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Home , Dutch Reformed Church

Contemporary Protestant Dutch Theology

I. JOHN HESSELINK Recently a Scottish theologian made the following comment in a review of two books by Dutch theologians: "Holland, a comparatively small country, has always impressed the rest of the world by her ingenuity and vitality. The Dutch robustness seems to have channeled itself into theology these days. . . " This observation is quite accurate except for the implication in the last phrase that the flowering of Dutch theology is a recent phenomenon. Ever since the in the , Dutch theology has been noted for its vigor and originality. However, it is particularly since World War II that Dutch theological works have received world-wide attention. This is due partially to the ecumenical contribu­ tions of several Dutch theologians and also because of the translation of many Dutch theological works in the last two decades. Protestant theology in the Netherlands is almost exclusively written from a Reformed perspective, for the Reformed tradition is the dominant one in this land. The Roman Catholic , however, has made a remarkable recovery, especially since the war, and is now as large or larger than all the Reformed Churches put together. The percentage of Catholics has not increased so much as their political and ecumenical influence. Although this article will concentrate on Protestant theology, it should be noted that Dutch Roman Catholic theology is also well known for its vigor and progressive spirit. In order to understand the peculiar accents and concerns of Dutch theology some knowledge of the historical background is necessary. Much of this is familiar to those who belong to the Dutch Reformed tradition, but younger members of this tradition in the U. S. are frequently unaware of much of their historical­ theological heritage. I Some of the distinctive characteristics of contemporary Dutch theology can be traced to the nature of the Reformation in the Netherlands which was at the same time a struggle for national independence and freedom from the rule of Spain. This struggle lasted for approximately eighty years, ending in 1648. The leader of this movement was Prince William of Orange who became a Calvinist. The first confession of faith, now known as the , was written in 1561 by Guido de Bres and was adopted by a held in in 1566. This Confession was distinctly Reformed in its theology. Soon Reformed con­ gregations began to spring up throughout the land, but most of them were forced into exile. Consequently they were known as "the churches under the cross." Their first national synod was accordingly not held in the Netherlands but in , , in 1571. (However, it should be noted that at this time national boundary. lines were not sharply distinguished.) Here the church was officially 67 organized. Along with the Belgic Confession, the Heidelberg Confession was adopted as a confessional standard. But it should be noted that other Protestant or reforming influences were at work in the Netherlands much earlier, and these influences continued to be felt even though the national church in the northern part of the Netherlands came to be Reformed. Already in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Brethren of the Common Life and similar lay societies, often of a communal nature, stressed a simple, devout and practical . Their theology was Augustinian and they were influential in promoting literacy and biblical studies. They also produced many devotional writings, the best known being The Imitation of Christ, usually attributed to Thomas a Kempis. It was from this background that the great Dutch humanists arose: Wessel Gansfort and Erasmus. In the meantime, certain Augustinian monks were intro­ ducing the teachings of Luther. Two of them were burned at the stake as early as 1523 for this heresy. Zwingli's influence was also felt and in the early years the Anabaptists also flourished- and were persecuted. These groups were ruth­ lessly suppressed by the Catholics (often by inquisitors sent in by the pope from outside) and thus were not able to develop. Amazingly, it was precisely during this period of persecution that began to flourish although the earliest congregations were formed in exile in 1548-15 50. Complete independence was not achieved until 1648. It is significant that Catholics, humanists, and Calvinists fought side by side against the Spanish so that when independence was finally gained it was decided that tolerance for all religious groups should be granted. In practice tolerance was not always observed, but this was nevertheless a remarkable achievement in the history of the church. At the beginning of the seventeenth century a theological conflict broke out within the Reformed Church between the followers of Arminius who taught the cooperation of the human will in salvation and strict Calvinists. (Cf. the excellent study of Arminius by Carl Bangs, Arminiw: A Study in the Dutch Reformation, Abingdon, 1971.) The former position, commonly known as , was rejected at the held in 1618 and 1619. (Delegates also came from Reformed Churches in England, Switzerland, and Germany.) In reaction to the "Remonstrance" of 1610 which contained the five points of Arminianism, the delegates to the Synod of Dort composed the which contain the five points of Calvinism: unconditional election, limited atonement, total deprav­ ity, irresistible grace and the perseverance of the saints. (Some prominent Amer­ ican dictionaries and encyclopedias still attribute the five points of Calvinism to Calvin himself.) The Canons of Dort were then adopted as the third standard of the Reformed Church. This strict Calvinism was later modified somewhat by the so-called federal theology (the doctrine of the covenants of works and grace) of Coccejus who taught at Franeker and Leiden. Rene Descartes, who died in 1560, wrote most of his works in the Netherlands and also contributed toward the free-thinking 68 which was to flourish in the next century. The most influential theologian of the period and a foe of Coccejus was Gij sbert Voetius. We should also not overlook the fact that the great artist was active during this period. By his use of the contrast between light and shadow he gave symbolic expression to the con­ trast of sin and grace in Calvinist thought. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the traditional Calvinist position was weakened by the growing influence of rationalism and later by the liberalism of Schleiermacher and Ritschl. The breakdown of the .Reformed Church was fur­ ther abetted by the dominance of the state which for two centuries did not permit a national synod to be held ! The state also controlled the theological faculties and even determined the church's doctrinal standards. Whereas most of the eccle­ siastical and theological leadership fell into the hands of the liberals, the common people found comfort in pietism and mysticism and various sects developed. Historical Calvinism did not lack completely for defenders, however. In the first half of the nineteenth century influential figures such as Bilderdijk, De Costa, and Van Prinsterer sought to reform the Church from within and restore it to its confessional basis. But others were pessimistic about the possibility of reforming the Church and in 1834 the first of several secessions occurred. A second major secession took place in 1886. In 1892 most of these congregations united to form the Gereformeerde K erken in Nederland (i.e., the free Reformed Churches in the Netherlands) as over against the national H ervormde Kerk (Reformed Church) in the Netherlands. The former denomination has grown in membership from less than one-fifth of the original Reformed Church to over one-third at the present time. These two Reformed churches dominate the Dutch Protestant scene for the Lutherans, Mennonites, and other Protestant groups are very small. One of the leading figures in the secession of 1886 was ( 183 7-1920), the brilliant theologian, journalist, and politician. (He later be­ came prime- of the Netherlands!) Kuyper has been described by the American historian, K. S. Latourette, as "one of the ablest men in the entire Re­ formed heritage." Kuyper has been known in Japan because of his Princeton Stone lectures on Calvinism which were translated into Japanese. Two other major works of his have also been available in English for many years: Principles of Sacred Theology (1898) and his more popular book, The Work of the Holy Spirit (1888-9) . Theologically, however, a contemporary of Kuyper's who was also a member of the Gereformeerde Kerken, (1854-1921), is more important. He succeeded Kuyper in the chair of systematic theology at the Free University in (founded by Kuyper) and wrote what is probably the greatest sys­ tematic theology in the classical Reformed tradition since Calvin's Institutes, namely, his four volume Gereform eerde Dogmatiek ( 1895-1901). Only part of one volume has been translated into English (The D octrine of God). The fourth edition (1928-30) was translated into German. But his own more popular com­ pendium of his theology, namely, Magnalia Dei, is available in English : Our Rea- 69 sonab!e Faith (an unfortunate departure from the original title which means "The Mighty Works of