Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs

Covenant University Journal of Politics & Internationall Affairs. Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Vol. 6 No. 2, December 2018

A Publication of the Department of Political Science and International Relations, College of Leadership Development Studies, Covenant University.

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Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018

Articles

Traditional Governance System in Nigeria:Lessons for Neoliberal Democracies Adedeji Oluwaseun Adewusi 1

The Internet and National Security in Nigeria: A Threat-Import Discourse Okoli A. l. Chukwuma & Idom Augustine Mogom 20

Piracy as Threat to Africa‟s Security and Economic Development Idowu Johnson, PhD 30

Globalization and „Africanization‟ of Contemporary Pop Music: Implications for History and Theory Okoli Al Chukwuma & Atelhe George Atelhe 41

iii

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018

Covenant University Journal of Politics & Internationall Affairs. Vol. 6 No. 1, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Traditional Governance System in Nigeria: Lessons for Neoliberal Democracies

Adedeji Oluwaseun Adewusi

Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ibadan [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract The pre-colonial Nigerian state had a well-organized system of administration where law and social order were provided and maintained respectively. Despite the country‟s independence, Nigeria had been unable to install rights-based political and economic systems of governance that would encouragestate-building and development. The attendant societal woes paved way for neoliberalism; an economic ideology that licensed the Bretton Woods institutions to limit the political powers of the state and promote the ideas of the free market economic system.This paper examined neoliberal governance system with the aim of identifying the lessons for a “democratic”state like Nigeria. The theoretical assumptions of the World Systems theory were used to explain issues of interest. As a desk study, this paper found, amongst others, that “every foreign favour comes with a price tag.” This was because the aidprovided bythe Bretton Woods institutions such as the World Bank and IMF to the then government has subjected Nigeria to the dictates of the aforementioned donors, which the country is dearly paying for till date. Also, the adoption of neoliberal policies denied the indigenous people of Nigeria the right to freedom from discrimination and the right to dignity of human person. Therefore, it was recommended that the Nigerian government embraces an autarkic form of governance. This is highly possible by first de-westernizing the mind of Nigerians and her leaders to begin to see the need to stick to a self-sufficient and a truly democratic form of government. Keywords: Africa, Governance System, Neoliberalism, Nigeria, Traditional Institutions

Introduction would facilitate state-building and at the African societies had some form of same time promote development (Fatile political institutions that saw to their and Adejuwon, 2009). The prevailing daily activities prior to colonialism. level of poverty, the continued ethnic However, these institutions differ in and civil conflicts, and constant political makeup. For instance, some electoral and post-electoral strife are states like Asante, Buganda, Sokoto, some manifestations of the failure of Kano, and Zulu kingdoms had highly the independent State of Nigeria centralized political structures with (Isamah, 2002).Specifically, since the complex bureaucracy, with a king late 1980s, African countries have been constituting an apex governmental experiencing crises of governance, a body. The king is usually supported by democratic change which has all his ministers in order to facilitate the resulted in poor economic and social administration of the affairs of the development. In a continent with society. However, Igbo communities abundant human and natural resources, were mainly stateless – societies where so many people live in poverty and authority is vested on family, the village misery particularly in Nigeria with head or the age-set of adult men serious consequences on their quality of (Abdulai, 2012).The foregoing are life. The foregoing societal woes paved shreds of evidence that Africa had a way for the rise of neoliberal system of administration within which governance (Isamah, 2002). law and order were provided and The New Economic Order of maintained (Fatile and Adejuwon, Liberalism (i.e., Neo-liberalism) is a 2009).These attestations negate the situation whereby private interests seek subjective and erroneous belief among much of economic and social life to most Western scholars that pre-colonial maximize profits. Neoliberalism is an African societies never had any system economic doctrine that favours the rule of administration. Indeed, the of market forces as the engine of traditional African societies had well growth (Egharevba, Imhonopi, and organized and well-established Iruonagbe, 2015). The main argument indigenous systems of administration of the neoliberalists was that the state where social order was dispensed and intervention was the primary reason sustained, where enactments were made there were retarding growth and and enforced and, where inter- development in Africa, hence, the communal and intertribal conflicts were solution to this persistent syndromes resolved and managed (Osakede and lies in the unleashing of market forces Ijimakinwa, 2015). This is an indication (Sakakibara, 1997). It convinces people that traditional institutions had a that individualism, competition, and significant feature of putting the people self-commodification are the natural first, which helped to secure great vicissitudes of life. Consequently, civil loyalty and respect. society is concussed to accept, through However, despite modest progress in contriving capitalistic hyperboles, that some African countries such as South the world is nothing more than a market Africa and Namibia, the post- in which everything, and everyone, can colonialNigerian State has been unable be bought and sold. However, to establish rights-based political and Neoliberal policieshave posed several economic systems of governance that challenges to African countries, Nigeria

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 inclusive. Though they are eras but also to highlight the lessons to acknowledged as independent states be learned from the adoption of the within the global community, latter form of governance. regrettably, African countries have not Literature Review sufficiently transcended to nations with Governance/Traditional Governance national identities (Ekanade, 2014). According to Okpaga (2007:3), Nigeria like several other developing governance means “how people are countries has witnessed a series of ruled and how the affairs of the state are societal issues including administered and regulated. ”Therefore, unemployment, poverty, political governance connotes the ways and turmoil, and overpopulation among manners with which the politics of a others, which have direct impact on the nation is been executed. In any overall welfare of the people. The quest governance system, a public authority is of proffering a long lasting solution to expected to play an important role in these milieus have made successive creating a conducive environment to governments to deploy several socio- enhance development. On this premise, economic measures and policies such as Ansah (2007:8) viewed governance “as Structural Adjustment Programmes encompassing a state‟s institutional and (SAP), austerity measures, currency structural arrangements, decision- devaluation and others (Olotu, 1994), making process and implementation which are all neoliberal measures. capacity and the relationship between These measures, whose purpose was government officials and the public. toimprove the socio-economic status of ”Governance can, therefore, be good or the people in the country have rather bad depending on whether or not it has increased their sufferings and widened the basic ingredients of what constitutes the socio-economic gap between a system acceptable by the people. The households (Adeyemo and Babajide, ingredients of good governance include 2012). Therefore, as an economic and a freedom, accountability, and political ideology that necessitates the participation (Sen, 1990). privatization of government functions, However, Kaufmann, Kraay, and Neoliberalism has attracted and will Mastruzzi (2006) perhaps offer a continue to attract pessimistic comprehensive definition of connotations among most Nigerians. governance. According to them, This is due, for example, to the governance “is the tradition and abhorrent and lengthened fallouts of the institutions by which authority in a 1980‟s Structural Adjustment Policy country is exercised which include the (SAP) for Nigerians. While the adverse process by which governments are outcomes of this philosophy have been selected, monitored and replaced; the apperceived in all societal structures, capacity of the government to Neoliberalism is an ideology that has effectively formulate and implement negative corollaries on the democratic sound policies; and the respect of principles of a nation. Therefore, the citizens and the state for the institutions purpose of this article was to examine that govern economic and social the traditional governance system and interactions among them.”(p. 64) They the advent of neoliberalism in Africa further espoused six indicators of good with the purpose of not only examining governance to include, accountability, the nature of democracy within both

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 political effectiveness of public service In recent times, the basic assumption of provision and the quality of the neoliberal philosophies is that all bureaucracy, quality or soundness of human activities can be essentially policies pursued by the government, considered as “commodity and the best rule of law while the sixth indicator is wayis to organize these activities is control of corruption. through a market” (Caffentzis, Hence, traditional governance refers to 2002:89). During the 1980s, renowned the administration of societies that international capitalist ventures such as factors-in the adoption of indigenous the International Monetary Fund(IMF) institutions and often adopts indigenous and the World Bank began pushing for cultural practices. From a broader major market reform overhauls across perspective, traditional governance is the globe, especially in developing one with indigenous institutions within countries. The primary aim of such which the citizens are guided and economic cum political reconditioning respected and a sociocultural frame was the liberalization of the world work that reinforces social order in the economy. The consummation of such society. Describing traditional societies, policy has been subjected to debates they engage in subsistence production, even in developed countries that have with strong cohesion among the simple the requisite resources and division of labour.It should also be infrastructure to implement them. stated here that sources of labour are Neoliberalism frowns at government not limited to family, clan, and village. interference in the economic space Hence, one of the purposes of this paper because it considers such as rent- was to appraise the traditional seeking behaviour, therefore creating a governance system in Africa, deficit on the economy. Decreasing specifically Nigeria, which practiced such a strain encourages efficiency the traditional governance system among market participants (Olowu, before the advent of colonization. 2001; Caffentzis, 2002).Consequently, Neoliberalism/Neoliberal States the IMF and World Bank designed Neoliberalism is based on the principles economic policies that were intended to of classical liberalism that is concerned open markets of less developed with the exoneration of the state‟s countries by restricting the role of political powers while advocating the government in hopes that these ideas of the free market economic countries will be made the larger system. The segregation of the public participants in the global economy. This and private dimensions was the was what led to the launching of the ideological base within which Friedrich Structural Adjustment Programmes Hayek built his ideas of economic (SAP) in the 1980s during the liberalism and its compatibility with the Babangida military rule in Nigeria. ideas of individual liberty and the need As outlined by Babangida‟s regime, to limit the powers of the state. Hence, SAP had the following key objectives: as reported by Saleem (2002), to reduce the predominance of neoliberalism refers to a process unyielding investments in the public whereby private interests control as space; to attain a reasonable balance of much as possible of social life to payment; to curtail the dependence on maximize profits. oil and on imports by redesigning and

