants like pituri were child/adolescent undergoes sharp changes in the succes- used to create states of consciousness, particularly sion to a new identity which is richly imbued with meaning hypersuggestible ones, in order to enculturate adolescents that merits societal respect and attention.

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Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 161 Voume 31 (2), April - June 1999