God"). As is characteristic of many of the leading Dutch theologians, Bavinck com­ bined piety with broad learning and practical concerns with an academic life. His writings also deal with such concerns as the relation between religion and educa­ tion, applied ethics, aesthetics, philosophy, and psychology. In all of his writings he sought to achieve a synthesis between the created order and the grace manifest in Jesus Christ. There is hardly a Dutch theologian today who is not greatly in­ debted to Herman Bavinck. Evidence of his continuing influence is to be seen in the fact that his Dogmatics was reprinted as recently as 1967. On the other hand, the theological influence of his more famous contemporary, Abraham Kuyper, al­ though considerable, is today largely limited to very conservative Reformed circles, mostly outside of the N etherlands. Although there are significant differences between the positions of Kuyper and Bavinck, their theological approach has come to be known as neo-Calvinism. Neo-Calvinism, which is also a distinctive ecclesiastical and political-cultural move­ ment, has been represented largely by theologians and philosophers of the Gere­ formeerde K erk en, (and their sister churches abroad, particularly in North America and ), but all of Dutch theology has been influenced by this approach. Some of its emphases are the sovereignty of God, a covenantal theology, common grace, a Christian view of culture, and separate Christian schools. However, there were other theologians in the late nineteenth century who shared Kuyper's concern about a truly confessional Reformed Church but who felt that this could best be accomplished within the framework of the established H ervormde Kerk (but not "established" in the manner of the Church of Eng­ land) . The key theologian of this type was P. J. Hoedemaker ( 1839-1910). He was a fri~nd of Kuyper and even taught briefly at the Free University in Amster­ dam, but he opposed Kuyper's views on secession and the relation between church and state. His ideal was a national church (V olkskerk), his slogan, "the whole church and the whole nation." He could not accept the notion of a neutral state; hence he steadfastly defended Article 36 of the Belgic Confession which declares that the civil magistrate is responsible for protecting the church and removing all idolatry. Another major concern of Hoedemaker was a church order based on the Scriptures. He felt that the Geref onneerde Kerk en represented a betrayal of the scriptural concept of the church. Hoedemaker was little understood or appreciated during his lifetime, but his principles came to fruition in the reorganization of the Hervormde Kerk after World War II. He has also found an able and in­ fluential supporter of many of his views in A. A. Van Ruler, one of the leading theologians in the Netherlands in our day. Another nineteenth century theologian outside of the neo-Calvinistic tradition whose impact continues to be felt is Herman F. Kohlbriigge (1803-1875). Or­ iginally of German Lutheran background, he later joined the H ervormde Kerk 70 and was greatly influenced by the "spiritual awakening movement" led by W. Bilderdijk. He combined this Dutch mystical-spiritual tradition with the teaching of the Reformers (both Luther and Calvin) in a new type of theology which is hailed as "a rediscovery of the Reformation message of free grace" in the nine­ teenth century. Most of his ministry was carried on in Elberfeld, Germany, where he founded a N ederlandiJch-refonnierte Gemeinde and developed a distinctive "school" of Reformed theology. He reacted against the traditional Reformed em­ phasis on sanctification and radical! y stressed the eschatological nature of justifica­ tion. His influence has continued unabated in the Netherlands (his complete works are now being reprinted there), but in Germany he was not really noticed until the rise of the dialectical theology. Barth has been attracted to many aspects of Kohlbriigge's theology and has been influential in the Kohlbriigge renaissance in the German-speaking theological world. (See Barth's Die ProteJtantiJche Theo­ logie im 19. fah rhtmdert, pp. 579-587.) (Space does not permit the discussion of other important figures during the period 1890-1940 such as Gunning, Aalders, and Woelderink, the "ethical" school, the Gereformeerde Bond, etc. An adequate understanding of this period is impossible without some knowedge of these men and movements) . The Hervormde Kerk continued to languish until World War II although dialectical theology, especially that of Karl Barth, made a considerable impact even then. The Gereformeerde Kerken in the 1920's and 1930's lost the dyna­ mism of Kuyper and the catholic viewpoint of Bavinck and became increasingly negative and apologetic. This was partially due to the scholastic approach of Bavinck's successor, Valentijn Hepp (not to be confused with the nineteenth century German Reformed scholar, Heinrich Heppe). The primary foe of the Geref ormeerde theologians prior to the war was Barth. Barth took note of these Dutch 'Neo-Calvinist' critics in the Preface of Volume III, 4 of his Kirchliche Dogmatik. He said he didn't care so much that they accused him of being a "monist" and other heresies, but he resented their dis­ paragement of his beloved Mozart. "In doing so," he said, "they have shown themselves to be of stupid, cold, and stony hearts to whom he need not listen." But in the Preface to Volume IV, 2 of the K. D. Barth repents of his fierce attack on his conservative Dutch critics. He was forced to revise his opinion, he admits, because of "the great book on myself and the K. D. by a representative of that group, G. C. Berkouwer, The Triumph of Grace in the Theology of Karl Barth (1954) ." Until rather recently, this was by far the best study of Barth's theology by a Protestant, the best works having come from Catholics. II The end of the Second World War marked a turning point in church life and theology in the Netherlands, both in the H ervo1'1nde (H. K.) and Gerefonneerde ( G. K.) branches of the Reformed faith. The liberal elements in the former and the hyper-orthodox elements in the latter were challenged and chastened by the wartime experience of living under Nazi rule. The overall result was a renewal 71 of the church and a drawing together of these two Reformed communions. Under the theological leadership of Berkouwer and Herman Ridderbos, the influential New Testament theologian of the Kampen Theological Seminary (the other theo­ logical school of the G. K.), the G. K. has broadened and entered the main stream of theological scholarship. (Ridderbos is a prolific writer; five of his books are available in English: his commentary on Galatians in the N.I.N .T.C., The Coming of the Kingdom, Paul and fems, The Authority of the N ew Testament Scriptures, and When the Time Had Fully Come: Studies in New Testament Theology.) like their counterparts in the H. K., they combine faithfulness to the Reformed tradition with an openness to the latest theological insights, both Catholic and Protestant. The postwar developments in the H. K. were even more decisive. Before and during the war Hendrik Kraemer, Th.l. Haitjema, and others had led a move­ ment for the renewal of the church and this came to fruition in 1951 when a new church order was adopted by the H. K. According to this, the church was re-constituted as "A Fellowship of Faith Confessing Christ," which meant that the H. K. was now completely freed from the control of the state. There is a parallel here to the development of the Confessing Church in Nazi Germany. Moreover, the majority of the H. K. theologians during the immediate post-war period were strongly influenced by Barth, although they retained their distinctive Dutch theological outlook. In this group were Haitjema, 0 . Noordmans, J. Koop­ mans, K. H. Miskotte, and G. C. Van Niftrik. Equally significant was a sort of draft confession adopted by the H. K. in 1950: 'Ftmdamenten en Perspectieven van Belijden' (Foundations and Perspec­ tives of Confession). This "confession" (the committee modestly calls it a "study­ book") reveals not only most of the distinctive emphases of contemporary Dutch theology, but in particular provides clues to three of the leading theologians in the H. K. who were on the committee which wrote this statement, namely, H. Berkhof, K. H. Miskotte, and A. A. Van Ruler. The point of departure is the proclamation of the Kingdom of God. On the one hand, this represents a chal­ lenge to the various totalitarianisms of the twentieth century. But it is also an attempt to approach the Christian faith from a dynamic 'heilsgeschichtliche' per­ spective. Therefore it begins with God the King, with his acts of redemption, with the Kingdom that is coming and that through Christ and, by means of the Spirit, has already come. The confession ends rather than begins with a section on the doctrine of the Trinity, for the spirit of this document is practical and doxological rather than speculative. Especially interesting are Articles XIV, XV and XVII which are rather unusual for a confessional statement. Article XIV is entitled "History" and touches on God's sovereign rule and providence, plan of redemption, the destiny of the world and the coming of Christ in a very contemporary fashion. Article