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 expanding the productive base of the holders through free and fair elections. economy, etc. In other to accomplish It is a form of governance that the aforementioned objectives, the IMF accommodates the participation of the defined the means which include the citizens in all facet of public ratification of pricing policies in all administration. This was corroborated strands of the society, with considerable by J.S Mill, as quoted by Agena and dependence on market forces; Odoh (2005), who argued that redesigning and rationalization of the democratic governance is superior to public sector through privatization, other forms of administration because commercialization, and elimination of the rights of every person are expected government aids such as subsidies; the to be secured from being violated. free flow of trade; utilization of a Therefore, democracy can be said to be pragmatic exchange rate were sorted a set of ideologies of governance that after. The theory of reliance on the allow for the majority of the people to forces of demand and supply and choose their leaders and also guarantee liberalization was to make the economic them a broad range of civil rights. space attractive for Foreign Direct Democracy, which gives high credence Investments (FDIs) (Edward, 1993; to the rule of law stated certain right Tybout, 1992). amongst others right to life, right to Democracy dignity of human person, right to The concept of „democracy‟ originated personal liberty, right to fair hearing, from the Greek word „dēmokratía‟, right to private and family life, right to meaning „rule of the people‟, which was freedom of thought, conscience and derived from dêmos„people‟ and krátos religion, right to freedom of expression, „power‟ or „rule‟ (Wikipedia, 2017). right to peaceful assembly and Appadurai (1975:137) described it as “a association, right to freedom of system of government under which the movement, right to freedom from people exercise the governing power discrimination and right to acquire and either directly or through own immovable property anywhere in representatives periodically elected by Nigeria (See Nigerian constitution, themselves. ”However, Schumpter 1999). However, what is the nature of (1967:153) reduced the concept to the democracy and civil rights within procedural aspect when he defined the traditional and the neoliberal democratic method as the “institutional governance in Nigeria? This is one of arrangement for arriving at political the numerous interests of this paper. decisions in which individuals require Theoretical Underpinning the power to decide by means of World Systems Theory competitive struggle for people‟s vote.” World system theory was propounded This definition buttressed the viewpoint by Immanuel Wallenstein, an American of Marxism that the concept connotes Sociologist, in 1974 whose intellectual the dictatorship of the proletariat building blocks were derived from majority rule. From the foregoing, it is History, Marxism (theory of class) and not out of place to say that democracy dependency theory. World systems is a form of governance that does not theory, also known as world-systems only take the plight and consent of the analysis or the world system perspective populace but also the participation of is a multidisciplinary, macro-scale people in the selection of public office

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 approach to world history and social plays and the class it belongs in the change. The theory suggests that there world economy. Hence, the central is a global economic arrangement that thesis of the world systems theory is advocates the developmental interests that growth and development in a of certain geographical space sat the country (or countries) is achieved as a detriment of others. World system result of subjecting one or more theory is one of the globalization countries to the dictate of the former as theories which tend to explain a result of certain weaknesses possessed economic and political hegemony by the latter. Therefore, the growth among developed and third world and/or development of one country (i.e., countries (especially African countries). core) is usually at the expense of the

Development, according to the World- other (i.e., peripheral). Put differently, systems theory, can be analyzed based the economic or political development on the division of labour that subsists of one country leads to the among nations, which makes them be underdevelopment of the other. This interrelated and interdependent on each theory is expected to explain how the other. Specifically, the world system is likes of the World Bank and the made up of three hierarchical strands International Monetary Fund (IMF) namely the core, periphery, and semi- have subjected the growth and periphery countries. The core countries prosperity experienced by Nigeria to consist of capitalist nations that are their dictate as a result of the weakness economically compelling, possess of the state and whether or not the strong efficacy and are not reliant on implementation of neoliberal policies any state or country for their survival. guarantee the civil rights of the people The peripheral countries are made up of within the context of a typical democratic dispensation. fragile nations that lack strong economic base and central government Nature of Traditional Governance in (Wallenstein, 2004). The blemish Nigeria nature of peripheral countries gives As mentioned in the introductory room for their exploitation and control section of this article, there was a form by core nations. However, the semi- of (indigenous) system of peripheral countries have been found to administration that was practiced in employ numerous mechanisms such as Africa, Nigeria inclusive, prior to industrialization and economic colonization. However, this system of heterogeneity to ameliorate their governance varied from one part of economic position. They are seldom Nigeria to the other. In the north, for milked by the core countries but are not instance, the Hausa/Fulani practiced a subjected to conspicuous manipulations unified governance typology. In this and exploitation like those at the system, the Emir performs an peripheral level(Wallenstein, 2004). ambivalent role – political and religious However, semi-peripheral countries are leader. It is the sole responsibility of the of less concern in this paper. Emir promulgate and implement laws, a

From the foregoing, it is right to say role whose end product is to maintain that the social, political, or/and law and order in the emirate. Within the economic development of any nation is religious realm, however, he makes sure therefore foreordained by the role it that Islamic and Sharia laws influence

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 the people‟s behaviour and the overall under the headship of the Oba (Fatile social, economic and political business and Adejuwon, 2010). He is assisted by of the emirate (Fatile Yoruba Baales who administered towns andAdejuwon,2010). Nonetheless, this and villages and paid royalties to the is not to say that the Emir performs the Oba at specified times of the year. The role of a “one man Mopol”; the Emir is power of the Oba was not without assisted by his ministers when needed. checks, (Fadipe, 1970). In the Some of these ministers are: OyoKingdom, for instance, the Alaafin 1. Sarkin Fada – The spokesman of (the king) wielded much power but was the Emirand organizer of palace subject to control by the institution of workers; the Oyo-Mesi under the leadership of 2. Waziri – The Prime Minister; the Bashorun, to prevent an abuse of 3. Galadima – The Administrator of power. The Oyo-Mesi,who were the the capital city; kingmakers had the power to force an 4. Madawaki – The commander and erring Oba to abdicate his throne or Head of the Army; commit suicide in thecase of 5. Magaji – Officer-in-charge ofthe irreconcilable difference (Fajonyomi, treasury; 1997). In the same way, the Oyo-Mesi 6. Dogari – Inspector General of did not wield absolute power because Police Force: they were also subjected to the control 7. Sarkin Ruwa– Minister inchargeof of the Ogboni acting under the authority Water Resources, among others; of religion. As for the administration of 8. Sarkin Pawa – The head of justice, the Alaafin held sway as the butchers (Erero, 2005:3). supreme judge of the Oyo Empire and

Furthermore, the emirate was divided there could be no appeal against his into districts headed by a ruler called judgment (Salami,2006). In the west, Hakimi (Eroro, 2005).Justice the autocratic tendencies of the Oba administration in Northern Nigeria was were widely curtailed, if there was a wholly based on strict adherence to proclivity towards this by an Oba, the Islamic Law, popularly known as line of communicating the Oba‟s Sharia (Fajonyomi, 1997). The Sharia wishes and orders to his people or Law was usually administered by subjects would paralyze. In addition to trained judges called Alkali (Erero, this, any Oba who wanted to rule 2005).Although the final decision on autocratically would be forced to any case whatsoever solely rest on the commit suicide. Other devices to Emir, there was also the village head checkmate the autocratic ruling of an that had the requisite skill to settling Oba if there was a disagreement minor disputes within their between him and the Chiefswere jurisdictions. It is important to note neglect of religious ceremonies and other rituals (Jimoh, 1995). from the foregoing that the consultation of Emirs and top title holders was Fadipe (1970) posits that the Igbos of cogentforhandling the affairs of the the Eastern region of Nigeria is state. The major rationale behind this republican and egalitarianin nature was to ensure effective governance. because, generally, they have no kings

In the western part of the country, the or chiefs. In other words, unlike the administrative system was monarchical Yoruba kingdom and the Fulani

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018

Emirates, the Igbos had no centralized government provided various subsidies political authority. Often than not, the on food, transport, health, fuel, and Ibo political organization has been education, available reports showed that described as being decentralized. And there were declining unemployment its government referred to as rates during this era (Mkandawire, „republican‟. Major executive, 1995). This was also evident in the legislative and judicialand Shehu Shagari regime (1979-1983). administrative decisionsare taken on This is because his administration behalf of the people by an assembly of championed the subsidization of sale men known as theOhaneze. The and distribution of specific Ohaneze composes of family heads that commodities known as essential hold Ofo title. The Council of elders is commodities such asrice, milk, beef, assisted by various age-grade and sugar, among other items. This organizations that perform general initiative saw the importation of these functions. These include the commodities via the Nigerian National maintenance of law and order, serving Supply Company and it was sold to as an army for the defense of the village Nigerians at rates below prevailing against external attack, construction, market prices. These governmental and maintenance of roads, prevention of discounts remained in Shagari‟s era but abuse of powers by the council of were terminated with the introduction elders. Of importance is the role of neoliberal policies – the SAPs – accorded to Ozo title holders (Erero, in1986, which led to the removal of 2005). These are respected and subsidies, reduction of public influential men in the village who are expenditures, privatization, and often consulted in the day to day devaluation of the domestic currency administration of their communities. (Ikubolajeh and Kidane, 1995).

