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Este Documento Es Proporcionado Al Estudiante Con Fines Educativos, Para La Crítica Y La Investigación Respetando La Reglamentación En Materia De Derechos De Autor Este documento es proporcionado al estudiante con fines educativos, para la crítica y la investigación respetando la reglamentación en materia de derechos de autor. Este documento no tiene costo alguno, por lo que queda prohibida su reproducción total o parcial. El uso indebido de este documento es responsabilidad del estudiante. Este documento es proporcionado al estudiante con fines educativos, para la crítica y la investigación respetando la reglamentación en materia de derechos de autor. Este documento no tiene costo alguno, por lo que queda prohibida su reproducción total o parcial. El uso indebido de este documento es responsabilidad del estudiante. HOW SEX CHANGED A History of Transsexuality in the United States JOANNE MEYEROWITZ Harvard University Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England Este documento es proporcionado al estudiante con fines educativos, para la crítica y la investigación respetando la reglamentación en materia de derechos de autor. Este documento no tiene costo alguno, por lo que queda prohibida su reproducción total o parcial. #4 77 El uso indebido deis este 4. documento /3,C es responsabilidad del estudiante. 77 A.,f Copyright © 2002 by Joanne Meyerowitz All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First Harvard University Press paperback edition, 2004 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Meyerowitz, Joanne J. (Joanne Jay) How sex changed : a history of transsexuality / Joanne Meyerowitz. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-674-00925-8 (cloth) ISBN 0-674-01379-4 (pbk.) 1. Transsexualism—Europe—History. 2. Transsexualism—United States—History. 3. Sex change—Europe—History. 4. Sex change—United States—History. I. Title. HQ77.95.E85 M48 2002 306.77—dc21 2002020536 Este documento es proporcionado al estudiante con fines educativos, para la crítica y la investigación respetando la reglamentación en materia de derechos de autor. Este documento no tiene costo alguno, por lo que queda prohibida su reproducción total o parcial. El uso indebido de este documento es responsabilidad del estudiante. "EX-GI BECOMES BLONDE BEAUTY" (:it the end of March 1959 a New York Daily News headline asked: "What's a Woman? City Bureau Baffled by Chris Jorgensen." Since her public debut in 1952, Jorgensen had held the attention of the press in part by raising the question of how to define a person's sex. In 1959 the issue carne to a head. With her fiancé, Howard J. Knox, a labor union statistician, Jorgensen applied for a marriage license at the New York City Municipal Building. By the custom of the day, which few questioned at the time, only a woman could marry a man. Where did Jorgensen, who had changed her assigned sex, fit into the catego- ries of female and male? City Clerk Herman Katz, with six staff attor- neys, eventually pointed to Jorgensen's birth certificate, which desig- nated her sex as male. Jorgensen, backed by a lawyer of her own, produced her passport, which usted her sex as female, and a letter from her doctor, Harry Benjamin, attesting that "she must be considered fe- male." The city of New York refused to issue the license. On April 4 the New York Times described the situation: "Christine Jorgensen, an en- tertainer, was denied a marriage license yesterday on the ground of in- adequate proof of being a female." The more sensational New York Mirror announced the news in a front-page headline: "Bar Wedding for Christine."' Jorgensen's lawyer promised to petition the New York Board of Health to get the birth certificate altered. Within a few weeks, though, Jorgensen had parted company with Knox, and the questions of how to determine a person's sex and who qualified for marriage van- ished temporarily from the public stage. In the 1950s Jorgensen made sex change a household term. She Este documento es proporcionado al estudiante con fines educativos, para la crítica y la "EX-GI BECOMES BLONDE BEAUTY" investigación respetando la reglamentación en materia de derechos de autor. "EX-GI BECOMES BLONDE BEAUTY" Este documento no tiene costo alguno, por lo que queda prohibida su reproducción total o parcial. El uso indebido de este documento es responsabilidad del estudiante. 