XV is about "Personal living." In this section one of the dominant motifs of the whole con­ fession comes to expression, namely, the call and destiny of man in view of our 72 present world conditions with the emphasis on the living hope and joy that is in Christ. Section XVII deals with "The Present and Future of Israel." In the lengthy notes appended to this document the authors explain that this was added because of the anti-semitism in Europe which came to a head in the slaughter of millions of by the Nazis. However, there is also a theological concern to give expression to the neglected significance of Romans 11. For non-Dutch readers Article XVI ("Civil Authorities") will also be of special interest. The title is reminiscent of the last chapter of Calvin's Institutes, but it is also consciously oriented to the celebrated Article 36 of the Belgic Con­ fession . It is reaffirmed that civil authorities are in the service of Christ and there­ fore do not operate in a neutral sphere. They are to preserve the world and life for the Kingdom and are thus in service of the new creation. This fact lays upon them the duty to orient their actions to the command of God. In the last para­ graph of this section the difference between the functions of the church and the state is explained. Although both serve the same ultimate goals of the Kingdom, they serve it in entirely different ways . Accordingly, either a theocratic state or a state-church is ruled out for the work of the government is limited to the external life. Unlike most traditional Reformed confessions, Foundations and Perspectives of Confession does not begin with a statement concerning the authority of Scrip­ ture. However, this does not mean that the unique position of the Bible is min­ imized by postwar H. K. theologians. In the Introduction it is pointed out that, although there is no separate treatment of the doctrine of the Holy Scriptures, throughout this docwnent the actual authority of the Word of God is fully given expression. Interestingly, however, many classes (i.e., presbyteries) of the H. K. were not satisfied with this approach. Hence the General Synod later decided that several paragraphs should be added about the nature and function of the Bible. Consequently, in 1953 a separate document was presented, De Leer Aangaande De H eibge Schrift (The Doctrine Concerning Holy Scripture). This consists of eighteen articles beginning with "The Covenant of Grace" and closing with the exhortation, "Search the Scriptures! Preach the Word!" Again the approach is practical and at times almost devotional. There is no radical departure from the traditional understanding of the authority and inspiration of the Scriptures. But the modernity of this statement is seen in such topics as "The Perverted Influence of Scholastic Tradition" (Article X), "The Scientific Study of the Bible" (Article XI), and "Biblical Proclamation and Mythology" (Article XII). This concern with the proper understanding and use of the Bible is further evidenced by the publication in 1967 of an aid to reading the Bible, Klare Wijn (Clear Wine, an idiom which means "to create clarity." An English translation appeared in 1969 under the title, The Bible Speaks Again.) This publication was authorized and unanimously accepted by the General Synod of the H. K. Again there is no formal discussion of the authority of the Bible. The reason, according to the Pveface, is that "It is a Reformation insight that the Bible manifests its 73 own authority." This book is obviously meeting a real need, for it was necessary to reprint it three times within the first few months of its publication. III Already several rather distinctive Dutch theological concerns and motifs have become apparent, but it may help to summarize them. There are also several other special themes which have come to the fore since World War II. In general, con­ temporary (Protestant) theology may be characterized as both distinctly Reformed and ecumenical, being influenced very much by Calvin and the Reformed Con­ fessions on the one hand and progressive Roman Catholic theology on the other. A third major influence is the theology of Karl Barth, whose influence has been very great in the Netherlands from the time of his Romerbrief Commentary until recently. This is true among the more conservative G. K. theologians as well as those of the H. K. and is reflected in the writings of the leading theologians and the many doctoral dissertations written about Calvin, Barth, and Roman Catholic theology. At present there is a moving away from traditionalism, and, in general, a rejection of anthropocentric theology, whether of the Bultmann school or the American God-is-dead theology. However, the younger generation is also inter­ ested in American theological works and in the confrontation of the church and the world. A. It is Reformed in its concentration on the following subjects: revelation and the Bible (the H. K. publications, G. C. Berkouwer, and H. N. Ridderbos), divine election (A. A. Van Ruler, Berkouwer), the doctrine of the Holy Spirit (0. Noordmans, Van Ruler, and H. Berkhof), the Kingdom of God and the meaning of history (Ridderbos, Berkhof, Berkouwer, Loen, A. Van Leeuwen), a Christian understanding of the state and culture (Van Ruler, C. A. Van Peursen, and G. van der Leeuw (The latter's Sacred and Profane Beauty: The Holy in Art, revised ed. 1950; E. T., 1953, is a modern classic in this field), the significance of the Old Testament (Van Ruler and K. H. Miskotte), the law and Christian ethics (H. Van Oyen, Van Ruler, H. Dooyeweerd, H. T. Vollen­ hoven. The latter two are philosophers at the Free University of Amsterdam who have formulated a new philosophy based on "The Idea of Law" ( W etsidee). These are all familiar Reformed themes which continue to influence and mold Dutch theological reflection. Research in Calvin's theology also continues un­ abated, but what particularly distinguishes Dutch theology is its interest in the . There are more commentaries on the Heidelberg Catechism available in Dutch than in any other language. Many of the leading theologians of the last century, as well as numerous pastors, have written an exposition of this gem: two outstanding cases are A. Kuyper and Kohlbriigge (recently republished), and more recently G. Oorthuis (1949), W. Klaas (1949), T. Haitjema (1962), and H. Berkhof (1963). B. A second major characteristic of Dutch Protestant theology is its ecumenical nature, with the word "ecumenical" having the broadest possible connotations. But in the narrower and more traditional sense of the word the Dutch have also been pioneers. Whereas the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries were marked by frequent theological debates and controversies, the 74 present era is notable for its irenic spirit, both among the various Protestant de­ nominations and between Protestants and Catholics. The Hervormde and Gere­ f ormeerd churches now cooperate in many areas and continue to draw closer to each other. In 1956 a consensus on the question of the Lord's Supper was also worked out between the H. K. and the Lutheran church in the Netherlands. 1. Almost immediately after the war Berkouwer and H. Berkhof began to meet regularly with Roman Catholic theologians and they would discuss each other's works openly and frankly. This spirit and type of relationship has become even more common since the opening of the Second Vatican Council. Berkouwer in particular is an acknowledged authority on Roman Catholic theology . Rome itself recognized this by inviting him to attend the council sessions as a special guest. He has written six books ori Roman Catholicism (1940, 1948, two in 1958, one in English, Recent Developments in Roman Catholic T hottght, 1964 and 1968) . One of these works, The Second Vatican Council and the New Cathol­ icism (E. T., 1965), was written during the Council and is regarded by many Catholic and Protestant leaders as the most penetrating treatment of recent Roman Catholic theology to date. It is required reading in at least one of the Roman Catholic seminaries in the Netherlands. More recently (1968) he has written his reaction to the Second Vatican Council in Nabetrttchting op het Conci/;e (Reflec­ tions on the Council) . Dutch theologians and pastors have also played an im­ portant role in the formation and leadership of the World Council of Churches, and prior to that were influential in such organizations as the International Mis­ sionary Council and the World Student Christian Federation. The key man here is W . A. Visser 't Hooft who has been one of the great ecumenical statesmen of our time in his role as General Secretary of the W.C.C. But he never became a church politician who was willing to sacrifice truth for the sake of unity. He con­ tinually combined ecumenical openness with a solid Dutch theological approach. (See his books : The Kingship of Christ (1947), The Renewal of the Church (1956), and No Other Name (1963). Other Dutch churchmen who have played an active role as secretaries in the W .C.C. are Egbert De Vries (Department of Church and Society), J. C. Hoekendijk (formerly of the Department of Evangel­ ism), and Albert van den Heuvel (Youth Department) . Hendrikus Berkhof has been a member of the Faith and Order Commission