The administration of justice was As outlined by Babangida‟s regime, carried out by the various institutions SAP had the following key objectives: listed above depending on the nature of to reduce the preponderance of the case. unproductive investments in the public

Neoliberalism in Nigeria: A Brief sector; to achieve a viable balance of Discourse payment; to reduce dependence on oil Nigeria made huge revenue from the and on imports by restructuring and rise petroleum price during the 1970s diversifying the productive base of the due to the fact that she constituted one economy, etc. In other to achieve the of the prominent members of the oil- said objectives, the IMF prescribed producing countries during the means which include the adoption of aforementioned period. One exceptional appropriate pricing policies in all feature of Nigeria‟s disbursement sectors with greater reliance on market during the 1970s was the „welfarist‟ forces; restructuring and rationalization role it performed, that is, the chuck of of the public sector through the state‟s expenses was on the privatization, commercialization, and provision of fundamental social removal of subsidies; trade amenities such as road networks, public liberalization; adoption of a realistic buildings, and health infrastructure exchange rate were pursued. The idea among others. Aside from that, the of reliance on market forces and

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 liberalization was to make the economic hardship, thereby fueling the environment attractive for foreign continuation of Nigeria‟s economic investors to come in and do business issues (Olukoshi, 1995; Olowu, 2001). (Tybout, 1992; Edward, 1993). Cumulatively, the SAP produced

A major rationale for the introduction considerable discontentment across all of neo-liberal policies such as spheres of economic life the Nigerian privatization, commercialization and people. For instance, the middle class trade liberalization was due to the was faced with the decreasing economic decline that started in the purchasing power and unemployment. early 1980s. This decline was not only Coping mechanisms for some workers as a result of the internal role played by included moonlighting, which entailed the Shagari‟s role in providing subsidies running their private cars as taxis to for essential commodities to the augment income after the day‟s work, citizens, the source of this economic while low-income urban dwellers were havoc can also be traced to the driven to subsistence levels and school dramatic flagging of the oil markets in children had to hawk wares to the first half of the 1980s, which supplement family incomes (Olowu, deteriorated the country‟s financial 2001; Ekande, 2014). This undoubtedly position. During this era, short-term constitutes one of the major eras of poor borrowing increased, and interest rates governance in the country. skyrocketed. Within the domestic arena, Democracy in the Era of the recession was birthed by the mono NeoliberalGovernance: The Nigerian cultural nature of the economy, the Experience character of the politicians during the By 1999, the totality of the effects of return of the civilian governments in the years of bad governance had early 1908s who were flippant with transformed to economic woes federal funds, and the endemic characterized by a low GDP, inflation, corruption of the same class and gross high unemployment rate, dwindling per mismanagement of the national treasury capita income, energy crisis, and (Mkandawire, 2001; Ekanade, 2014). declining industrial capacity (Ekanade, These problems gave rise to questions 2014). Hence, it may not be out of place of sustainability of state subsidy as to say that the Obasanjo led social services suffered due to gross administration inherited not only a underfunding. As if these were not fragile economy but also a political enough, industries were shutdown, economy is driven by adverse trade which resulted in unemployment shocks brought about by its (Olukoshi, 1995). These overdependence on oil, which was the multifacetedchallenges provided the major source of revenue of the then immediate domestic context for the governments. In addition to this, the adoption by the Nigerian state of 1999 democratic regime inherited a structural adjustment sponsored by the faulted support infrastructure for Bretton Woods institutions (Olukoshi, industrial development. The pitiable 1993). state of federal utilities, which had been

However, rather than helping to crippled by corruption, inefficiency, refurbish the economy, the SAP and indebtedness, with many of them initiative simply intensified the not having audited accounts for many

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 years, eventually informed Olusegun constraints; and (e) Legislation for bill Obasanjo‟s adoption of neoliberal on fiscal responsibility, procurement principles (Ekanade, 2014). and the extractive industries

Obasanjo invited two major Bretton transparency initiative. The IMF and Woods‟s institutions –the IMF and the World Bank were heavily involved in World Bank–to help his government funding the reform agenda. Since 2001, provide standard checks for his the World Bank has given macroeconomic programmes. approximately $300 million in Specifically, he invited the International International Development Association Finance Corporation (IFC), which was (IDA) credits for reform and the private sector arm of the Bretton privatization of Nigeria‟s energy sector Woods institutions, to advise the nation (Baker, 2013). However, the key on privatization (The Guardian, 2003 as ingredients of the International cited in Ekanade, 2014).A fundamental Financial Institution‟s policy advice route for implementation of the meant to shape Nigeria‟s economic privatization neoliberal ideology is the policies have so far led to a Public-Private Partnership (PPP);an dysfunctional electricity privatization alternative source of infrastructure process failing to effectively provide financing, which is rooted in a complex pro-poor energy and encouraged but contractual relationship between kleptocracy in the oil sector as they government and private sector helped in perpetuating the conditions organizations. Here, the private sector that enable companies operating in the makes available the social welfare Niger Delta to maintain a monopoly services, and the government simply over the country‟s natural resources regulates such services and provides an (Baker, 2013). enabling environment. It should be The downside of the privatization stated here that Nigeria‟s adoption of played out with the dynamics of the neoliberal principles only obtained privatization of Nigerian domestic support from the elite class, as Telecommunications Limited (NITEL) they possessed the finance capital to (OECD, 2002)as the indigenous buy into the privatized firms, with little telecommunication enterprise was or no support from the masses who saw hastily sold to Transcorp which it as further impoverishment (Ekanade, rationalized NITEL staff by 70%, that is 2014). 7,000 of the 10,000 staff were

The template for the framework of the retrenched because of the privatization economic reform agenda of President exercise. The Obasanjo‟sregime Obasanjo was largely influenced by the virtually sealed the destruction of the IMF and World Bank (Okafor, land telephony system in order to 2007).Their core prescriptions for privatize it. In other countries, Nigeria were: (a) Unbundling and particularly the industrialized ones, land privatization of the state electricity telephony is the main communication company; (b) Legislation and technical system with the mobile telephone assistance to promote domestic gas system serving as a subsidiary and sector reforms; (c) Liberalization of the emergency outfit to complement the downstream petroleum sector; (d) land telephone system (Ekanade, 2014).

Funding to address key infrastructure

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018

In addition, major utilities such as the same occurred with the sale of Egbin Power Holding Company of Nigeria Power Station, the largest generating (PHCN) were partly sold to station operated by Power Holding industrialists. Up to 2005, about Corporation of Nigeria, which was also N225billion of taxpayers‟ funds were grossly underpriced and sold off at a pumped into the power sector to revive paltry N280 million or $2 million it alongside the unbundling program (Baker, 2013).

(TELL Magazine, 2006 as cited in Interestingly, the Nigerian Senate Ekanade, 2014). The result, however, is committee investigating the that the reforms in the power sector privatization of public enterprises since have not translated into any meaningful 1999 came up with appalling changes. This development has had revelations about the Obasanjo‟s adverse effects on the manufacturing regime. The committee discovered, sector and small scale businesses where through its public hearing that the production cost is high thereby making regime sold the Aluminum Smelting finished goods uncompetitive with their Company of Nigeria built at the cost of imported counterparts. Another fall out $3.2 billion to Russal, a Russian firm at of the spasmodic nature of the public the cost of $250 million. Only $130 power supply in Nigeria is the job loss million of the said $250 million has in the manufacturing sector. This has been paid, leaving a balance of $120 been massive given the exorbitant million, which was supposed to be used production costs. In addition, to dredge the Imo River as stated in the considering the huge population trapped share purchase agreement. Hence, poor in the informal sector, a substantial economic planning has been more number of these artisans depend on greatly accentuated since 1999, through electricity to run their businesses. The the deregulation, privatization, and power paradox continued during the downsizing of the public service and President Goodluck Jonathan as the general reform agenda of the Obasanjo PHCH was fully privatized during his regime, all encapsulated in his National administration. Economic Empowerment Development The last days of President Obasanjo in Strategy (NEEDS) (Ekanade, office witnessed the sale of the Kaduna 2014).Part of the fallout of the and Port Harcourt refineries valued at privatization program which has been $800 billion in May 2007 for a paltry unpopular with the Nigerian citizenry $500 million to Blue Star Oil Service include the reversal of pension benefits Limited, a consortium close to him of public

(Baker, 2013).In addition, Eleme Till date, these privatized enterprises Petrochemicals Plant in Port Harcourt, have not added any meaningful value to the largest of its kind in Africa was sold the state and people of Nigeria. A total for $225 million, an amount not even sum of N146.6 billion earned from the worth its spare parts (Ekanade, 2014). privatization process has been remitted The unfortunate aspect is that the to the coffers of the Nigerian Nigerian government was supposed to government since 1999. This is a paltry maintain a minimum share of 49%. sum considering that investments by the However, Indorama, the buyer was government in these enterprises run into given a 75% equity stake in Eleme. The trillions of naira. The assets of the

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 privatized enterprises were deliberately styles ranging from Parliamentary to undervalued, as rules and regulations Presidential system of government, she governing the due process were has experienced both civilian and subverted, and this has allowed military regimes. corruption to fester. Those who Despite this change in forms of withstand the worst of the government‟s government, the Nigerian citizens are ineptitude now are the masses in the yet to enjoy the quality of life Nigerian state (Baker, 2013). However, commensurate with her numerous this negates the basic tenets of endowed resources (Thom-Otuya, 2007, democratic states. This because the 2012). This may not be connected to the populace was not aware of these fact that the SAP neoliberal policy, policies; and that the privatization which was adopted by the postcolonial policy, due to bad governance, state of Nigeria, was imposed upon corruption, nontariff barriers, and an developing countries as a condition for inadequate regulatory framework receiving any international assistance (Nweze, 2001), has brought hardships from the IMF and the World Bank. to the masses. All these negate the Many debt-burdened developing elements of good governance as countries had no choice but to embrace espoused by Kaufmannet al (2006) to the SAPs that encouraged open markets include, accountability, political free of government intervention and effectiveness of public service favoured an unregulated global provision and the quality of the economy. bureaucracy, quality or soundness of It is important to note at this stage that policies pursued by the government, there was an erroneous belief that rule of law while the sixth indicator is Africa did not have its own pattern of control of corruption. democracy prior to this time, but the Traditionalism vs. Neoliberalism in typical democracy in Africa and its Nigeria: Lessons for the Democratic processes were submerged by States westernization that was made possible As argued earlier, the traditional by colonialism and neoliberal policies. governance system in Nigeria was one As insisted by Mimiko (2010:640): of the best governance systems that But the point is that the so-called were able to establish systems of Kabiyesi syndrome, which has administration where social order was been accorded as an explanation provided and maintained; where laws for the shortage of democracy in were made and implemented and; contemporary Africa, is actually a where inter-communal and intertribal betrayal of inadequate conflicts were settled (Osakede and understanding of the workings of Ijimakinwa, 2015). Due to the the African traditional political systems. I strongly dispute this importance placed on this form of the proposition as unhistorical and governance system, they are still much therefore invalid in the context of more in existence in all part of the Africa. Our hypothesis is that in African society, Nigeria inclusive. In the epoch before contact between Nigeria however, after her Europe and Africa, the latter not independence in 1960, Nigeria has only developed relatively adopted various forms of leadership advanced state structures but that emergent pre-colonial African

