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This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ War images and image makers in the Victorian era : aspects of British visual and written portrayal of war and defence c.1866-1906. Stearn, Roger Thomas The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. END USER LICENCE AGREEMENT Unless another licence is stated on the immediately following page this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ You are free to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution: You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Non Commercial: You may not use this work for commercial purposes. No Derivative Works - You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. Any of these conditions can be waived if you receive permission from the author. Your fair dealings and other rights are in no way affected by the above. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 05. Oct. 2021 WAR IMAGES AND IMAGE MAKERS IN THE VICTORIAN ERA: ASPECTS OF THE BRITISH VISUAL AND WRITTEN PORTRAYAL OF WARC.1866-19O6. ojó. óQ CCQ 1987 Roger Thomas Steam Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, King's College, University of London. U'. ABSTRACT The thesis considers aspects of British perceptions, images and attitudes towards war and defence, and certain key persons who presented them to the public, approximately from 1866 to 1906. It is concerned primarily with leading civi- lian artists and writers on war and defence, and with the message and images presented by the press, books and pictures, on land warfare more than naval warfare. It considers first the visual images of war in the press and painting, and the press special war artists and the studio battle-painters. It then considers war correspondents and the work and message of two leading correspondents, Archibald Forbes and George Warrington Steevens. It then considers aspects of the war- portrayal and message of the fiction of future war. Con- clusions drawn include the essential unity of the presented image of war and defence, such that the varied media and com- municators mutually reinforced their message. The image was shaped by predetermined selectivity by an ideological cluster of patriotism, imperialism, social darwinism, bellicism and martial values. These so dominated perceptions that the presentations of those with and without battle experience hardly differed. The presentations were purposive and inspirational, warning and urging material and moral pre- paration. War was presented positively, as heroism and adventure, its horrors minimised and contained. Military and civilians interacted in this presentation, and the com- municators were also influenced by factors including conti- nental influences, party politics, journalistic imperatives, artistic and literary convention, and individual careerism. Though pacifists and others dissented from it, the influence of this dominant image of war and defence was pervasive, shaping the assumptions of the pre-1914 nation. 1 CONTENTS Introduction .2 Acknowledgments...........................................6 ChapterI The War Artists ..............................7 Chapter II The Battle Painters 1. Context: the Victorian "World of Art".. .34 2. Context: content and values in Victorianpainting.............42 3. Victorian battle painters: i. Introduction ..................50 ii. T.J. Barker ...................55 iii. Elizabeth Butler ..............58 iv. Caton Woodville ...............74 v. Robert Gibb ...................90 vi. C.E. Fripp, G.D. Giles et al .96 4. Artists, defence and the paucity of British battle painting.......104 5. Images of war..........................114 6. Alternative portrayal: Vereshchagin. .136 7. The pacifist critique ..................143 Chapter III Victorian War Correspondents ...............148 Chapter IV Archibald Forbes 1. The career of Archibald Forbes .........167 2. 'A Private Dragoon': Forbes' first journalism .191 3. The Franco-Prussian War ................196 4. The Russo-Turkish War ..................201 5. The Zulu War ...........................219 la 6. Military controversies I .................223 7. Military controversies II ................232 8. Forbes on war correspondence .............249 9. Biographies ..............................260 10. Fiction and minor articles ...............269 11. Conclusion...............................277 Chapter V G.W. Steevens 1. Education and early journalism...........295 2. Naval writings ...........................301 3. 'Daily Mail' and 'Land of the Dollar'....311 4. The Graeco-Turkish War ...................318 5. Germany and France .......................326 6. Egypt and the Sudan, 1898 ................331 7. 'Inlndia' ...............................353 8. 1890s articles ...........................356 9. The Boer War .............................368 10. Conclusion: message and responses ........382 Chapter VI Fiction of future wars .......................397 Conclusion................................................419 Bibliography ..............................................426 Illustrations lb INTRODUCTION Since the Great War the pre-1914 mentality and the influences that formed it have continued to fascinate and have been the subject of polemic and research. In recent years following a less traumatic change, the ending of the Empire, the imperialist mentality and the influences that formed it have also been of increased concern to historians. At the same time there has been a renaissance of military and related history. Since the late 1950s when Brian Bond pioneered the study of the Victorian army, major work has been published on the 19th and early 20th century army, navy, defence policy, wars, war and society and civil- military relations, and on related areas of international relations, the Empire and imperialism, literature and the media. This thesis is indebted to the work of scholars in these areas. John Keegan, John Ellis, Richard Holmes and others have studied the actualities of war and battle. This thesis does not study such reality, yet it is the implicit standard against which its subject, the images and perceptions of war presented to the public, is evaluated. Not having experienced battle, I largely depend on these historians for that standard. This thesis attempts to contribute towards answering two related questions. First, what input of information and images of war and defence did the reading public - approximately the 'political nation' of the upper, middle and artisan classes - receive from the various written and 2 visual media, from the press, books and pictures? Second, who were the communicators, the image-makers, who con- structed this input, and what were their backgrounds, social position, influences on them, and their attitudes? A full answer would be immense, beyond any single thesis. This thesis deals with some of the issues, assumptions and images of war and defence presented to the British public, with influences which formed their notions and images of war and defence; and with those who presented them to the public, the image-makers, in the period approximately from 1866 to 1906. It comprises studies of related aspects of its theme and is necessarily selective, omitting or con- sidering only briefly some important topics. Some of these have already been studied, for example navalism by A.J. Marder and by W.M. Hamilton, or invasion scares by Howard Moon. It considers aspects of its theme which have hitherto not been so researched. It is concerned primarily with civilian writers on war and defence, publicists who reached a wide audience and had credibility in their day. It is largely concerned with land warfare and to a lesser extent with the navy, navalism and sea warfare. It relates to war and society, militarism, imperialism, civil- military relations, war and the media, and the 'unspoken assumptions' and climate of opinion preceding and during the Great War. The public received its input on war and defence from a variety of sources, constructed by a variety of communicators: journalists, politicians, publicists, 3 artists and fiction-writers. The thesis' approach to its subject is partly thematic, and largely through certain key individual communicators. These were, in a sense, self- selecting through contemporaneous opinions of them, and the scale and circulation of their work. The thesis considers first the visual images of war in the press and painting - the iconography which complemented contemporary writing on war - and the leading artists, both artist-reporters ('special war artists') and studio painters, who presented them. It relates the battle-painters to the 'world of art' and to issues of war and defence. It then considers war correspondents and the work and message of the leading war correspondents of the mid and late Victorian periods res- pectively, Archibald Forbes and George Warrington Steevens. Next it considers some aspects of the war-portrayal and message of the fiction of future war. It includes each selected
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