for many years and is also on the Central Committee of the W.C.C. 2. Closely related to ecumenical activity is the foreign missionary movement, and here again the Dutch have played a leading role. Here special honor goes to Hendrik Kraemer (died 1965), the foremost missionary theologian of the first half of the twentieth century. His contribution to the World Missionary, Con­ ference in Tambaran (India) in 1938, The Christian Message in a Non-Christian World, was indeed an epoch-making work. In this magisterial survey of the task of the church in its confrontation with the great religions of the world, Kraemer, from the standpoint of biblical realism, uttered a decisive "No" to all liberal and eclectic attempts at denying the uniqueness and finality of Jesus Christ. Stephen 75 Neill, former missionary to India, bishop of the Church of Englan d and a scholar of international repute, maintains that "nothing comparable to this book has ap­ peared so far in this century; it is perhaps unlikely that anything equal to it will appear in the next fifty years." Neill, who has not always agreed with Kraemer, goes on to say: Everything in the career of this outstanding man is paradoxical. He has never been a missionary; he went to as an expert in languages and Bible translation on behalf of the Bible Society of the N etherlands. Yet no living man has exercised a deeper influence on missionary think­ ing. He is a layman. But no minister has had more to do with shaping the new pattern for the life of the Dutch Reformed Church. He is not a theologian. Yet he has read more theology than many of those who make it their profession, and by his writings, and by hi s later work as Director of the Ecumenical Institute near Geneva, has influenced the theological thinking of many of the leaders in the younger generation (Men of Unity, London, 1960, pp. 11 3-14) . His later publications reveal something of the diversity of his interests and the breadth of his scholarship : The Commtmicalion of the Christian Faith ( 1956) , Religion and the Ch1'istian Faith (1958 ), A Theology of the Laity (1960), and World Cultures and World Religions (1960). Kraemer's scholarship in the area of world religions was matched by that of Gerard us van der Leeuw (died 1950), one of the most important systematic and scientific historians of religion in his generation. Van der Leeuw, who was Pro­ fessor of the History of Religion at the University of Groningen, has produced several influential books on this subject, the most notable being D e Primitieve M ensch en de Religie (Primitive Man and Religion, 1952 ) and Phanomenologie der Religion (E. T., Religion in Essence and Manifestation, 1963). Another contemporary of Kraemer's, but from the G. K., J. H. Bavinck (died 1965), has also made a significant co ntribution to the theology of missions. He had a distinguished career as a pastor, missionary (in Java), and professor (of theology in Java, Missions at Kampen Theological Seminary, and Practical Theol­ ogy at the Free University of Amsterdam). He also taught as a guest professor at the Divinity School of the University of Chicago. His best known book is An Introduction to the Science of Missions ( 1954; E. T., 1960), but an earlier work never translated, Religiem Besef en Christelijk Geloof (Religious Con­ sciousness and Christian Faith, 1949) is also important. A later contribution to this field by a Dutch scholar is The Missionary N ature of the Chttrch ( 1962) by Johannes Blauw, formerly secretary of the Netherlands Mi ssionary Council. This is not so much a book on "missions" as a survey of the biblical basis of mi ssion as seen in the writings of modern theologians. It is gen­ erally considered the best book of the many which have been written recently in this field. Blauw has also written an important work on religion, Gaden en M en­ sen: Plaats en Betekenis van de H eidenen in de H eilige Schrift (Gods and Men: The Place and Significance of the Heathen in the Holy Scriptures, 1950) . 76 Another work worthy of mention is F. W . A. Korff's Christlijke Geloof en de Niet-Christlijke Godscliemte11 (Christian Faith and the Non-Christian Religions, 1946). In 1959, two studies of Islam were written by two young Dutch scholars, W. A. Bijlefeld and J. Bouman. Unquestionably, the Dutch have produced more significant literature in this field than any other nation. 3. This keen interest in missions, the mission of the Church, and world re­ ligions has broadened into the larger questions of the Church in the world, secu­ larism, and the meaning of history. This is evidenced not only in the writings of the H . K. theologians such as Loen, Berkhof, and A. van Leeuwen (see below), but also in the title of the inaugural lecture of J. Verkuyl as Professor Extra­ ordinary of Missions at the Free University of Amsterdam: De T aak der Mis­ siologie en cler Missio11t1ire Methodiek in het Tijdperk van Saecttlarisatie en Saecu­ larisme (The Task of Missiology and Missionary Methodology in the Period of Secularization and Secularism, 1965) . Here Verkuyl seeks to relate the Christian Mission to the process of secularization as well as suggest new strategies vis-a-vis the various ideologies of our time. One of the best known and most provocative scholars of this type is J. C. Hoekendijk. In missionary and ecumenical circles he has been well-known for many years, but his writings were largely limited to articles in periodicals. Since coming to Union Seminary in New York in 1965 and the appearance of his book The Church Inside Out (1964; E. T., 1966), his influence is even greater. His mag11111n opus, originally published in 1948, is now available in German: Kirche mzcl Volk in cler cleutschen Missionswissenschaft ( 1967). Hoekendijk has a pro­ clivity for upsetting the "Establishment." In the 1950's he attacked the church­ centric approach in missions and has instead proposed a Kingdom-Gospel-Witness ( apostolate )-World approach. He is also a sharp critic of all that is embodied in the term "Christendom," the idea of a "Volkskirche," and the traditional struc­ tures of the church. Positively he stresses the role of the laity, flexibility, and being open to the world. The leading motif in Hoekendijk's thought, however, is that of the apostolate, a theme of much recent Dutch theology. With this concept the Dutch wish to stress the unity of mission and church (See I Peter 2 :9). Before the war, this concept was introduced by B. M. Schuurman and 0 . Noordmans and was popular­ ized by H. Kraemer. Since the war, it has been developed further by A. A. van Ruler and Hoekendijk. Hoekendijk stresses particularly the eschatological dimen­ sion of the apostolate; the church is really the church only to the extent that she is a sign and a prophetic witness of the approaching kingdom. The church is thus on ly a function of the apostolate. This concept also finds expression in the New Church Order of the H. K. (Article VIII) and in its Fotmclations and Persp ectives of Confession (Article XIII) . According to the latter, "the vocation of believers in particular is to be a missionary church, fulfilling the apostolic service towards the world which is not yet or no longer the church." This is a salutary emphasis but the individual 77 treatments of this theme by van Ruler and Hoekendijk in particular have also come under cri ti cism both within and outsi de the Netherlands. A special problem is the linking of this idea to that of the Dutch co ncept of "theocracy." A critical, ye t appreciative, discussion of this question by several G. K. theologians (H. N. Ridderbos, A. D. R. Polman, J. H. Bavinck, and others) is found in a symposium entitled, De Apostolische K erk (The Apostolic Church, 1954). 4. A related theme is the catholicity of the church, and this too has been a special co ncern of Dutch theologians ever since Herman Bavinck' s D e K atholici­ teit van Christendom en Kerk (The Catholicity of Christendom and Church) which appeared in 1888. This subject was taken up again by J. H. Bavinck in an essay, Apostoliciteit en Katholiciteit (Apostolicity and Catholicity) in 1954 (the last chapter in De Apostolische K erk cited above ) . When the World Alliance of Reformed and Presbyterian Churches in 1960 began to study the nature of catholicity and the Reformed tradition, it was quite natural that H. Berkhof, a Dutch theologian, should produce the key paper. (This was published in the Bulletin of the Department of Theology of the Alliance, Vol. 2, No. 2. Reactions to this paper by Dutch theologians of various traditions appeared in a later Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 1). Later this was expanded into a book, D e Kath­ oliciteit der K erk ( 1962). Berkhof seeks to recover the original qualitative theo­ logical sense of this word which since the counter-reformation has been under­ stood largely in a quantitative, polemical sense. On the basis of a careful study of the meaning of pleroma ( fulness ) in Ephesians and Colossians he draws several conclusions of theological and practical significance. 