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states also had ―sophisticated privatization agreements with the systems of the political rule with World Bank and IMF without the strong democratic foundations. I consent of a majority of the people. argue that the basis of the It is safe to say that the action of the advertised inability of these former President is undemocratic as societies to sustain democracy in contemporary (post-colonial) times these policies were only could not have consisted in the communicated to vested few who absence of a democratic culture on were rich enough to purchase the their part. Rather, it is the residue state properties. When this of constraints that were attendant happened, the philosophical upon imperialism, which has been underpinning of „democracy‟ which the dominant experience of the connotes „rule of the people‟ was African peoples since the negated. In addition to the fourteenth century – defined most foregoing, esprit de corps, which is profoundly by slavery, an essential ingredient for the colonialism, neo-colonialism, and their handmaiden, military achievement of common goal and governance. democracy that was present in At this stage, it is of paramount traditional societies, was however importance to appraise the absent during the neoliberal traditional and the neoliberal governance era. This was because systems of governance and to attention was more on examine the extent within which individualism rather than collectivism. these systems preach the axiom of democratic governance. 2. The Emergence of Ownership of 1. The Birth of Autocratic Means of Production by the Rulemaking process:The Nigerian Minority: traditional Nigeria was version of traditional governance, an agrarian society where to a large extent, ensures the livelihood was made through participation of the ruled in the subsistence agricultural practices. decision making processes In this era, there was no paid (Mimiko, 2010). Where the king is employment, by implication; perceived as being autocratic, there everyone was equal in that in a are several mechanisms to call the communalist system as such, there monarchy to order (Jimoh, 1995), should be no master-savant one of which was that he must relationship that could give room commit suicide. However, the for the exploitation of the latter by neoliberal democratic the former. In other words, it was administration of Obasanjo an era, to a large extent, that subjected the majority of Nigerians ensures the equal distribution of to undue hardship through the wealth. However, the neoliberal subscriptions made to international governance system can be said to treaties, trade agreements, and be a government by the capitalist, economic restraints. Put differently, of the capitalist and for the the democratic government of capitalist. This was because the era President Olusegun Obasanjo led gave room for the accumulation of administration entered into wealth by a minority, which has

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resulted in a scenario where the rich technologies. Regrettably, these are getting richer and the poor foreigners both retain the control of getting poorer. As a result of this, the most advanced technology and the adoption of neoliberalism has do not transfer it to Nigeria or the also intensified the rate of poverty rest of the developing economies at over time.Needless to say, the reasonable prices (Osuagwu and change in the mode or system of Ezie, 2013). Also, the introduction production also breeds inequality of heavy technology for mass and creates conflict in most of production increased labour oriented African society unemployment. As a result of the including Nigeria; a situation that trade liberalization and was hardly experienced in a typical privatization policies, more of these indigenous governance system. foreign business concerns (such as 3. The Rise of Hegemonic Capitalist the multinational corporations) is State: Generally, all traditional been setup in Nigeria. This has economies of Nigeria – fishing, resulted in unhealthy competition farming, cattle rearing etc. – are among foreign and indigenous organized in small units of business concerns, which has, in production. That is, each productive most cases, sent the latter out of unit is made up of a few people. business. This is because the The most important economic unit adoption of neoliberal policies is the household (Okafor, 2012). promotes the business of foreign Technology in this era was simple industrialists at the expense of the and was incorporated into the total indigenous firms.

system (Falola, 2001). The 4. Origin of Dependent technology is simple in the sense Development: As argued earlier in that the numbers of different tasks the preceding sections of this paper, involved in any productive activity the traditional Nigerian state were few; usually, it is the skill of a practiced an ideology referred to as single or two producers which Autarky, a political and economic carries production from the term that embraces the axiom of beginning to the end. The above self-sufficiency, self-reliance and statement was confirmed by Okafor absolute autonomy. The adoption of (2012) who submitted that neoliberal policies in Nigeria was traditional societies depend on very due to the economic decline that simple tools, and specialization is started in the early 1980s. The only limited in that household international source of the crisis always produce what is needed in was the dramatic flagging of the oil the homes. However, the Nigerian markets in the first half of the neoliberal governance era saw the 1980s, which made the country‟s domination of Nigeria's economic financial position deteriorate. These institution by foreign industrialists. multifaceted crises provided the These industries, rather than help immediate domestic context for the them grow the indigenous adoption by the Nigerian state of an technologies, knocks them off Orthodox program of structural systematically through the adjustment sponsored by the introduction of more advanced

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Bretton Woods institutions Immanuel Wallenstein‟s World (Olukoshi, 1993). However, Systems theory when he argued that scholars have argued that the major development can be analyzed based on brain behind neoliberalism was to the division of labour that subsists ensure that powerful countries among nations, which makes them be dominate weak ones (Saleem, 2002, interrelated and interdependent on each Wallenstein, 2004). This was done other.

in such a way that the weaker In addition, the foregoing argument can countries were subjected to the also be linked to the several demands of the rich countries descriptions of the Nigerian version of because the former needs financial democracy by scholars. For instance, help from the later to revamp her they described Nigeria as exploitative, economy. It was on the basis the cruel and irresponsible (Okowa, 2005); neoliberal governance was adopted weak, captured, dependent and in Nigeria. Bearing the foregoing hegemonic (Orugbani, 2002); argument in mind, it is not out of illegitimate, oppressive and repressive place to say that the level of (Okaba, 2003); privatized and lacks development experienced in autonomy (Ake, 2001), and; that Nigeria today depends solely on Nigerian state is a failed state (Soyinka: dictates of the World Bank and 1999). In all, the findings of this study IMF. Hence, the democratic state of can be linked to the agreement among Nigeria was subjected to a third sociologists that any development party rule but also an imperial rule model that is being imported rather than despite her sovereignty. anchored on the knowledge base of the It has been argued that the pre-colonial target population is, in principle, Nigerian state was developing at her modernization in disguise (Olutayo, own pace. This was because the then 1991; Briggs, 2005; McMichael, 2008; traditional governance ensures that Akanle, 2012; Martinez-Alier, Temper, needs are defined, and indigenous and Demaria, 2014; Olutayo, Akanle, institutions were created to achieve and Fadina, 2017, Akanle, Adesina, and those needs. However, the foregoing Fakolujo, 2017). This explains the lessons revealed that the neoliberal criticality of traditional governance democracy in Nigeria led the country to system to the development of Nigeria. a scenario of underdevelopment Conclusion and Way Forward because the needs of the society and the The African traditional institution hada institutions for achieving them are democratic system of administration owned and controlled by foreign from which law and social order were institutions such as the World Bank and implemented and maintained the IMF. According to experts, this has respectively. However, Nigeria‟s been due to its detachment from the experience of neoliberal policies institutional and cultural values of its presents an instance of a state that constituency (Economic Commission progressively shifted from a communal for Africa, 2004). This has resulted in a system of governance to an economy scenario whereby Nigerians have been that promotes the interest of minority at subjected to a third party rule; a rule the expense of the indigenous people of that is not well consented by Nigerians. Nigeria. The implementation of This corroborates the assumptions of

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 neoliberal policies from 1999 to date 1. It is important that the Nigerian has had colossal implications for government embraces an autarkic Nigeria‟s national development. A form of governance. This is highly major lesson to be learned by Nigeria‟s possible by first de-westernizing democratic government is that “nothing the mind of Nigerians and her comes for free” and perhaps “every leaders to begin to see the need to foreign favour has a price tag.” This stick to a self-sufficient and was because the funds provided by democratic form of government. World Bank and IMF to the then 2. There is also a need to give utmost government were actually to subject the importance and grant autonomies country to the donors dictate which the to traditional rulers across Nigeria country is paying dearly for till date. considering the historico-

Within the context of neoliberalism, sociological narratives of the democracy was re-established to satisfy country. This will, to a large market demands without adequate extent, foster grass root regard to social needs and its development in the country. implications on other social institutions. 3. It is also advised that the Neoliberal reforms were not concerned government ensure that the inputs with social issues but with market of the masses are sort for and are efficiency, which worked against the reflected in the final version of any basic tenets of human rights and macro-policy of the country. This constitutional safeguards for Nigerian will not only ensure democracy citizens. This was because the but also build the confidence of implementation of neoliberal policies in the masses towards creating and Nigeria was done without the due maintaining social order in the consent of the indigenous people of society. Nigeria; instead, it was consented by 4. The study also recommends that the elites whose interests were protected sociologists are heavily involved within the framework of the alien in policy formulation and policy. This has resulted in several implementation process in Nigeria. social issues such as corruption, This is necessary as the neoliberal exploitation, poverty, and policy laid too much emphasis on unemployment that the indigenous the economy and gave no attention people of Nigeria have to contend with. to theother aspects of the society As a result of this, the following (such as the political, educational, recommendations were made: family and religious institutions).

