Protein Import Into Chloroplasts Requires a Chloroplast Atpase

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Protein Import Into Chloroplasts Requires a Chloroplast Atpase Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 84, pp. 3288-3292, May 1987 Cell Biology Protein import into chloroplasts requires a chloroplast ATPase (cell-free translation/precursor of small subunit of pea ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/pea chloroplasts/ nonhydrolyzable ATP analogs/ionophores) DEBKUMAR PAIN AND GUNTER BLOBEL Laboratory of Cell Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10021 Contributed by Gunter Blobel, January 29, 1987 ABSTRACT We have transcribed mRNA from a cDNA the rbcS-E9 gene (9) and contains the entire mature polypep- clone coding for pea ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase, tide (S) sequence, including two introns. A portion of translated the mRNA in a wheat germ cell-free system, and pUC3AE9 containing the two introns but not the transit studied the energy requirement for posttranslational import of sequence was excised with Sph I and Kpn I and an identical the [35S]methionine-labeled protein into the stroma of pea Sph I-Kpn I fragment from SS15, which lacked the two chloroplasts. We found that import depends on ATP hydrolysis introns, was substituted. The resulting clone contained the within the stroma. Import is not inhibited when HI, K+, Na+, complete uninterrupted coding region of pS. or divalent cation gradients across the chloroplast membranes The pS coding DNA was excised from the pUC vector with are dissipated by ionophores, as long as exogenously added Xba I and Cla I and ligated to pT7-1 cut with Xba I and Acc ATP is also present during the import reaction. Our data I. The resulting plasmid (pT7-pS) was purified on a sucrose suggest that protein import into the chloroplast stroma requires gradient and linearized downstream from the gene with Pst I a chloroplast ATPase that does not function to generate a before transcription. In vitro transcription using phage T7 membrane potential for driving the import reaction but that RNA polymerase (United States Biochemicals, Cleveland, exerts its effect in another, yet-to-be-determined, mode. We OH) was done essentially according to supplier's assay have carried out a preliminary characterization of this ATPase conditions except that the nucleoside triphosphates and the regarding its nucleotide specificity and the effects of various cap analog diguanosine triphosphate [G(5')ppp(5')G] were ATPase inhibitors. used at 0.25 mM each. After transcription, the solution was extracted with phenol/chloroform and the mRNA was pre- The in vitro import of cytoplasmically synthesized proteins cipitated with LiCl. About 2 ,ug oftranscript was obtained per into chloroplasts has been previously demonstrated. Trans- ,ug of DNA template (as judged by A260). lation of mRNA for a cytoplasmically synthesized polypep- Cell-Free Translation. The previously described wheat tide of the chloroplast stroma, the small subunit (S) of germ cell-free translation system (10) was supplemented with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase, yielded a large pre- 10 ,uM S-adenosyl-L-methionine and contained 200 ng of cursor (pS) (1), and posttranslational incubation with isolated mRNA and 2.8 ,ul of wheat germ extract per 10-,ul translation chloroplasts resulted in import of pS into the chloroplast mixture. The final concentrations ofthe other components of stroma accompanied by conversion of pS into S (2, 3) by the translation mixture were adjusted to 43 mM Hepes-KOH means of cleavage of an NH2-terminal transit sequence (4). at pH 7.5, 112 mM KOAc, 2.1 mM Mg(OAc)2, 0.25 mM Import is an energy-dependent process (5). When the spermidine, 3 mM dithiothreitol, 0.5 mM ATP, 20 ,uM GTP, import reaction was carried out in the dark, addition of ATP 8 mM creatine phosphate, creatine kinase at 65 ,ug/ml, each stimulated uptake into the chloroplast. Likewise, illumina- of the 20 amino acids except for methionine at 26 ,uM, and tion of the import reaction stimulated uptake, and this [35S]methionine at 0.9-1.2 mCi/ml (1 Ci = 37 GBq). After stimulation was abolished when uncouplers were present, 1-hr incubation at 25°C, the translation mixture was centri- again suggesting that ATP is required for import (5). fuged for 22 min at 4°C in a Beckman Airfuge at 30 psi Recently, Cline et al. (6) succeeded in experimentally (140,000 x g), yielding a postribosomal supernatant (PRS) separating the import reaction into two steps. In the first that contained the newly synthesized pS. reaction precursors were bound to the surface of ATP- Posttranslational Import Assay. Intact chloroplasts were depleted chloroplasts. In a second reaction much of the isolated from the leaves of 2- to 3-wk-old pea (Pisum sativum, bound precursor was imported into the chloroplast, depend- Progress