5. A final example of the Dutch ecumenical perspective is the influential work of Arend T. van Leeuwen, Christianity in W odd History : The Meeting of the Faiths of East and West (1964). In the foreward, written by Hendrik Kraemer, he declares: "From time to time the appearance of a book is an 'event.' Dr. van Leeuwen's book definitely falls into this category. Whether looked at from the angle of cultural history, cultural philosophy, theology, or Christian missions, it fully deserves the description of an 'event'." Kraemer's prognosis has proved to be true for this book has been widely read and discussed, particularly in World Council circles and in the U.S.A., where Van Leeuwen was a guest professor at Princeton Seminary in 1966-67). Van Leeuwen, a former missionary in Indonesia and Egypt, is now di rector of the K erk en Wereld (Church and World) Institute in the Netherlands. Something of the breadth of his learning and experience is indicated by the title of his subsequent book, Prophecy in a Technocratic Era (1968) . IV Dutch contributions in biblical and historical studies, and especially in the realms of liturgy and church architecture, are impressive, but cannot be dealt with here. In the area of systematic or dogmatic theology three names are especially prominent and influential today: G. C. Berkouwer, A. A. van Ruler, and H . Berk- 78 hof. From this it should not be concluded, however, that these are the only theo­ logians of significance in the N etherlands today. Th. 1. Haitjema, for example, though now retired from Groningen University, is still very influential in the Netherlands although he is not well known abroad. He was one of the first to welcome and interpret Barth's thought in the Netherlands; he published a book on Barth already in 1926. Some of his major works are Dogmatiek als Apologie (Dogmatics as Apologetics, 1948) , De Richtingen in de Nederlandse Hervormde K erk (Trends in the Netherlands Reformed Church, second revised edition, 1953), a study of H. K. theologians from the nineteenth century until 1952, and his Commentary on the Heidelberg Catechism ( 1962). Better known abroad is K. H. Miskotte, Berkhof's predecessor at the Univer­ sity of Leiden. He had to retire prematurely in 1959 because of ill health but he continues to write and his works are proving to be very popular in Germany as well as in the Netherlands. He is an ardent Barthian, but a highly original and independent one. He contributed an essay to Antwort (the Festschrift for Barth's 70th birthday), "Die Erlaubnis zu schriftgemassem Denken," and wrote another monograph for Barth's seventy-fifth birthday, Uber Karl Barth's Kirch­ liche Dogmatik : Kleine Praludien tmd Phantasien (Theologische Existenz hettte, Nr. 89). In 1959 another monograph appeared in German: Zm· biblischen Her­ meneutik (Theologische Studien Heft 5 5). Two works of a more popular nature have also been translated into German, D er Weg des Gebets (1964) and Biblische Meditationen (1967). The former is available in English as well: The Roads of Prayer ( 1968). His major work of recent years is a treatise on the contemporary relevance of the Old Testament, Als de Goden Zwijgen (When the Gods are Silent, 1956) . This is now available in German and English and is being highly praised both on the continent and in the . Helmut Gollwitzer main­ tains that this is "the most important publication which has appeared in recent years" and American advertisements hail Miskotte as "one of the most powerful minds in Europe today." Mention should also be made of those theologians who are still active in various universities. The systematic theologian of the Gereformeerde Kerken at the Kampen Seminary is A. D . R. Polman who is engaged in writing a four volume study of Augustine's theology. The first volume, which has also appeared in English, The W ord of God According to St. Augµstine (1961), has been very favorably reviewed by both Protestants and Catholics in the Netherlands. He has also written many other books the most important being his doctoral dissertation on the doctrine 6f predestination in Augustine, Aquinas, and Calvin (1936), and a definitive study of the Belgic Confession. In 1966 he was joined at Kampen by G. P. Hartvelt, whose doctoral dissertation was on Calvin's doctrine of the Lord's Supper (V erttm Corpus, 1960) . Among the H : K. theologians are A. F. N . Lekkerkerker, Haitjema's successor at the University of Gfoningen, and G. C. Van Niftrik, professor of systematic theology at the State University of Amsterdam. Lekkerkerker is especially interest- 79 ed in the problems of liturgy and has published severa l works in this area. Van Niftrik has written a Kleine Dogmatik (Small Dogmatics) which in 1961 had already been reprinted five times. The most promising young theologian in the Netherlands (one might also include A. va n Leeuwen, but he is already 50) is unquestionably H. M. Kuitert. At present he occupies the chair of ethics at the Free University of Amsterdam but, as is so typ ical of Dutch theologians, his interests are far-ranging. His doc­ toral dissertation appeared in a German edition in 1967, Gott in Menschengestalt, a dogmatic-hermeneutic study of the anthropomorphisms in the Bible. A later work, a critique of the antimetaphysical tendencies in co ntemporary theology, appeared in English translation in 1968 with the title The Reality of Faith (See my review in The Refo1'med Review, Vol. 23/4) . Kuitert, though a member of the more conservative G. K., here seeks to combine the best elements of both metaphysically oriented theology and existentialism. Kuitert's views of Scripture, which became widely known in the Christian Reformed Church when he lectured in Grand Rapids in 1968, caused quite a stir and were the subject of a vigorous discussion in The Banner over a period of several months. His position is set forth clearly in two recent more popular books, Do Yott Understand What You Read? (E. T., 1971), and Signals from the Bible (E. T., 1972 ). The former deals forthrightly with the question of biblical authority for our time, attempting to balance the affirmation that the Bible is the Word of God with the findings of historical criticism which disclose the humanity of the Bible. In the latter volume Kuitert discusses several key biblical concepts and seeks to let the Bible speak for itself. One should also not overlook the Dutch theologians who are occupying chairs of theology overseas. In addition to Hoekendijk, who at present is at Union Sem­ inary in N ew York City, there are at least three others who are well known and are recognized in their own spheres of influence. The veteran among these three is Hendrik van Oyen who has taught theology and ethics at Basel University for many years. Most of his works are in the field of ethics: Evangelise he Ethik­ Grundlagen (195 2), Liebe und Ehe (1957 ), and Botschaft und Gebot (1962); but he has also written a dogmatics prolegomena, T heolo gische El'kenntnislehre ( 195 5), and many more popular biblical and homiletical studies only available in the . Much younger, but already world renowned as an authority on medieval and scholastic theology is H . A. Oberman, formerly professor of church history at the Harvard Divinity School (1958-1966) and now director of the lnstitut fiir Refor­ mationsgeschichte at the University of Tiibingen in Germany. His doctoral dis­ sertation was on the theology of Archbishop Thomas Bradwardine, a fourteenth century Augustinian (1958); his prize-winning study of late medieval nominal­ ism, The Harvest of M edieval Theology, appeared in English in 1963 and simul­ taneously in German as a part of a three volume study entitled Scholastik tmd Refo1'mation. He followed this in 1966 with Forerunners of the Reformation:

80 The Shctpe of Late Medieval Thought Illustrated by Key D ocuments. Oberman was also co-editor of a Roman Catholic and Protestant discussion of basic theolog­ ical issues called Christianity Divided ( 1961). Another young Dutch theologian who until recently taught overseas is Klaas Runia, a former student of Berkouwer, for many years professor of systematic theology and vice-principal of the Reformed Theological College in Geelong, Australia and now professor of systematic theology at Kampen, the Netherlands. He has had several books published in the Netherlands, the most important being his doctoral dissertation on the theological concept of time in Barth's theology (1955). In English he has published a major study on Karl Barth's Doctrine of Holy Scripture (1962) and a brief study of current questions and the Creeds, I Believe in God . .. ( 1963). He also has served as associate editor of the Aus­ ·tralian Journal, The Reformed Theological R eview and is a frequent contributor to Christianity T oclay. All of these em inent theologians notwithstanding, the "big three" of the Dutch theologians are Berkouwer, Van Ruler and Berkhof. All three are distinctly Dutch in their outlook, have a definitely Reformed confessional stance, and are at the same time very ecumenical in every sense of the word. They are basically systematic or dogmatic theologians and are prolific writers, but none of them has attempted to write a systematic theology or even a compendium or outline of theology. All three have had considerable pastoral experience and are still very active churchmen. They also combine a sober piety with broad academic and cultural concerns. Nevertheless, each of these theologians represents a distinctive theological approach. They can perhaps best be considered in the order of their age.