52 53 served as a focal point for hundreds of news stories that broached the stories on other transsexuals made sex change a constant feature in the topic of changing sex and as a publicity agent for the hormones and popular press. Soon sex change made its appearance in record albums, surgery that enabled bodily transformation. Reporters debated films, and popular novels. And the public responded. Readers bought whether Jorgensen qualified as a woman, whether science could create the newspapers and magazines that carried the sex-change stories, au- a woman, and how a "normal" woman should behave. And Jorgensen diences flocked to nightclubs to see Jorgensen perform, and correspon- allowed the reporters and the public to satisfy the idle and not-so-idle dents wrote to the transsexuals whose names made it into the press. As curiosities that prompted them to observe her. In an interview in the with earlier accounts of sex change, transgendered people responded to 1960s Jorgensen reflected on her fame. "I was standing at a comer," the stories, but in Jorgensen's case in particular nontransgendered peo- she said, "when a question was being asked . It was because the ple responded as well. For at least some readers, Jorgensen had suc- world was ready for this step . the opening of the sexual understand- ceeded in making sex change an inspiring story of personal triumph as ing explosion. If I hadn't been there, someone else would have."2 As well as a titillating tale of sexual transgression. Jorgensen knew, her story highlighted issues that pervaded post—World War II American culture: the limits of individualism, the promise and pitfalls of science, the appropriate behavior of women and men, and the n May 30, 1926, Christine Jorgensen entered the world as boundaries of acceptable sexual expression. Her story attracted the George William Jorgensen Jr., the second child and only son of George press, and the public's avid interest in matters pertaining to sex and Florence Hansen Jorgensen, Danish Americans who lived in the prompted reporters to dig deeply. As the press coverage escalated, jour- Bronx. To all outward appearances, George Jr. had a relatively unevent- nalists and their readers came to distinguish Jorgensen from people ful youth. His father, a contractor and carpenter, lost his construction with intersexed conditions. The kind of sex-change surgery performed company during the Great Depression but soon found other jobs in in Europe earlier in the century now took cultural center stage in the the building trades, through the federal Works Progress Administration United States. and in the New York City Parks Department. His mother, a housewife, Jorgensen took her public role seriously. Despite the reporters who stayed at home to rear their two children. They managed on short sometimes characterized her as a "freak" or a "pervert," Jorgensen money and held on to their car and home in what Jorgensen remem- constructed her own story and her own career in a way that tapped into bered as a "pleasant residential area."4 With grandmother, uncles, other cultural sensibilities. She cast her story in a familiar vein as a dra- aunts, and cousins nearby, George grew up surrounded by relatives in a matic success story, and she tried to project a conventional, respectable, stable and tight-knit family. Like his older sister, Dorothy, he enrolled mainstream public image. Much of the press's interest, she knew, fo- in the local public schools, attended summer camp, and went on family cused on sexuality, but Jorgensen hoped to separate herself from the vacations. lewd jokes about her that circulated into the 1960s. If she could estab- But as Jorgensen later related it, the seemingly placid childhood hid lish herself as a "normal" woman, then she might change the common- an inner turmoil. Any recounting of this "inner" life necessarily draws place understandings of what constituted sex, and she might protect on Jorgensen's constructions of it. In the life histories later presented herself and others from the ridicule she had endured. In 1954, with a to the doctors and in various autobiographical writings and interviews, dose of optimism, she told an interviewer from True Confessions maga- Jorgensen repeatedly told of emotions, wishes, and fantasies invisible to zine: "I think that much that has been classified as abnormal for many others, of a lonely personal quest to overcome a problem that made life years is becoming accepted as normal."' not worth living. In there accounts the plot proceeded from alienation With the Jorgensen story, the floodgates broke. A torrent of new to hope, with science as the solution. Este documento es proporcionado al estudiante con fines educativos, para la crítica y la investigación respetando la reglamentación en materia de derechos de autor. "EX-GI BECOMES BLONDE BEAUTY"Este documento no tiene costo alguno, por lo que queda prohibida su reproducción total o"EX-GI parcial. BECOMES BLONDE BEAUTY" El uso indebido de este documento es responsabilidad del estudiante. 54 55 In Jorgensen's telling, George had, from an early age, an aversion to barriers dividing humans from one another. At this point Jorgensen masculine games and masculine clothes. He could not fit in with other already wrote of a private inner life, which he described as a "mystic boys. "I was unhappy," Jorgensen recalled, "I wasn't like other chil- land of secret hopes and desires" that others could "never know." The dren . I knew something was wrong."5 Privately, George wanted to melancholic writings include a note of despair.
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