no. 9) seedlings and purified on a Percoll step ing on exogenously added ATP. gradient as described (11). Isolated chloroplasts were resus- In the present paper we have addressed the questions of pended in 50 mM Hepes-KOH, pH 7.7/0.33 M sorbitol at a how and where ATP is used to drive the import ofpS into the concentration of 2-4 mg of chlorophyll per ml. To deplete chloroplast stroma. chloroplasts of their endogenous ATP, we incubated them in the dark for 15 min at room temperature prior to use in the import assay. The import reaction was carried out essentially MATERIALS AND METHODS as in ref. 5 with some modifications. The basic import assay Subcloning and Phage T7 Transcription. A clone represent- mixture (300 ,u) contained 0.5 ul of PRS (see above), ing the complete coding sequence ofpS was constructed from preincubated chloroplasts equivalent to 100 ,g of chloro- phyll, bovine serum albumin at 100 ,ug/ml, and 50 mM a partial cDNA clone, SS15, that lacks part of the NH2- Hepes-KOH, pH 7.7/0.33 M sorbitol/40 mM KOAc/2 mM terminal transit sequence (7) and a genomic clone, pUC- Mg(OAc)2/1.5 mM dithiothreitol/10 mM methionine. In most 3AE9. The plasmid pUC3AE9 contains two S gene segments; instances, the import assay mixture was further modified as one is derived from the rbcS-3A gene (8) and contains the specified in the figure legends. The import reaction was complete transit peptide of pS, and the other is derived from Abbreviations: S, small subunit of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate car- The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge boxylase; pS, precursor of S; PRS, postribosomal supernatant; CF1, payment. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" coupling factor; pmf, protonmotive force; CCCP, carbonylcyanide in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact. m-chlorophenylhydrazone. 3288 Downloaded by guest on September 26, 2021 Cell Biology: Pain and Blobel Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84 (1987) 3289 carried out at room temperature for 30 min with occasional -<---- Dark - <- Room Light -O gentle mixing, either in the dark or in the room light as specified. Chloroplasts - + Quantitative Analysis of Import. After incubation, each ATP - _ I - import mixture was chilled on ice, diluted with 5 ml of cold Proteases - - - - - 50 mM Hepes-KOH, pH 7.7/0.33 M sorbitol and centrifuged X-100 + for 1 min at 4000 x g. The pelleted chloroplasts were lysed Triton - - - -- - in 0.8 ml of2 mM EDTA, pH 7.5, by vigorous mixing. Sodium chloride was added to a final concentration of 0.24 M and the lysate was centrifuged at 12,000 x g for 15 min. To the resulting supernatant, representing the stroma fraction, ice- cold trichloroacetic acid was added to a final concentration of 10%o. The precipitate was'analyzed by electrophoresis on 12% polyacrylamide gels in NaDodSO4 (12). The gels were fixed in 10% acetic acid/35% methanol (vol/vol), treated with Enlightning (New England Nuclear), dried, and exposed to S- Fuji'x-ray film for 6-24 hr at -80'C. An AMBIS ,8-scanner was used to quantitate the radioactivity in pS or S in dried gels. Protease Protection. The procedure for protease protection 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 was identical to that above for the given quantitative analysis FIG. 1. Protein import into the chloroplast stroma depends on of import, except that prior to lysis the pelleted chloroplasts ATP. Lane 1 shows the 3"S-labeled products present in a 0.5-,ui were gently resuspended in a final volume of 300 ,ul of aliquot of a PRS after translation. Lanes 2-7 show the products of a ice-cold 50 mM Hepes-KOH, pH 7.7/0.33 M sorbitol. Either 0.5-1.l aliquot of PRS imported into the chloroplast stroma fraction. 250 ,tg/ml each of trypsin and chymotrypsin or the same Where indicated, ATP was present at a final concentration of 1 mM. amount of proteases plus Triton X-100 to a final concentra- The data are from a fluorograph of a dried Na1DodSO4/polyacryl- tion of 0.3% was added. After incubation for 30 min on ice, amide gel. the reaction mixture was diluted with 0.8 ml of cold 2 mM EDTA, pH 7.5 containing protease inhibitors (2.5 mM p- ground" import (e.g., import in the dark without exogenously aminobenzamidine/10 mM e-amino-n-caproic acid/i mM added ATP) that was observed in the earlier studies (5), for phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride), and mixed vigorously. which the ATP concentration contributed to the import reaction by the translation mixture was calculated to be 166 RESULTS AM instead of 0.8 AM in the present study. ATP Acts Within the Stroma. Chloroplasts are capable of ATP Is Required for Import. mRNA for S was obtained by synthesizing ATP in the dark when supplied with dihydroxy- in vitro transcription of cloned DNA (see Materials and acetone phosphate/oxalacetic acid/phosphate buffer (13).