A. G. C. Berkouwer (b. 1903) Berkouwer has been professor of dogmatics at the Free University of Amster­ dam since 1945, but for several years prior to that time he was a part time lecturer in theology at that institution while serving a congregation in Amsterdam. Very early he showed a special interest in the theology of Karl Barth, on the one hand, and in Roman Catholicism, on the other. His theology continues to be a critical, but very friendly and open dialogue with these two theological positions. But there has been a marked transition in his approach to both Barth and Roman Catholicism. In his earlier works he was largely negative; now he is much more positive and irenical in his interpretation. He no longer emphasizes the "Conflict with Rome" (The title of his book written in 1948) but what Rome and evangel­ ical theology now have in common. Yet in his highly regarded book, The Second Vatican Council and the New Catholicism ( 1964), there is no compromising or attempt to blur the issues that remain. Similarly, in his first two books on Barth ( 1936 and 1947) the attitude was largely polemical whereas in The Triumph of Grace in the Theology of Karl Barth (1954) there is a new appreciation of the Basel theologian's work. Berkouwer is still critical of Barth's approach at many

81 points; yet Barth has left an unmistakable stamp on this doughty Calvinist who stands in the tradition of Bavinck and A. Kuyper. Berkouwer's international reputation has come about largely due to the fame of his latest works on Barth and Roman Catholicism, but these represent side efforts. For Berkouwer's chief project is his "Studies in Dogmatics," an ambitious undertaking of nineteen vo lumes twelve of which are already available in English. The subjects range from creation and sin to the kingdom of God and eschatology. Some of the more interesting volumes which have been translated are : The Prov­ idence of God, Divine Election, and .Man: The Image of God. In these studies we have classic Reformed theology brought up to date. Berkouwer shows complete familiarity with all the currents of contemporary theology, both Catholic and Protestant, but he is equally at home with the thought of pas t ages. Thus, like Barth, he carries on a continual dialogue with representatives of the whole Chris­ tian Church. (But also, like Barth, he occasionally neglects some of the finest thinkers in the Anglo-Saxon world. In his volume on The Work of Christ there is no reference to either James Denney or P. T. Forsyth.) Berkouwer has accord­ ingly been called a "theologian of confrontation" since he works out his position particularly over agai nst the ecumenical and Reformed Confessions, Barth, and Roman Catholic theology. Yet he acknowledges the dangers of confessionalism and seeks in the last analysis to be biblical, not dogmatic in his approach. The guiding principle in his theology is that of co-relation. This is indicated in the titles of two of his "Studies in Dogmatics," Faith and and Faith and Sanctification. For Berkouwer Theology does not work according to its own inner-evolved principles, nor according to self-selected norms, nor for its own sake. Theology is in constant and dynamic relationship with faith and hence with the Word of God, on the one hand, and with the church and the on the other. Only as it li ves and works at the center of this double polarity can theology be meaningful and relevant (Lewis B. Smedes, "G. C. Ber­ kouwer," in Creative .Minds in Contemporary Theology, edited by P. E. Hughes ( 1966) . Another essay in this volume is about the Dutch philos­ opher, H . Dooyeweerd, mentioned above. ) Some critics complain that Berkouwer's "Studies in Dogmatics" are too de­ fensive and apologetic and not sufficiently constructive and systematic. Others are unhappy about Berkouwer's undeviating co nfess ional approach. In regard to the latter, it could be said that Berkouwer is not bound to the letter of the confessions but is seeking rather to reformulate the fundamental message of the co nfessions in the light of present problems and insights. The former criticism is due in part to the Amsterdam theologian's theological method. In any case, Berkouwer has moved a long way from the scholasticism of his predecessor, V. Hepp, and many contemporary conservative groups. Actually, Berkouwer' s greatest strength may also be his greatest weakness. Theology for him is a work of faith; it must speak to the situation of the be­ lieving community. True theology, as he notes in the beginning of his study of

82 sanctification, is "not concerned with a maze of theoretical abstractions, but with the bread-and-butter problems of this life." Berkouwer, accordingly, when faced with knotty theological problems, often refuses to seek a solution but instead ex­ horts his readers to listen attentively to the message of Scripture or to cling to "the reality which is understood in faith." At times, of course, this is necessary and proper, but a doxology to God (both the beauty and bane of Berkouwer's approach at so many crucial points) is no substitute for the requirements of rigorous theologizing. Even so, the judgment of the American theologian, D ale Moody, still stands: "Berkouwer is among the best theological writers of our day, and the theological student who neglects him is not wise." B. A. A. Van Ruler (1908-1970) While Berkouwer has been the major influence for several decades at the Free University among G. K. students and many foreign graduate students as well, his counter-part in the H. K. in terms of influence and numbers of students has been A. A. Van Ruler of the University of Utrecht, recently deceased. His influence in the H. K. has also been exceptionally great, even though in one respect he has gone against the main stream. For most of the leading theologians of the H. K.­ Haitjema, Noordmans, Miskotte, and Berkhof- were Barthian in varying degrees, whereas Van Ruler has been staunchly anti-Barthian from the beginning. His reasons, however, are quite different from those of most Neo-Calvinists. For one thing, he prefers Brunner to Barth, although his own position is so distinctive that Brunner's influence is marginal. Van Ruler's productivity tapered off in the 1960s because of poor health. However, it is precisely during this period that he has attracted considerable atten­ tion in Germany, largely in response to his provocative book, Die christliche Kirche tmd das Alte Testament (1955), now also available in English: The Christian Church and the Old T estament (1972). Two of the essays in Probleme Alttestamentliche Hermeneutik (1960, English Tr., Essays on Old Testament Her­ meneutics, ed. by Claus Westermann, 1963) were devoted exclusively to Van Ruler's approach to the Old Testament, one by the Swiss Old Testament scholar, J. J. Stamm, the other by Th. C. Vriezen, Van Ruler's colleague in the Old Testament chair at Utrecht University. It may seem surprising that a systematic theologian should write a book on the Old Testament, but not for a Dutch theologian! As we have seen, Miskotte has done the same. This is only one of the many disciplines in which Van Ruler shows competence. At the University of Utrecht he also lectures on Dutch church history and liturgy in addition to his principal field, dogmatics. In addition, he is a popular lecturer among student groups, has given various series of radio ad­ dresses on the Bible and Christian themes and has quite a reputation for his devo­ tional studies. Some of the latter are available in English: The Greatest of These is Love-as exposition of I Corinthians 13 ( 1958) , God's Son and God's JJV or/d­ meditations, on the person of Christ and Psalm 104 (1960), and Zechariah Speaks Today ("World Christian Books" No. 43, 1962). 