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Oppression: The Politics of Century. Washington D.C.: Inter- Structural Adjustment in Africa, America Development Bank Eds. P. ThandikaMkandiawire Saleem, S. 2002. Neo-liberalism: and Adebayo Olukoshi, Dakar: Structural implications. Pakistan Codesria, 163-164. Horizon, 55(1/2): 103-119. Olutayo, A. O. 1991. The development Sen, A. K. 1990, Sovereign Governance of Underdevelopment: Rural and the Role of International Economy of Colonial Institutions, Washington DC, Southwestern Nigeria. Nigeria. World Bank Unpublished Ph.D. thesis Soyinka, K. 1990. The African Failed submitted to the University of States.Africa Today.September Ibadan, Department of Sociology. 1999 Olutayo, Akanle, and Fadina, 2017.The Thom-Otuya, V.C 2007. Socio-Economic Developments Organizational behavior: A of Aso-Oke of South Western practical approach. Port Nigeria.Asian and African Harcourt, Nice prints Studies, 26(1), 41 – 68. International Osakede, K., and Ijimakinwa, S. 2015. Tybout, J. 1992. Linking Trade and Traditional Institution and the Productivity: New Research Modern Day Administration of Directions. World Bank Nigeria: Issues and Prospects. Economic Review, 6: 189-211 Journal of Research and Wallenstein, I. 2004. World Systems Development, 2(9): 32 – 40. Analysis: in World System Osuagwu, G., and Ezie, O. History, (Ed.) George Modelski. 2013.Multinational Corporations Encyclopedia of Life Support and the Nigerian Economy. Systems (EOLSS), Developed International Journal of under the Auspices of the Academic Research in Business UNESCO, Oxford, Uk: Eolss and Social Sciences, 3(4): 359 – Publishers 369. Wikipedia, 2017.Democracy.Retrieved Sakakibara, E. 1997.Globalization and from Diversity, in L. Emmerij (ed.), www.wikipaedia.com/democracy Economic and Social at 20th June 2017. Development into the XXI

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Covenant University Journal of Politics & Internationall Affairs. Vol. 6 No. 1, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

The Internet and National Security in Nigeria: A Threat-Import Discourse

Okoli A. l. Chukwuma (Ph.D) & Idom Augustine Mogom

Federal University Lafia, Nigeria. [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract: The internet has been an important feature of modernization. Paradoxically, it has also been a veritable threat to security of nations. The implication of the internet as a security threat has been amply demonstrated in the rising incidence of cyber criminality across the world. The apparent virtual ungovernability of the cyber space in Nigeria has provided a platform for the perpetration of cyber crimes, such as advanced fee fraud, terrorist recruiting and financing, hate speech, and ideo-religious radicalization, etc. Adopting a threat- import approach, predicated on secondary sources, this paper posits that poor governance of Nigeria‟s cyber space has presented an opportunity for high incidence and prevalence of cyber malaise in the country. The paper submits that the prospect of mitigating the challenge rests with the entrenchment of a multi- stakeholder vigilant and resilient cyber security regimen capable of countering the activities of cyber criminals in a pro-active and co-ordinated manner. Keywords: Cyber-security, cyber-space, Internet, national security, cyber vigilantism.

1. Introduction Technology has been the prime- mover Industrial Revolution that brought about of human civilization, nay its most the modernization of the world would potent threat (Abraham, 2014). It is a not have been possible without prime-mover for it has been the force technology. Yet, the horrendous behind major societal transformations humanitarian outcomes of the First and from the traditional to modern era. It is Second World Wars could have been a threat because it has accounted for the averted but for technology. world‟s worst calamities. The historic

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The Internet is a crucial aspect of increasingly exposed to a fragile and modern technology. Domiciled in the insecure highway that offers both the global cyber space, the Internet wields good and the evil (Idom & Ugal, 2016). the world into an articulated digital According to Nnamani (2016, p.8), superstructure characterized by virtual “cyber- terrorists, spies, hackers, and connectivity and visibility (cf. Nye, fraudsters are increasingly motivated to 2014). This domain has presented the target our ICT infrastructure due to the world with a platform of limitless increasing value of information held opportunities for progressive and within it and the perceived lower risk of nefarious activities. The irony of the detection and capture in conducting Internet is that is both indispensable and cybercrime….”. In effect, the Internet, dangerous. Concerning this irony, aided by technology-induced Dasuki (2014, p. i) avers: anonymity, has influenced cybercrime. The emergence of cyberspace, a With endless routes to a spectrum of virtual global domain, is increasingly websites, cyber criminals now have a impacting almost every aspect of our lives. The domain is transforming pool of victims. Idom (2012) borrowing our economy and security posture from Durkheim (1893), attributes these more than ever before, creating spate of criminal activities to the opportunities for innovations and anonymity created by the ICT world, means to improve general welfare of the distance and lack of geographical citizens. It is transforming many boundaries of the internet, the large countries‟ growth, dismantling pool of potential victims, the fastness of barriers to commerce, and allowing a computer mouse or telephone button people across the globe to in wrecking havoc and above all, the communicate, collaborate and difficulty involved in tracing a cyber exchange ideas. However, behind this increasing dependence on criminal. The misappropriation of the cyberspace lies new risks that Internet as an instrument of crime threaten the national economy and commission in Nigeria has been vividly security. demonstrated by the incidence and

The Nigerian cyberspace has been a prevalence of Advanced Fee Fraud critical hotbed of criminality. It has (AFF), otherwise popularly known as been increasingly exploited by „419‟ (Osho & Onoja, 2015). Emerging criminals to plan and prosecute various trends indicate that terrorists and forms of criminality. As observed by organized criminal syndicates have Omale and Idom (2016) although the utilized the Internet as a means of advant of internet was not intended for perpetrating cybercrimes, such as crime perpetration, nonetheless its use espionage, sabotage, terrorism by criminals to plan and prosecute financing and recruiting, and human crimes has come to stay. The activities trafficking. This is in addition to the of cybercriminals on the internet are issue of hate-speech, which has been casting a dark shadow on the integrity largely propagated via the social media of the cyberspace with far-reaching at the detriment of the wellness of the nation. implications for Nigeria‟s national security. Hence as the internet The vulnerability of Nigeria‟s continues to expand, the inevitable cyberspace to different dimensions of outcome is that our nation will be cybercrime has added a new twist to the

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 country‟s national security conundrum. National security is an appropriate More importantly the continued and aggressive bland of political instrumentalization of the Internet as a resilience and maturity, human channel for commission of crime in resources, economic structure and Nigeria warrants a systematic capacity, technological competence, industrial base and interrogation in order to situate its availability of natural resources import vis-à-vis national security and finally the military might calculus. It is this concern that has (2014, slide 3). informed this study. The remainder of Evidently, the conception of this paper is broadly organized under national security in this discourse the following themes: conceptual comprehends both its clarification; theoretical framework; military/defence-centric and contextualizing Nigeria‟s cyber threat development-centric paradigms. and vulnerability; implications of This puts into due consideration the Nigeria‟s cyber menace for national concerns of state and human security; and conclusion. security . 2. Conceptual Clarifications 3. Betwixt Territorial Two basic concepts constitute the Ungovernability to Criminal conceptual thrust of this paper, namely Opportunity: A Theoretical the Internet and national security. The Framework Internet is a computer based global The state is a territorial order that information system composed of many enforces its will within a jurisdictional interconnected computer networks domain. This domain comprises the (Comer, 2009). It “is a diffuse land, the waters, the air-space and the collection of standards, technologies cyber-space (Okoli & Ochim, 2016). and actors and dramatically different Territoriality presupposes the ability of across layers, geographies and services” the state to hold sway within the (Abraham, 2014, p.44). The Internet confines of its jurisdiction. This implies resides in global cyberspace, which the capacity to regulate persons and consists of inter-connected computers activities within its sphere of authority networked into a digital order as well without limitations (Goldsmith, 1998). the operational culture associated with system. The emergence of the cyber-space has questioned the conventional notion of National security refers to the territoriality. The “difficult-to-detect protection of a polity and its people multi-jurisdictional transactions” that from all forms of existential threats, be characterized the Internet have reduced they economic, political, social, the idea of territoriality to an exception ecological, military, technological, or rather than a rule. Hence, it is easier for psychological (Okoli & Opaleke, 2014). public and private actors to circumvent It is the assurance of the basic territorial rules, often without detection conditions that guarantee state and (Clopton, 2016, p.46). The multi- and human security of a country. National trans-jurisdictional transcendence of the security is a function of a blend of Internet has created the challenge of certain socio-structural conditions. governability for nations. According to According to Aladenusi: Goldsmith:

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A distinguishing feature of the internet and the porous nature of the Internet is that protocol addresses do internet; the absence of capable not necessarily correlate with guidance in this case represents lack of physical location. This means that cyber vigilantism and security, e- persons transacting in cyberspace policing, national central control, and sometimes cannot know each other‟s physical location and cannot control functional national database; while the geographical flow of content. In presence of motivated or potential addition, information mediated by offenders connotes teeming many internet services can appear unemployed youths with high quest for simultaneously in all jurisdictions material aggrandizement.

around the world. Finally, When these variables or components information transmitted on the are present in any given society, there Internet can easily flow across national borders without detection is a greater likelihood that crime (1998, p. 477). (cybercrime in the case of the So, they arrival of the Internet has not foregoing) will occur. Thus, according only questioned the orthodox to Idom and Tormusa (2016), the understanding of territoriality; it has, in motivation to commit crime and the fact, eroded it by bringing about supply of offenders tend to be constant spheres of „ungoverned spaces‟ in its in contemporary society. That is, in stead. It is within the „ungoverned most societies, there are always some spaces‟ that cyber-crime breeds and people who are willing to break the law culminates into a threat to national for gain, revenge, greed or some other security. motives. Greed and gain from both perpetrators and victims have made In order to further enrich the theoretical cybercrimes to thrive on the internet. anchorage of the foregoing discourse, The utility of this theory in the context there is need for theoretical of this study is that it provides a simple triangulation so as to have a robust and powerful insight into factors that appreciation of how the internet has engender cybercrimes in Nigeria. The become attractive for criminals, posing crux of this theory is the idea that, in thereby a serious threat to the Nigerian the absence of effective control, such cyber security. In the light of this, the as cyber security or cyber vigilantism, theory of routine activity has been offenders will prey upon attractive elected. The routine activity theory of targets such as the porous internet crime was propounded by Cohen and infrastructure. Felson (1979). The theory points to the 4. Contextualizing Nigeria’s Cyber interaction between three salient Threat and Vulnerability variables that explain the routine Nigeria‟s cyberspace is characterized occurrence of crime in society: the by high risk exposure. This is evident availability of suitable targets, the in the extent of threat and vulnerability absence of capable guidance, and to which the domain is exposed. presence of motivated or potential Prominent sources of cyber threat in offenders. Using this theory in analogy Nigeria include terrorist or extremist to internet‟s threat to Nigerian cyber groups, organized criminal syndicates, security, it could be observed thus: the and international spies‟ networks, availability of suitable target depicts the potential pool of victims on the