Recommended publications
  • Interdependence Between Chloroplasts and Mitochondria in the Light and the Dark
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Elsevier - Publisher Connector Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1366 (1998) 235^255 Review Interdependence between chloroplasts and mitochondria in the light and the dark Marcel H.N. Hoefnagel a, Owen K. Atkin b, Joseph T. Wiskich a;* a Department of Botany, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia b Research School for Biological Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia Received 21 April 1998; revised 3 June 1998; accepted 10 June 1998 ß 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Chloroplast; Chlororespiration; Excess reductant; Metabolite exchange; Mitochondrion; Photosynthesis; Respiration Contents 1. Introduction .......................................................... 236 2. Interactions between organelles depends on metabolite exchange . .................. 236 2.1. ATP exchange ..................................................... 236 2.2. Transport of reducing equivalents across membranes . ....................... 237 2.3. Exchange of carbon compounds ....................................... 238 3. Respiration in the light . ................................................. 239 3.1. Does respiration continue in the light? . .................................. 239 3.2. Substrates for the mitochondria in the light . ............................ 240 3.3. ATP supply in the light: chloroplasts versus mitochondria . .................. 240 3.4. Adenylate control of respiration in the light .
    [Show full text]
  • Calvin Cycle E
    Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight (light energy) to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water, with oxygen as a byproduct. This process occurs LIGHT STROMA in the chloroplasts in a plant cell and has DEPENDENT Cytochrome b f Reduced REACTIONS two stages – the light-dependent reactions 6 NADP NADP + 1. Light activation of and the light-independent reactions. H ATP synthase photocentres It all starts with the sunlight hitting e- PSII 2. Photolysis of water - + the fi rst photocentre (PSII). (P68 e PSI H e- (P 3. Electron transport e- ATP e- + 4. Pumping H into the + O H thylakoid space ADP + Pi H O + + H 5. Synthesis of ATP H 6. Reduction of NADP Photolysis THYLAKOID SPACE CO OXYGEN Thylakoid membrane GLUCOSE REDUCED NADP & ATP NADP REDUCED Glucose is used in respiration for energy. Glucose is converted to: 1. Cellulose for cell walls 2. Sucrose for transport 3. Starch for storage ADP + Pi & NADP + Pi ADP CHLOROPLAST CALVIN C LIGHT CO YCL E ( Six INDEPENDENT RuBisCO tu rn enzyme BON FIXAT s CAR ION to REACTIONS p ro d u c Calvin cycle e RuBP GP g l 1. Carbon fi xation u Ribulose bisphosphate Glycerate phosphate c o s e ) 2. Reduction P B 3. Regeneration of RuBP u R ATP F ADP + Pi O N ADP + Pi O R I ATP E T D A R Reduced NADP U E C N T E I O G NADP N E R GALP Glyceraldehyde phosphate Hexose Glucose LAMELLA THYLAKOIDS STROMA KEY TO SYMBOLS INNER CHLOROPLAST MEMBRANE Carbon atom: Electron transport: e- OUTER CHLOROPLAST MEMBRANE H+ movement: GLOSSARY ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyses the Ferrodoxin: An electron carrier sitting just Light-dependent reactions: The fi rst stage Photosystem I (PSI): The second photosystem Plastoquinone: A molecule that is reduced Regeneration of RuBP: The third stage of Stroma: The aqueous solution that fi lls the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic outside the thylakoid in the chloroplast of photosynthesis.