83 Unfortunately, none of his major works has been translated. This may be due in part to the fact that Van Ruler's theology is so peculiarly Dutch in its outlook and is often directed to concrete issues in the H. K. His doctoral dissertation, written at Groningen University (under Haitjema) when Van Ruler was already a mature theologian, is a monumental work: De Vervttliing van de Wet (The Fulfillment of the Law), a dogmatic study concerning the relation of revelation and existence, 194 7) . Several years earlier ( 1940) he had produced his first major work, A. Kttyper's !dee eener Christe!ijke K11/tu11r (A. Kuyper's Idea of a Christian Culture), a theme that has been a major motif in Van Ruler's theology. In 1945 he published another large work, Religie en Politiek (Religion and Pol­ itics), which consists largely of lectures and articles. Here already many familiar themes of Van Ruler appear. Part I deals with such themes as the value of the Old Testament, the church and the world, and the kingdom of god and the church. Part II deals with questions of special relevance during the early post-war years, particularly church and state relationships, the church's role in society, the place of confessions, etc., all under the general theme of theocratic foundations. Another work of this period is Droom en Gestalte (Dream and Form) which deals with many of the same themes. In the same year (1947) a third book of Van Ruler's was published: Visie en Vaart (Vision and Momentum). This was followed by three brief studies: Kerstening van het Voorbereidend Hoger en Middelbaar Onderwijs (Christianization of the Preparatory, Higher, and Inter­ mediate Education); Theologie van het Apostolaat (Theology of the Apostolate) (This has appeared in German in abbreviated form in the Evangelische Missions­ zeitschrif t, 1954, pp. 1 f.); and Bijzonder en Algemeen Ambt (The Special and General Office of the Church) . In this last book Van Ruler contends for a gen­ eral presbyterian-synodical form of church order which can take new forms under new conditions. A brief presentation of many facets of Van Ruler's theology in German can be found in his Gestaltwerdtmg Christi in der Welt: Ober das Verhaltnis von Kirche und Kttltur (1956) . Like Berkouwer and Berkhof, Van Ruler has long been interested in Roman Catholic theology. A recent publication is indicative of this: Reformatorische Opmerkingen in de Ontmoeting met Rome (Reformed Ob­ servations in the Encounter with Rome 1965). Van Ruler, like Calvin, could be described as a "theologian of the Holy Spirit," but he goes beyond Calvin in this respect. (A revealing example of how Calvin is interpreted by Van Ruler is found in the latter's essay, "Das Leben und das Werk Calvins," in Calvin Studien 1959, edited by Jurgen Moltmann.) For Van Ruler's theology represents a post-Barthian attempt to recognize in all things­ the church, the state, culture, history, and humanity-the redeeming activity of God through the Holy Spirit. Like Barth, Van Ruler seeks to develop a theology of the Word of God which is radically eschatological, but he rejects Barth's radical christocentric approach. He maintains, rather, that while God always acts on the basis of and in accordance with what he has done in Jesus Christ, the ascension 84 is a sign that these last days are the age of an "intermezzo" in which the Kingdom of God is both hidden and revealed: hidden in its completeness at the right hand of the Father, and yet eschatologically present as the first fruits of the Spirit. For Van Ruler this means that in these last days the activity of the Holy Spirit is more comprehensive in its scope than the work of the Messiah, in that the redemption accomplished by the Messiah (Christ) in the fulfillment of the 'Torah' and the Old Tes tament of Israel now broadens out and takes form in the whole of exist­ ence. In the intermingling of the redemptive activity of the Spirit with the sinful existence of the world during this Messianic intermezzo between the ascension and the parousia there are signs that what once occurred only in Israel is now at work in all existence. All the realities of the Old Testament, however, now appear in a new way as the gospel penetrates heathen existence and culture: the passover becomes the Lord's Supper, the Sabbath becomes Sunday, the twelve tribes of Israel re-appear in the twelve apostles, Israel is the church, etc. What is true of the church also becomes true of society as a whole and even of nature, where a host of signs (both negative and positive) of the presence of the reign of God appear: the rainbow and the sunset, the state and its laws, the achievements of modern medi­ cine, etc. These signs, even in their self-contradictions and fragmentary character, become tokens of the redemptive activity of God, the first fruits of the ascended Lord. It is in this process that Van Rul er speaks of men as being evangelized and of things and institutions being "Christianized," according to E. P. Heideman. This brief resume cannot do justice to the power and originality of Van Ruler's thought. Fortunately, non-Dutch readers can now examine Van Ruler's position for themselves in either the German or English versions of The Christian Church and the Old Testament. Van Ruler is admittedly often extreme in the develop­ ment of his position. He tends to over-react against the christo-centric approach on the one hand and a false spiritualism on the other. Yet there is much which we can learn from him : his concern not just for the church and individual salva­ tion but for the whole created order; his positive and joyful evaluation of this earth and our life as the sphere of the Kingdom of God; his vision of a Christian culture and the sanctification of the whole earth; and his evangelistic zeal in re­ calling the church to its proper apostolic calling. Here, as Th. C. Vriezen has observed, "theology is being carried on with passion, imaginativeness and cour­ age." But there are also problems. Van Ruler, in his extreme consistency, so em­ phasizes the role of the Spirit and the kingdom that Christ and the church do not always receive their due. At the same time it should be noted that Van Ruler was always a very active churchman. His concern for the church is also revealed in one of his last books, W aarom zo11 ik naar de Kerk Gaan? (Why Should I go to Church?) which consists of radio addresses given in 1967. His thesis that "the Old Testament is and remains the real ( eigentlich) Bible" (Die christliche Kirche ttnd das Alte Testament, p. 68), is, to say the least, questionable. For Van Ruler

85 the New Testament is merely an "explanatory word-list" of the Old Testament (I bid.). The Old Testament actually surpasses the New Testament in its witness to such matters as the Kingdom of God, the meaning of theocracy, and the sancti­ fication of the earth. Hence Van Ruler's great interest in a proper understanding of the Old Testament. Is it not also inaccurate to speak of Jesus Christ as an "emergency measure" ( N otmasmahme) with which God waited as long as possible (I bid., p. 65) ? Even though Van Ruler explains that this applies only to the incarnate Son, not the eternal Son, and that this is the only way to maintain a sober, trinitarian theology, one is impressed by the secondary importance assigned to the reconciling work of Christ on the cross and the importance of his resurrection. There also remain such problems as Van Ruler's sharp distinction between the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Christ, the Messianic interim (or "intermezzo"), and "the relative independence" of the work of the Spirit. (These subjects are treated more fully in De Vervulling van de Wet, pp. 103 f., 159 f., 186 f.) These over­ emphases notwithstanding, Van Ruler offers several fresh alternatives to the im­ passe in which contemporary theology finds itself. He makes it possible to move beyond the personalism and existentialism of post-war theology to an affirmation of the created order without falling into the errors of the liberal and secular theologians. C. Hendrikus Berkhof (b. 1914) The youngest member of the big three, Hendrikus Berkhof, combines the breadth and solidity of Berkouwer with the fresh originality of Van Ruler. He differs from both of them, however, in his unabashed enthusiasm for Barth and in his very active role in the World Alliance of Presbyterian and Reformed Churches and in the World Council of Churches. He is not as confessionally oriented as Berkouwer or as peculiarly Dutch in his outlook as Van Ruler, but he remains a solid Dutch Calvinist, albeit a very ecumenical one who is very sensitive to contemporary problems. Berkhof, too, spent several years in the pastorate before entering academic life. This is apparent in his ability to preach and communicate the gospel in a very interesting, relevant manner. For ten years (1950-1960) he was the Prin­ cipal of the Theological Seminary of the H . K. in Driebergen, a seminary special­ izing in pastoral, ecclesiastical training for ministerial candidates who have grad­ uated from the university. In 1960 he was invited to succeed Miskotte at the University of Leiden where he is Professor of Dogmatics and Biblical Theology! Moreover, among his earlier works he also wrote a church history which was something of a best seller. Another early work which provoked much discussion was Crisis der Mid­ denorthodoxie (The Crisis of Middle (i.e., Neo)- Orthodoxy, 1951). This is basically a critique of some crucial points in Barth's theology. The "crisis," ac­ cording to Berkhof, lies in the failure of "Neo-Orthodoxy" (meaning primarily Barth here) to produce truly evangelical preaching. The root of this problem is 86 traced to Barth's conception of the relationship between gospel and law. A con­ sequence of this conception is the absence of the accusing function of the law, which in turn leads to the danger of "cheap grace." For where the kerygma of the gospel is simply the announcement of an accomplished fact, there is little place for decision, exhortation, and warning. Later in this book Berkhof criticizes the separation of law and gospel as taught by many Lutherans and a certain con­ servative Reformed movement in the Netherlands. Berkhofs major works have all gone into several editions in the Netherlands and have soon been translated into German or English, or both. The first of these books was Christus de Zin der Geschiedenis (Christ the Meaning of