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 corporate insiders, and free-lance culpable factor. The scenario is hackers (Nigeria, 2014). complicated by the near absence of

The cause and drivers of cyber malaise entrenched cyber governance regime in Nigeria are systemic and various. capable of enforcing minimum According to Nnamani (2016:8), they regulation in the cyber sector. The “can be attributed to the rising poverty consequence of this is the prevalence of levels, greed (of both perpetrators and criminal impunity, which has found sometimes even the victims), easy expression in the multiplication of access to gullible targets by criminals, cyber scams in the country. Common and lack of adequate legal and examples of cyber based scams in regulatory policies to prevent and Nigeria include Advanced Fee Fraud prosecute the perpetrators….” (otherwise known as „419‟), Internal Economic hardship, accentuated by Fraud Compromise, Third Party lack of employment and safety nets, Application Compromise, Identity has provided material incentive for Theft, Phising Sites, Skimming Rogue criminal indulgence and franchise Mobile Application, Rogue Merchant, Ransomeware, etc. (CBN, 2015, p.8). among the youths (Adesina, 2017). This has given rise to the phenomenon Available data indicate that Nigeria‟s of yahoo-yahoo boys‟ who specialize cyber vulnerability status has been in computer-aided Advanced Fee Fraud disturbing. For instance, in 2015, [AFF] (Osho & Onoja, 2015, p.121). Nigeria suffered an estimated number

Besides the survivalist motivation of of 2,175 cyber-attacks, among which cyber criminality, the penchant for 585 were targeted on government „easy money‟ among the Nigerian websites. Table 1 below is instructive youths has also been a veritable in this regard.

Table 1: Nigeria‟s Cyber Vulnerability Status, 2015: Some Facts Fact Figure Estimated number of attacks 2,175 Estimated percentage of people that suffered attacks 14% of 97 million internet users Number of government websites that suffered attacks 585 Nigeria‟s global cyber-attack rating 17th most attacked nation of the world

Source :Nigerian Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA, 2015); cf.https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/02/Nigeria-records-2175-cyber-attacks – one year – nitda/

In 2016, Nigeria lost the sum of 550 country in terms of cost of cyber-crime. million to cyber-crime. This record Table 2 below situates this fact in made Nigeria, by far, the worst hit comparative times.

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Table 2: Nigeria‟s* Cyber-crime Cost (2016) in Comparative Terms Country Population GDP Internet users Estimated cost of and subscribers cyber-crime Africa 1,185,529,578 USD 2,89T 340,783,342 USD 2 Billion Nigeria* 186,879,760* USD 48,1066B* 97, 210,000* USD 550m* Kenya 46,790,758 USD 63, 398B 37, 716,579 USD 175M Tanzania 52,482,726 USD 44, 95B 17,263,523 USD 85M Ghana 26,908,262 USD 3, 786B 19,125,469 USD 50M Uganda 38,319,241 26, 369B 14,564,660 USD 35M

Source: Curled from Makataiani (2016:9) “Executive Summary”. Nigeria Cyber Security Report 2016.

More recent records indicate that cheques and drafts are now being Nigeria‟s cyber infamy has persisted. In viewed with suspicion in other 2017, for instance, Nigeria‟s ranked the countries of the world. This means that third worst country in terms of cyber- our financial documents are no longer crime incidence. By this ignominious viable and reliable pieces for record, the country followed the lead of international transactions. Also, Nigeria the United Kingdom (1st position) and e-mails are nowadays often being United States (2nd position) on the viewed with extreme caution by the global scale. What are the implications international community. Even internet of Nigeria‟s cyber dis-reputation for communication waves from Nigeria are national security? It is to this pertinent sometimes blocked by other countries concern that we now turn. internet gateways. Nigerians are now

5. Some Implications of Nigeria’s being generally discriminated upon in Cyber Menace for National Security the world because of the ''yahoo boys'' The first victim of Nigeria‟s cyber syndrome. According to Idom and Ugal malaise is the country‟s national image (2016), International Banks now do and reputation. Nigeria‟ notoriety with proper findings and protracted cyber-crime has, over the years, given researches on Nigeria financial the country a negative brand as a transactions before clearance often fraudulent country (Okoli, 2013). As causing delay. For this reason, foreign observed by Osho and Onoja (2015, investors are scared of investing their p.121), “Long term commission of capital into Nigerian economy. The these crimes has left Nigerians and implication of this is that Nigeria foreigners alike overly cautious to the commands only a little credibility by extent where legitimate interactions of the reckoning of the comity of nations. all forms originating in, or concerned This jeopardizes the prospects of the with Nigeria and across cyberspace are country as a business and an investment now characterized with increasing destination. Little wonder then that disbelief”. Nigeria has fared rather woefully in the recent World Bank‟s Ease of Doing As observed by Omale and Idom Business Rankings. The 2017 report (2016), Nigeria‟s global cyber notoriety places Nigeria at the bottom of the has made it possible that vital country‟s chart. This is reflected in table 3 below. financial documents such as bank

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Table 3: Nigeria‟s* Ease of Doing Business Profile (2017) in Comparative Terms Country Ranking Mauritius 25 Rwanda 41 Kenya 80 Botswana 81 South Africa 82 Nigeria* 145* Source: World Bank, Ease of Doing Business, 2017.

Besides negating the prospects of world (Jacobson, 2009). In the case of international business and investment, Nigeria‟s experience with Boko Haram cybercrime has been implicated in insurgency, the Internet has provided communal and sectarian violence in the insurgents with a platform for Nigeria. The abuse of the social media transnational networking with other in propagating divisive sentiments has extremist groups elsewhere in the often given rise to needless tension and world. animosity among various social From the foregoing, it is evident that groupings in the country. A case in the Internet has been a major threat to point is the prevailing farmer-herder national security in Nigeria. The conflict in the country where the social financial cost of cyber-crimes media has complicated issues by constitutes a huge economic waste. framing the conflict in terms of ethno- Beyond the economic waste are critical religious agenda (Ibrahim & Dabugat, opportunity costs, such as unfavorable 2016). investment and business climate. Added

Perhaps, the most critical dimension to to this are the complications of hate- the Nigeria‟s cyber security challenge is speech, terrorism financing cum the utilization of the Internet as an recruiting and human trafficking, whose avenue for terrorism recruiting and collateral implications have been financing. This is done through the inimical to the survival, corporate solicitation of funding, donations, as existence, and sustainability of the well as membership by terrorist nation. To redress this ugly trend, organizations. The use of the Internet as Nigeria has been struggling rather a means of ideological indoctrination precariously to make good its and radicalization by terrorist commitment to improving its cyber syndicates has been one of the dire of security profile as table 4 tends to counter-terrorism in the contemporary buttress.

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Table 4: Nigeria‟s* Global Cyber Security Commitment (2017) in Comparative Terms Country Score Global Bank Mauritius 0.830 6 Rwanda 0.602 36 Kenya 0.574 45 Nigeria* 0.569* 46* Uganda 0.536 50 South Africa 0.502 58 Botswana 0.430 69 Cote d‟Ivoire 0.416 74 Cameroon 0.413 75 Ghana 0.326 87

Source: Global Cyber Security Index (GCI) 2017, p. 51.

In spite of the manifest commitment as unprecedented innovations that have indicated in table 4, Nigeria‟s cyber benefitted the economy, it has equally security profile has remained the worst conduced for the commission of in Africa. The country has continued to criminal and subversive acts that play a frontline role as a veritable cyber jeopardize national security. The crime origination, transit, and vulnerability of the Internet to destination. The persistence of cyber criminality in Nigeria buttresses the crime has been one of the most critical vacuum of effective governance of the dimensions of the contemporary country‟s cyber-space. This highlights national security crisis in Nigeria the imperative for a pragmatic cyber . 6. Conclusion and Recommendation governance regime capable of The contemporary world is fast regulating the activities of internet transforming under the digital order operators and users in the interest of instantiated by the Internet revolution. national security.

The phraseology of „global village‟ is Consequently, the paper recommends a no longer an abstraction. It has been multi-stakeholder governance system concretized with the spread of the whereby the various private, public, Internet across the world. The global national and international authorities in internet renaissance has brought about the Cyber sector are synergized into a radical transformation in all spheres of regime, complex superintended from society, breaking the barriers of time NITDA by a team of expert technocrats and space. On the downside, it has been vast in aspects of cyber-criminality such associated with nefarious activities that as cybercrime, cyber-terrorism and negate the security of nations. The cyber-espionage. The team will be virtual un-governability of the global charged with leveraging and cyberspace has made it a veritable mainstreaming capacity for cyber- avenue for the perpetration of crimes by vigilantism through research, the state and non-state actors. innovation and technical resourcing.

As this paper has observed in the case Expert resources generated by the team of Nigeria, the arrival and spread of will deployed in informing and guiding internet in the country has amounted to the activities of private, corporate, and a mixed blessing. While this governmental stakeholders in their development has been associated with efforts to combat all forms all forms of

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 cyber abuse and misappropriation. phenomenon. The ant-graft operatives Meaningful attempt to fight internet- must possess requisite intellectual and based criminality must recognize the technical capacities to out-smart the fact that it is an intelligence-driven “smart guys” who perpetrate such act.