    [Show full text]
  • (12) United States Patent (10) Patent No.: US 9.410,182 B2 W (45) Date of Patent: Aug
    USOO941 0182B2 (12) United States Patent (10) Patent No.: US 9.410,182 B2 W (45) Date of Patent: Aug. 9, 2016 (54) PHOSPHATASE COUPLED OTHER PUBLICATIONS GLYCOSYLTRANSFERASE ASSAY Wu et al., R&D Systems Poster, “Universal Phosphatase-Coupled (75) Inventor: Zhengliang L. Wu, Edina, MN (US) Glycosyltransferase Assay”, Apr. 2010, 3 pages.* “Malachite Green Phosphate Detection Kit'. Research and Diagnos (73) Assignee: Bio-Techne Corporation, Minneapolis, tic Systems, Inc. Catalog No. DY996, Feb. 4, 2010, 6 pages.* MN (US) Zhu et al., Analytica Chimica Acta 636:105-110, 2009.* Motomizu et al., Analytica Chimica Acta 211:119-127, 1988.* *) NotOt1Ce: Subjubject to anyy d1Sclaimer,disclai theh term off thisthi Schachter et al., Methods Enzymol. 98.98-134, 1983.* patent is extended or adjusted under 35 Unverzagt et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 112:9308-9309, 1990.* U.S.C. 154(b) by 0 days. IUBMB Enzyme Nomenclature for EC 3.1.3.1, obtained from www. chem.cmul.ac.uk/iubmb? enzyme/EC3/1/3/5.html, last viewed on (21) Appl. No.: 13/699,175 Apr. 13, 2015, 1 page.* IUBMB Enzyme Nomenclature for EC 3.1.3.5, obtained from www. (22) PCT Filed: May 24, 2010 chem.cmul.ac.uk/iubmb? enzyme/EC3/1/3/5.html, last viewed on Apr. 13, 2015, 1 page.* (86). PCT No.: PCT/US2010/035938 Compain et al., Bio. Med. Chem. 9:3077-3092, 2001.* Lee et al., J. Biol. Chem. 277:49341-49351, 2002.* S371 (c)(1), Donovan R S et al., “A Solid-phase glycosyltransferase assay for (2), (4) Date: Nov.
    [Show full text]
  • Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase Activation in Tomato (Lycopersicon Esculentum Mil!.)
    Plant Physiol. (1995) 107: 585-591 The Effects of Chilling in the Light on Ribulose-1,5- Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase Activation in Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mil!.) George T. Byrd’, Donald R. Ort, and William 1. Ogren* Photosynthesis Research Unit, Agricultura1 Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (G.T.B., D.R.O., W.L.O.), and Department of Plant Biology, University of lllinois at Urbana-Champaign (D.R.O., W.L.O.), Urbana, lllinois 61801 reduced leve1 of RuBP. The bisphosphatases are activated Photosynthesis rate, ribulose-l,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxy- by the Fd/thioredoxin system (Buchanan, 1980), which genase (Rubisco) activation state, and ribulose bisphosphate con- may be affected by the light-chilling regime. Thus, in to- centration were reduced after exposing tomato (Lycopersicon es- mato, chilling in the light appears to limit the capacity of culentum Mill.) plants to light at 4°C for 6 h. Analysis of lysed and leaves to regenerate RuBP, the substrate in photosynthetic reconstituted chloroplasts showed that activity of the thylakoid CO, fixation catalyzed by the enzyme Rubisco (EC membrane was inhibited and that Rubisco, Rubisco activase, and 4.1.1.39). other soluble factors were not affected. Leaf photosynthesis rates Rubisco activity also has been reported to be directly and the ability of chilled thylakoid membranes to promote Rubisco impaired during chilling in the light in short-term (Sas- activation recovered after 24 h at 25°C. Thylakoid membranes from control tomato plants were as effective as spinach thylakoids in senrath et al., 1990) and long-term (Briiggemann et al., activating spinach Rubisco in the presence of spinach Rubisco ac- 1992) experiments.