History, 1958. E. T., 1966). This was not written in abstraction but in response to the situation faced by the Dutch Church after World War II. The title of this book was a part of a confessional statement made by the H. K. in 1947. The other major work of Berkhof is his Princeton Warfield Lectures, The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit (1964). George S. Hendry of Princeton Seminary, himself the author of an excellent book on the Holy Spirit, has praised Berkhofs work as "a masterly distillation of much profound study and reflection on the doctrine of the Holy Spirit. . . It is the most brilliant and stimulating work on its theme that has. appeared in English in many years"-or any other language, one might add. Two shorter works of Berkhofs available in a language other than Dutch are Christtts en de Machten (1952. E. T., Christ and the Powers, 1962) and a short Christian anthropology, De M ens Onderweg ( 1963) . There are also the two studies mentioned above in another context: The Catholicity of the Church and two chapters on the Heidelberg Catechism, "The Catechism in Historical Context" and "The Catechism as an Expression of our Faith" in Essays on the Heidelberg Catechism ( 1963). Berkhof, though the most traveled and most active ecumenical figure of the big three, is still very much a Dutch Reformed theologian. This is apparent in the themes he treats: the meaning of history, the kingdom of God, the catholicity and mission of the church (the latter theme is the heart of his book on the Holy Spirit), and the Holy Spirit, for these are all subjects which have been much discussed in the Netherlands. The meaning of history, in particular, has been a recurrent theme in Berkhofs writings. Soon after the war he wrote D e Kerk en de K eizer (The Church and the Emperor, 1946), a very existential subject for the Dutch who had suffered greatly under the Nazis. Here Berkhof gave a critical analysis of the theories of church and state in the early church and concluded that the church must again dare to preach the theocratic commandment but not in an intolerant way. Here Berkhof sounds a note also heard from Van Ruler, but his approach is christocentric rather than theocentric. Both, however, would agree that the church must avoid the false alternatives of ecclesiastical power politics on the one hand and the withdrawal of the church from the world on the other. This book was followed in 1950 by De Kerk en het Koninkrijk (The Church and the Kingdom) and in 1952 by Christ and the Powers. In these studies Berk- 87 hof continues to deal with the relation of church and state, the christological foundation of the state, and Christ's relation to the demonic forces in the world. In all these studies Berkhof perceptively relates biblical and theological insights and the pressing issues and developments of our time. These interests find a logical climax in a brief treatment of eschatology, W e!L-founded Hope (E. T., 1969). It is not only this awareness of current trends but also the openness to new developments and ideas which characterizes all of Berkhof's thinking and activity. Though rooted in his own heritage, his theology is exceptionally ecumenical in its outlook. Berkhof is almost as familiar with Anglo-Saxon theology as with con­ tinental theology. He is increasingly one of the leading theological spokesmen for the World Council of Churches; yet he manages to avoid the jargon and cliches which are characteristic of so much ecumenical literature. The same is true of his relationship to Barth to whom he is deeply indebted. He cites Barth frequently and usually positively, but he is always fresh and independent. (Cf. the criticisms of Barth in Christ th e Meaning of History, p. 192, and The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit, pp. 22 f., 40, as well as those mentioned above.) One of his special gifts is the ability to analyze a new movement or idea, learn from it, and still maintain a critical objectivity. A good recent illustration of this can be found in his analyses of Moltmann's Theology of Hope. It is note­ worthy that he is the only theologian to have two review-articles included in the book Disk11ssion iiber die 'Theologie der Hoffmmg.' (One of the other contribu­ tions is by Kuitert, the young theologian at the Free University of Amsterdam.) He is occasionally too eager to be as positive as possible concerning a movement or trend with which he fundamentally disagrees. A case in point is an article on the God-is-dead theologians. His analysis is very illuminating, but in conclusion he makes the dubious statement that none of these theologians "can be called an atheist. They are seriously trying to help to preach the gospel to an a-theistic generation" ("A New Age-A New Theology?" in The Reformed and Presby­ terian World, Dec., 1967, p. 357). This approach may also be due to a certain optimism which pervades Berkhof's thinking. At the same time, he retains an appreciation for classical evangelical Christianity, especially that of Calvin whose influence is as great in Berkhof's theology as in Berkouwer's or Van Ruler's. Berkhof, like Berkouwer, promotes no particular theological line. He is Re­ formed and ecumenical, but he has no entrenched position which he defends at all costs. In contrast to Berkouwer, he is more sensitive and open to the modern world. He does, however, have a distinctive style. It is often disarmingly simple, full of down-to-earth illustrations and striking metaphors. The approach is often more historical and exegetical than strictly dogmatic. Here is theology with a light touch. But Berkhof is no lightweight theologian! His ability to take difficult subjects and make them surprisingly clear and relevant is the mark of a great theologian. He could also be described as a theologian on the move. At this stage he may

88 still be too beholden to Barth. This comes out in his book on the Holy Spirit which has been criticized for its emphasis on the identity of the work of Christ and the Spirit rather than their distinctiveness. (Cf. The D octrine of the Holy Spirit, pp. 24 f.) H ere Van Ruler may provide a necessary corrective with his stress on the theocentric rather than the christocentric aspect of the work of the Holy Spirit. Berkhof' s particular co ntribution to the co ntemporary scene is the balance which he maintains in his continual relating of the church and the world, in­ di vidual piety and the corporate aspects of the Kingdom. He is at the same time both firmly grounded in the past and open to the future. This concern is expressed briefly in the Preface to the third Dutch edition of Christ the M eaning of History: In reaction to the way in which the theology of the nineteenth century tied together Word and reality, we have separated the two sharply. This may lead to losi ng the co nnection between them. The Word, then, be­ comes an abstraction and reality is secularized. Therein li es the funda­ mental problem of today's theology and the problem for today's preach­ ing. CONCLUSION In the Netherlands, theology is taken very seriously. This is true of laymen as well as the clergy, Catholi cs as well as Protestants . Happily, the bitter theo­ logical disputes of previous centuries have now largely g iven way to irenical dis­ cussion. Especially since W orld W ar II there has been a flowering of theology which is distingui shed for being both scholarly and practical, distinctively Dutch and yet ecumeni cal. The productivity and vi tality of contemporary Dutch Prot­ estant theology is matched by that of their Roman Catholic brethren. It is not surprising that one of the most controversial and widely read books around the world in recent years has been the N ew (Roman Catholic) Ccttechism for adults ( 1966) , now available in several languages. (Over 500,000 copies of this large book were sold in the Netherlands within two years of its publication, and the first American printing of 75,000 copies was soon sold out!) Both this quantity and the quality of Dutch theological works is all the more impressive when one considers that this tiny land, only about one fifth the size of Michigan, has a population less than twi ce that of N ew York. In sum, what Th. C. Vriezen has said about Van Ruler's theology could apply to Dutch Protestant theology as a whole. Here we have theology which carries on the theological task only with the most intimate relationship to all of life. . . Theology is no course of private scientific study, but the vital nerve, the respiratory organ of fai th. It is not just later reflec­ tion about faith, but is itself a dynami c of faith. Through theology the Word of God and the world are confronted with each other and brought together. The Word of God transposes our li fe out of death and dark­ ness into the joy of the presence of God, making us citizens of his Kingdom so that we may live in the full sense of the word . . . Theology has to do with the preaching of the Kingdom which holds God and the world in mutual relationship. ("Theocracy and Soteriology," in Essays on Old T estament H ermeneutics, p. 215.) 89