References Journal of Global Legal Studies, Abraham, S. (2014). Who governs the 5 (2), 475-491. Internet? Implications for Ibrahim .J. & Dabugat, K. (2016). Rural freedom and national security. banditry and hate speech in World Wide Web (YOJANA), northern Nigeria: Fertile ground April, 41-44. for the construction of dangerous Adesina, S.O. (2017). Cyber crime and narratives in Nigeria (257-319). poverty in Nigeria. Canadian In M.J. Kuna and J. Ibrahim Social Science, 13 (4), 19-29. (Eds), Rural banditry and Aladenusi, T.S. (2014). Solving conflict in northern Nigerian. national security challenges with Abuja: Centre for Democracy information technology. Which and Development (CDD). can forward? A power-point Idom, A. M. & Ugal, D. B. (2016). presentation at the TPA 2014 Influence of ICT competence on conference organized by cybercrimes in Computer Professionals selected cities of the six geo-political Registration Council of Nigeria zones in Nigeria. FULafia of Nigeria (CPN), 18 June, 2014. Journal of CBN (2015).The Nigeria Electronic Humanities and Social Sciences. 1(1): Fraud Forum (NEFF) 2015 220-241. Annual Report. Abuja: Central Idom, A. M & Tormusa, D. O (2016). Bank of Nigeria. Causes, types and likely victims Clopton, 2-D. (2016).Territoriality, of cybercrimes in selected technology, and national higher institutions, South-South, security. University of Chicago Nigeria. FULafia Journal of Law Review, 83 (45), 45-63. Social Sciences, 1(1): 202-218. Comer, D. E. (2009). „Internet‟. Idom, A. M. (2012). Fiber optics Microsoft Encarta 2009 technology and cybercrimes in [DVD].Redmond W.A: Cross River State: A proactive Microsoft Corporation, 2018. analysis. Unpublished seminar Dasuki, M.S. (2014). „Forward‟. paper presented in the National Cyber Security Department of Sociology, Strategy. Abuja: Office of the University of Calabar. National Security Adviser. Jacobson, M. (2009).Terrorist financing GCI (2017).Global Cyber-security on the Internet. CTC Sentinel, Index. International 2(6), 17-20. Telecommunications Union Makatiari, W. (2016). „Executive (ITU). Summary‟. Nigeria Cyber Goldsmith, J.L (1998). The Internet and Security Report 2016. Serianu the abiding significance of Ltd. territorial sovereignty. Indiana NITDA (2015).Nigeria Cyber-security facts. Abuja: Nigeria

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Information Technology Administrative Studies, 2 (2), 43- Development Agency. 53. Nnamani, I. (2016). „Foreword‟. Okoli, A.C & Okpaleke, F.N. Nigeria Cyber Security Report (2014).Cattle rustling and 2016. Serianu Ltd. Dialectics of security in northern Nye, Jr.J.S (2014). The regime complex Nigeria. International Journal of for managing global cyber Liberal Arts and Social Science, activities, Paper Series No 1, 2 (3), 109-117. Global Commission on Internet Omale, D. J & Idom, A. M (2016). Governance (Ourinternet.org). Fiber optics technology and Okoli, A.C. (2013). „Rebranding cybercrimes in Calabar Nigeria‟ as a reputation Metropolis, Nigeria. management drive: International Journal of Social Implications for national Relevance & Concern. 4(4): 1- image. Journal of 15. Available online at Communication and Media www.ijournals.in/ijsrc Research, 5 (2), 81-87. Osho, O. & Onoja, A.D. (2015). Okoli, A.C & Ochim, F.I. (2016). National Cyber Security Policy Forestlands and national security and Strategy of Nigeria: A in Nigeria: A threat-import qualitative analysis. analysis. IIARD International International Journal of Cyber Journal of Political and Criminology (IJCC), 9 (1), 120- 143.001:10.5281/ZENODO.223 90.

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Covenant University Journal of Politics & Internationall Affairs. Vol. 6 No. 1, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Piracy as Threat to Africa’s Security and Economic Development

Idowu Johnson, PhD

Department of Political Science University of Ibadan, Nigeria. [email protected]

Abstract: The paper explores the links between piracy, security and economic dilemma in Africa. The phenomenal increase in the activities of pirates in the coastal region of Africa in the 1990s brought out more forcefully the need to address the causes and consequences. The paper argues that the significant dependence of African countries on global trade makes maritime transport a crucial factor in Africa‟s economic development. However, the scale and sophistication of piracy on the continent threatens the global flows of goods and services across the world‟s shipping lines. Thus, the consequences of African piracy manifest themselves locally and globally. The central argument of this paper is that until there is a proper understanding of the geostrategic importance of Africa‟s maritime domain, piracy will continue to pose a threat not only to Africa but also to global security and maritime trade. The argument summits that an effective strategy to combat piracy along the coastal region of Africa will require the international community to trace and address the principal cause of the menace. Keywords: Economic Development, Global Trade, Maritime Domain, Piracy, Security

Introduction The history of piracy can be traced back corsairs (Talha, 2013). Talha (2013: 5) to 2000 years ago in Europe, in ancient also identified and categorized them Greece, when sea robbers threatened thus: the trading routes of Greece. During the i. Privateers were lawful pirates who period between 1620 and 1720, piracy were authorized by their flourished and this period was known as government to attack and pillage the golden age of piracy, during which ships of enemy nations. They there were different types of pirates, shared their profits with the namely, privateers, buccaneers, and government.

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ii. Buccaneers were pirates and Quite obviously, global piracy remains privateers who operated from bases an ongoing threat to international trade in the West Indies, and attacked and other maritime economic Spanish shipping in the Caribbean. opportunities. Over the past decade, iii. Corsairs were Muslim or Christian piracy operations have grown in scope, pirates who were active in the daring, range, and sophistication. From Mediterranean from the sixteenth to Latin America to the Caribbean, the nineteenth centuries. Southeast Asia, Gulf of Guinea and From the sixteenth to the nineteenth Gulf of Aden, the growing nature of centuries, European countries extended piracy poses a great threat to regional their territories around the world. Due stability and global security. In the to the subsequent growth of maritime same vein, piracy occurs in widely trade, piracy again became a real varying forms across the world, with profession. Barbarossa (Redbeard), differences in the place of attack (ports, Edward Teach (Blackbeard) and Henry coastal waters, high seas), the Morgan were real and ruthless pirates objectives of the attackers and the type of that time, who centuries later and severity of violence used. Such morphed into almost likable fictional differences are decisive both for the villains (Remondus Vander Meijden, impact on the international system and 2008:10). Recorded history shows that for the response options available to at least since the days of ancient Greece potential victims and the international and the Roman Empire, piracy has been community (Mair, 2011:12). a constant hurdle to maritime trade, The continuous attacks by pirates in the affecting at different times every coastal region of Africa have attracted maritime region of the world, from the immense interest from the international Mediterranean and Northern European community. To be sure, African waters Seas, to Asia, the Middle East and harbour important seaways of growing Africa and, of course, the America. maritime concerns, namely the Coast of Specifically, between 1970 and 1980, the Horn of Africa (HoA) and the Gulf piracy revived as a serious threat to of Aden (GoA); East Coast of Africa, commercial shipping. This prompted and the Gulf of Guinea (GoD); West the International Maritime Bureau Coast of Africa (Essien & Adongoi, (IMB) to set up piracy reports in 1981. 2015). However, the lack of maritime During the following years, a growing security causes a great deal of concern number of cases were reported. In a as it not only threatens commence, but very short time, piracy changed from a also peace and regional stability, peripheral annoyance to a crucial threat international trade and global energy to world commerce. Today‟s pirates as flows (Venter, 2017: 136). This paper observed by Remondus Vander examines the causes and consequences Meijden, (2008) are trained fighters and of piracy in Africa; and possible drugged teenagers aboard speedboats, measures put in place in addressing the equipped with satellite phones and menace. global positioning systems, armed with Definitions of Piracy automatic weapons and rocket The word piracy is yet to have a propelled grenades. universally definition. Consequently,

scholars and practitioners in the field of

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 peace and security tend to give the purposes of asserting a claim of concept a rather dynamic and right, provided that the act is sometimes amorphous interpretation. committed with an attack on or However, the first legal definition of from the sea or in or from the air. If piracy was inscribed in Roman law. the act is connected with an attack Pirates were hostishumani generis, which starts from on board ship, enemies of the human race (Burgess, either that ship or another ship 2013:33). Thus, for both practical and which is involved must be a pirate theoretical reasons, any state may, “in ship or a ship without national the interest of all”, take appropriate character. action against that perpetrator. 2. Any act or voluntary participation However, defining exactly what in the operation of a ship with constitutes a “practical act” has never knowledge of facts which make it a been easy, and it was centuries before a pirate ship. single definition was accepted 3. Any act of instigation or of (Campbell, 2010:21). intentional facilitation of an act

In 1927, a subcommittee report of the described in paragraph 1 or League of Nations found that the paragraph 2 of this article (Part IV: unsettled state of the concept of piracy Piracy, Research in International was due to failure to distinguish Law1932 Harvard Draft, quoted in between piracy in its international legal Campbell, 2010:24). sense and piracy as prescribed under the It is imperative to note that there are municipal laws and statutes of some important elements in the above individual states. For the League of definition of piracy. First, an intention Nations‟ such committee report to rob (animus furandi) is not an therefore, piracy: essential element of the offence.