    [Show full text]
  • Molecular Biology of the Cell 6Th Edition
    753 CHAPTER Energy Conversion: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 14 To maintain their high degree of organization in a universe that is constantly drift- IN THIS CHAPTER ing toward chaos, cells have a constant need for a plentiful supply of ATP, as we have explained in Chapter 2. In eukaryotic cells, most of the ATP that powers life THE MITOCHONDRION processes is produced by specialized, membrane-enclosed, energy-converting organelles. Tese are of two types. Mitochondria, which occur in virtually all cells THE PROTON PUMPS OF THE of animals, plants, and fungi, burn food molecules to produce ATP by oxidative ELECTRON-TRANSPORT CHAIN phosphorylation. Chloroplasts, which occur only in plants and green algae, har- ness solar energy to produce ATP by photosynthesis. In electron micrographs, the ATP PRODUCTION IN most striking features of both mitochondria and chloroplasts are their extensive MITOCHONDRIA internal membrane systems. Tese internal membranes contain sets of mem- brane protein complexes that work together to produce most of the cell’s ATP. In CHLOROPLASTS AND bacteria, simpler versions of essentially the same protein complexes produce ATP, PHOTOSYNTHESIS but they are located in the cell’s plasma membrane (Figure 14–1). Comparisons of DNA sequences indicate that the energy-converting organ- THE GENETIC SYSTEMS elles in present-day eukaryotes originated from prokaryotic cells that were endo- OF MITOCHONDRIA AND cytosed during the evolution of eukaryotes (discussed in Chapter 1). This explains CHLOROPLASTS why mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own DNA, which still encodes a subset of their proteins. Over time, these organelles have lost most of their own genomes and become heavily dependent on proteins that are encoded by genes in the nucleus, synthesized in the cytosol, and then imported into the organelle.
    [Show full text]
  • Transport Proteins Enabling Plant Photorespiratory Metabolism
    plants Review Transport Proteins Enabling Plant Photorespiratory Metabolism Franziska Kuhnert, Urte Schlüter, Nicole Linka and Marion Eisenhut * Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Science (CEPLAS), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstrasse 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; [email protected] (F.K.); [email protected] (U.S.); [email protected] (N.L.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-211-8110467 Abstract: Photorespiration (PR) is a metabolic repair pathway that acts in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms to degrade a toxic product of oxygen fixation generated by the enzyme ribulose 1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase. Within the metabolic pathway, energy is consumed and carbon dioxide released. Consequently, PR is seen as a wasteful process making it a promising target for engineering to enhance plant productivity. Transport and channel proteins connect the organelles accomplishing the PR pathway—chloroplast, peroxisome, and mitochondrion—and thus enable efficient flux of PR metabolites. Although the pathway and the enzymes catalyzing the biochemical reactions have been the focus of research for the last several decades, the knowledge about transport proteins involved in PR is still limited. This review presents a timely state of knowledge with regard to metabolite channeling in PR and the participating proteins. The significance of transporters for implementation of synthetic bypasses to PR is highlighted. As an excursion, the physiological contribution of transport proteins that are involved in C4 metabolism is discussed. Keywords: photorespiration; photosynthesis; transport protein; plant; Rubisco; metabolite; synthetic bypass; C4 photosynthesis Citation: Kuhnert, F.; Schlüter, U.; Linka, N.; Eisenhut, M. Transport Proteins Enabling Plant Photorespiratory Metabolism. Plants 1. Introduction—The Photorespiratory Metabolism 2021, 10, 880.
    [Show full text]
  • Dominant Negative G Proteins Enhance Formation and Purification
    This article is made available for a limited time sponsored by ACS under the ACS Free to Read License, which permits copying and redistribution of the article for non-commercial scholarly purposes. Letter Cite This: ACS Pharmacol. Transl. Sci. 2018, 1, 12−20 pubs.acs.org/ptsci Dominant Negative G Proteins Enhance Formation and Purification of Agonist-GPCR‑G Protein Complexes for Structure Determination † # † # † # † † Yi-Lynn Liang, , Peishen Zhao, , Christopher Draper-Joyce, , Jo-Anne Baltos, Alisa Glukhova, † † † † ‡ † ‡ Tin T. Truong, Lauren T. May, Arthur Christopoulos, Denise Wootten,*, , Patrick M. Sexton,*, , † and Sebastian G. B. Furness*, † Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, 3052, Australia ‡ School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China ABSTRACT: Advances in structural biology have yielded exponential growth in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) structure solution. Nonetheless, the instability of fully active GPCR complexes with cognate heterotrimeric G proteins has made them elusive. Existing structures have been limited to nanobody-stabilized GPCR:Gs complexes. Here we present methods for enhanced GPCR:G protein complex stabilization via engineering G proteins with reduced nucleotide affinity, limiting Gα:Gβγ dissociation. We illustrate the application of dominant negative G proteins of Gαs and Gαi2 to the purification of stable complexes where this was not possible with wild-type G protein. Active state complexes of adenosine:A1 receptor:Gαi2βγ and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP):CLR:RAMP1:Gαsβγ:Nb35 were purified to homogeneity and were stable in negative stain electron microscopy. These were suitable for structure determination by cryo-electron microscopy at 3.6 and 3.3 Å resolution, respectively.
    [Show full text]
  • Why Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Retain Their Own Genomes and Genetic Systems
    PAPER Why chloroplasts and mitochondria retain their own COLLOQUIUM genomes and genetic systems: Colocation for redox regulation of gene expression John F. Allen1 Research Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom Edited by Patrick J. Keeling, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, and accepted by the Editorial Board April 26, 2015 (received for review January 1, 2015) Chloroplasts and mitochondria are subcellular bioenergetic organ- control. Fig. 2B illustrates the two possible pathways of synthesis elles with their own genomes and genetic systems. DNA replica- of each of the three token proteins, A, B, and C. Synthesis may tion and transmission to daughter organelles produces cytoplasmic begin with transcription of genes in the endosymbiont or of gene inheritance of characters associated with primary events in photo- copies acquired by the host. CoRR proposes that gene location synthesis and respiration. The prokaryotic ancestors of chloroplasts by itself has no structural or functional consequence for the and mitochondria were endosymbionts whose genes became mature form of any protein whereas natural selection never- copied to the genomes of their cellular hosts. These copies gave theless operates to determine which of the two copies is retained. Selection favors continuity of redox regulation of gene A, and rise to nuclear chromosomal genes that encode cytosolic proteins ’ and precursor proteins that are synthesized in the cytosol for import this regulation is sufficient to render the host s unregulated copy into the organelle into which the endosymbiont evolved. What redundant. In contrast, there is a selective advantage to location of genes B and C in the genome of the host (5), and thus it is the accounts for the retention of genes for the complete synthesis endosymbiont copies of B and C that become redundant and are within chloroplasts and mitochondria of a tiny minority of their lost.
    [Show full text]
  • Essential Cell Biology
    CHAPTER FOURTEEN 14 Energy Generation in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts The fundamental need to generate energy efficiently has had a pro- MITOCHONDRIA found influence on the history of life on Earth. Much of the structure, AND OXIDATIVE function, and evolution of cells and organisms can be related to their PHOSPHORYLATION need for energy. The earliest cells may have produced ATP by breaking down organic molecules, left by earlier geochemical processes, using some form of fermentation. Fermentation reactions occur in the cytosol MOLECULAR MECHANISMS of present-day cells. As discussed in Chapter 13, these reactions use the OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT energy derived from the partial oxidation of energy-rich food molecules AND PROTON PUMPING to form ATP, the chemical energy currency of cells. But very early in the history of life, a much more efficient method for gen- erating energy and synthesizing ATP appeared. This process is based on CHLOROPLASTS AND the transport of electrons along membranes. Billions of years later, it is so PHOTOSYNTHESIS central to the survival of life on Earth that we devote this entire chapter to it. As we shall see, this membrane-based mechanism is used by cells THE ORIGINS OF to acquire energy from a wide variety of sources: for example, it is central CHLOROPLASTS AND to the conversion of light energy into chemical-bond energy in photo- synthesis, and to the aerobic respiration that enables us to use oxygen MITOCHONDRIA to produce large amounts of ATP from food molecules. The mechanism we will describe first appeared in bacteria more than 3 billion years ago. The descendants of these pioneering cells crowd every corner and crev- ice of the land and the oceans with a wild menagerie of living forms, and they survive within eucaryotic cells in the form of chloroplasts and mitochondria.
    [Show full text]
  • Apyrase from Potato (A6237)
    Apyrase from potato recombinant, expressed in Pichia pastoris Catalog Number A6237 Storage Temperature –20 °C CAS RN 9000-95-7 Precautions and Disclaimer EC 3.6.1.5 This product is for R&D use only, not for drug, Synonyms: Nucleoside-triphosphatase, household, or other uses. Please consult the Safety ATP diphosphohydrolase, Data Sheet for information regarding hazards and safe ADP diphosphohydrolase, handling practices. Adenosine 5¢-diphosphatase, Adenosine 5¢-triphosphatase Preparation Instructions This product is soluble in water. It is recommended to Product Description reconstitute material in water to a concentration of A large number of plant and animal tissues contain 100–500 units/ml. pyrophosphohydrolases commonly called apyrases. These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of a broad Storage/Stability range of nucleoside tri- and di-phosphates.1,2 Store product at –20 °C. When stored at –20 °C, the enzyme retains activity for at least two years. ATP ® ADP + Pi ® AMP + 2 Pi After reconstitution, product can be kept at 2–8 °C for Some characteristics distinguish apyrases from other up to one week. It is recommended to store the protein phosphohydrolases, such as high specific activity, in working aliquots at –20 °C. broad nucleotide substrate specificity for nucleotides, and insensitivity to specific inhibitors of P-type, F-type, References and V-type ATPases.3 In addition, they require metal 1. Kettlun, A.M. et al., Purification and cations for their activity, the major positive effect characterization of two isoapyrases from Solanum achieved with Ca+2 . tuberosum var. Ultimus. Phytochemistry, 31, 3691– 3696 (1992). This recombinant product was cloned from Solanum 2.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 8 Application of Spin Labels to Membrane Bioenergetics
    Chapter 8 Application of Spin Labels To Membrane Bioenergetics (Photosynthetic Systems of Higher Plants) Alexander N. Tikhonov1 and Witold K. Subczynski2 1 Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Physics, M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119899, Russia, 2National Biomedical EPR Center, Department of Biophysics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53226 Abstract: Following a brief overview of photosynthesis and the macro structure of chloroplasts, examples are presented of the use of nitroxyl spin labels and spin probes to investigate the processes of electron transport, proton transport, and oxygen transfer in chloroplasts. pH-sensitive nitroxyl radicals can be observed inside and outside thylakoids under various conditions, such as different levels of light. Oxygen consumption can be measured via the effect of oxygen on line width of the free radical. Lipid-soluble spin probes monitor changes in the biological membranes. 1. INTRODUCTION Photosynthesis is one of the most important biological processes. The great mass of experimental data obtained in numerous laboratories all over the world has given detailed information on the composition and molecular structure of the light-harvest complexes, electron transport chain (ETC) and ATP synthases in energy-transducing organelles of photosynthetic organisms — higher plants, cyanobacteria and photosynthetic bacteria (Lehninger et al., 1993; Blankenship, 2002). In this chapter, we will consider several aspects of the use of nitroxide radicals to investigate the processes of electron and proton transport, as well as the related processes of oxygen transfer, in chloroplasts — the energy-transducing organelles of the plant cell. Figures 1 and 2 depict a cross section of a chloroplast and a schematic of a chloroplast’s ETC.
    [Show full text]
  • Effects of the Ecto-Atpase Apyrase on Microglial Ramification and Surveillance Reflect Cell Depolarization, Not ATP Depletion
    Effects of the ecto-ATPase apyrase on microglial ramification and surveillance reflect cell depolarization, not ATP depletion Christian Madrya,b,1, I. Lorena Arancibia-Cárcamoa,2, Vasiliki Kyrargyria,2, Victor T. T. Chana, Nicola B. Hamiltona,c,1, and David Attwella,1 aDepartment of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom; bInstitute of Neurophysiology, Charité Universitätsmedizin, 10117 Berlin, Germany; and cWolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, King’s College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom Edited by Ardem Patapoutian, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, and approved January 3, 2018 (received for review August 31, 2017) Microglia, the brain’s innate immune cells, have highly motile pro- of surveillance (3, 15–17). This implies that a tonic extracellular cesses which constantly survey the brain to detect infection, remove purinergic signal may be needed to maintain microglial rami- dying cells, and prune synapses during brain development. ATP re- fication and surveillance. Such a signal would imply a constant leased by tissue damage is known to attract microglial processes, release of ATP into the extracellular space around microglial but it is controversial whether an ambient level of ATP is needed to cells, and hydrolysis via ADP into AMP and adenosine by the promote constant microglial surveillance in the normal brain. Apply- activity of endogenous membrane-bound ecto-ATPases, such as ing the ATPase apyrase, an enzyme which hydrolyzes ATP and ADP, the microglial-bound NTPDase1/CD39 (18) and the less se- reduces microglial process ramification and surveillance, suggesting lectively expressed 5′-nucleotidase CD73 (reviewed in ref. 19).
    [Show full text]