Consists in sailing the sea for However, if an act at sea is to constitute private ends without authorization piracy, it must involve some element of from the Government of any states violence or depredation. Second, an act with the object of committing of violence at sea can only be depredations upon property or acts considered to be piracy if it is of violence against persons (League committed for “private ends”. “Private of Nations subcommittee report, ends” is usually interpreted to quoted in Campbell, 2010:22). distinguish piracy from state-sponsored Similarly, the 1932 Harvard Draft violence or from terrorism, which is provides an excellent snapshot of the considered to have ideological, not concept of piracy. Article 3 of the private ends. Thirdly, and perhaps most draft is as follows: important in the current geopolitical Piracy is any of the following acts, environment, under this legal definition committed in a place not within the piracy can only occur on the high seas territorial jurisdiction of any state (Campbell, 2010). 1. Any act of violence or of More importantly, Article 101 of the depredation committed with intent 1982 United Nations Convention on the to rob, rape, wound, enslave, Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines imprison, or kill a person or with piracy as consisting of the following intent to steal or destroy property, acts: for private ends without bonafide

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a. Any illegal acts of violence or the furtherance of that act detention, or any act of depredation, (Burgess, 2010: 111) committed for private ends by the Consequently, the IMO definition crew or the passengers of a private avoids the distinction made by the ship or a private aircraft, and UNCLOS that an act of piracy takes directed: place only on the high seas; it draws an i. On the high seas, against another equal sign between piracy and armed ship or aircraft, or against persons or robbery against ships, taking into property on board such ship or account the purpose, not the place aircraft. (Tepp, 2012). Thus, this paper prefers ii. Against a ship, aircraft, persons or the definition instituted by IMO, which property in a place outside the sees piracy as encompassing acts of jurisdiction of any state. piracy as well as armed robbery unless b. Any act of voluntary participation in otherwise specified.

the operation of a ship or of an Factors Responsible for the aircraft with knowledge of facts Emergence of Piracy making it a pirate ship or aircraft. The factors accounting for the c. Any act of inciting or of emergence of piracy in the intentionally facilitating an act contemporary era are complex and described in subparagraph (a) or (b) multi-faceted. Thus, no universally (United Nations Convention on the acknowledged list of factors which has Law of the Sea). driven the phenomenon of piracy.

The UNCLOS definition of piracy has However, the following reasons can be the salient contributory factors. been incorporated into international law and International Maritime First, a country that suffers of high Organization (IMO) has recognized and unemployment rate and high poverty accepted this definition. Therefore, rate tend to have high crime rate. Piracy according to international law, an as a kind of organized crime is illegal act of violence or detention considered an attractive destination; so committed within a state‟s territorial that people prefer to head into waters is not piracy. It is only classified anticipation of maximizing their as piracy if that nation‟s penal code payoffs by engaging into such activity. criminalizes it as such. Unlawful acts of Second, the general difficulties violence or detention or acts of associated with maritime surveillance depredation at anchor, off ports or when have been significantly heightened as a underway through a coastal state‟s result of September 11 2001 terrorist territorial waters are defined by IMO as attack in USA, and the concomitant armed robbery against ships (Tepp, pressure exerted on many governments 2012: 185). to invest in expensive land-based

To overcome the distinctions between homeland security initiatives (Chalk, piracy and armed robbery at sea, the 2009). This has further reduced what in IMO has combined the two terms in a many cases are already limited single definition: resources for monitoring territorial An act of boarding or attempting waters.

to board any ship with the apparent Third, is favourable geography for intent or capability to use force in piracy. Piracy can only exist in places

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 that offers a combination of In the same vein, piracy in the Gulf of advantageous hunting grounds, Guinea is partly an outcome of the reasonable risk levels and nearby decades – long insurgency in the Niger hideaways. Stationary vessels are ideal Delta region of Nigeria. Militants first targets. Attacks on moving ships raised their heads in 1966 when ethnic usually occur in the narrow seas, but the Ijaws declared the independence of the best places are straits, bays, estuaries resource-rich but poverty-stricken Niger and archipelagos, where, due to Delta region, Biafra. The armed revolt navigational or commercial reasons, was ruthlessly suppressed but the quest vessels are forced to sail slower and for “resource control” has since been close to the coast. Slow-moving ships the focus of an enduring conflict are also easier to board and less likely between the government, the population to take evasive action (Murphy, of the Delta and the militants. Thus, the 2010:30). internal strife has bequeathed the Niger

Fourth, lax coastal and port-side Delta thousands of young veterans who security have played an important role are proficient in the use of firearms and in enabling low-level pirate activity, as such potential recruits for piracy especially harbor thefts against ships at (Hanson, 2007). anchor. Problems of this sort have been Sixth, corruption and easily particularly evident in Brazil, East compromised judicial structures have Africa and across Southeast Asia. In encouraged official complicity in high- many cases there is either no level pirate rings. The nature of this functioning maritime police presence at involvement has been extensive, all or the units in place are devoid of ranging from providing intelligence on adequate staff, boats, equipment and ship movements and locations to training (Chalk, 2009: 3). Nigeria is a helping with the rapid discharge of good example of underfunded and stolen cargoes. Also, incapable inadequate security. The failure to fund governments encourage inadequate law and train coast guards, navies and enforcement and allocate far too few police has created a situation where the resources to combat piracy. This readiness of the Nigerian Navy (NN) is increases crime and draw attention to low, the coast guard is ineffective and areas with insufficient security and the vast network of river transportation abundant targets, also threatening the route is poorly policed, all of which stability of surrounding countries contributes to the opportunity for (Riggs, 2009: 9 – 10). As seen in all pirates to operate freely (Tepp, 2012). regions where piracy thrives,

Fifth, the endemic anarchic situation government officials, politicians, and growing conflict and disorder in bureaucrats, and private sector some countries in Africa has directly employees have all been implicated in contributed to the rampart scale of connection to this crime. In some cases, piracy. For instance Somalia with no officials are thought to turn a blind eye sovereign government in place, gangs to pirate activities in their jurisdiction in have virtual free-run of the area, exchange for a share of the plunder. In enjoying widespread latitude to enforce Southeast Asia, for example, the “rules” that further and protect their complicity of Chinese port authorities own vested interests (Chalk, 2009: 3). enabled piracy to flourish in the “HLH

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Triangle” between 1993 and 1995, prior maritime boundaries across much of to a crackdown by Chinese government. this region. Similar tensions among In other cases, these officials have several states among the Gulf of become directly involved in pirate Guinea, have equally limited activities, and have provided the multilateral cooperation on piracy financing or organizational support (Whitman & Suarez, 2012: 100). As needed to carry out these crimes pirates are not confined to national (Whitman & Suarez, 2012:97). In boundaries they are able to cross these Nigeria, pirate gangs involved in large- disputed borders, thereby preventing scale oil bunkering often require forged naval vessels from continuing pursuit bills of lading, which must certainly into the exclusive economic zones of come from the government officials or neighbouring countries and enabling oil company employees who issue these their escape. Thus, the gaps in the rule contracts (Raidt & Smith, 2010: 24). of law produced by these regional Thus, corruption and organized piracy disputes serve as de facto safe zones for are often inseparable. pirates.

Seventh, the global proliferation of Consequences of Piracy in Africa small arms has provided pirates (as well The phenomenal growth of piracy poses as terrorists and other criminal a threat not only as a regional nuisance, elements) with an enhanced means to but also as a menacing influence to the operate on a more destructive and global economy. At the most basic sophisticated level. Originating from a level, attacks constitute a direct threat to variety of sources in Africa, Asia and the lives and welfare of the citizens of a Europe, these ammunitions include variety of flag states. Apart from the everything from pistols, light/heavy risk of death or injury, many who have caliber machine guns and automatic been subjected to a pirate attack suffer assault rifles to anti-ship mines, hard- considerable mental trauma and may held mortars and rocket-propelled never go to sea again. These attacks grenades (Chalk, 2009). To be sure, the have been aimed at oil tankers, cargo availability of weapons such as these, vessels, fishing trawlers and speed most of which are readily transportable, boats conveying passengers from one easy to handle, cheap and durable, is destination to another Onuoha, 2009). one of the main underlying causes that Similarly, piracy has a direct economic has contributed to the growing level of impact in terms of fraud, stolen cargos violence that has come to typify piracy and delay trips and could undermine a in recent years. maritime state‟s trading ability. The Finally, disputes over territorial and 2010 and 2011 annual IMO reports on maritime boundaries have both piracy and armed robbery attacks facilitated activities of pirates and against ships clearly show that the hindered multilateral cooperation. In majority of all reported piracy attacks Southeast Asia, for instance, China, are aimed at cargo vessels, once again Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, illustrating the difficulties with self- and the Philippines have all made reporting of pirate attacks. Successful territorial claims over the Spratly pirate attacks in which the vessel is Islands, and the Paracels Archipelago, hijacked can have serious financial and continue to dispute their respective impacts on the ship owner or operator.

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To be sure, pirate intend to demand a children vulnerable for use by armed ransom payment or the vessel and/or groups exists in each of the major areas steal the cargo of the vessel (IMO, in why piracy is currently reported 2011). Today, the overall annual cost of (Whitman & Suarez, 2012). Nigeria and piracy to the maritime industry is Somalia as a case study reinforce this estimated to be anywhere between point.

$1billion and $16billion. The true In addition, piracy poses a threat not figure could be far higher, especially only as a regional nuisance, but also as once expenses incurred from a menacing influence to the global implementing mitigation efforts are economy. As offshore oil and gas factored in (Chalk, 2009: 4).Maritime exploration and production evolves Piracy also imposes significant costs on along Africa‟s east coast from local economies. According to IMO, Mozambique northwards to Somalia, pirates attacked tuna vessels at least improved private and government three times in 2009 as they fished 650 maritime security have to be put in to 800 kilometres beyond Somali place, especially in the coastal waters of territorial waters. The threat of Piracy northern Mozambique, Tanzania and has also led to reduced cruise ships Kenya. And as offshore industries which contribute to tourism in the expand, infrastructure, port facilities, Island countries of Mauritius and and support shipping will likely be Seychelles. The Kenyan Cruise ship tempting targets for armed robbery, industry has also suffered from the kidnappings, and sabotage for a range effects of piracy and fewer ships dock of actors, including organized criminal in Mombasa (Mbekeani & Ncube, gangs, terrorists, and insurgent groups 2011: 6). In the same vein, the Nigerian (Venter, 2017: 154). The impact of Trawlers Owners Association (NITOA) piracy on the oil industry of the Niger has also been quite vocal on this issue Delta can affect the very volatile fuel and claim that between 2003 and 2008, market sensitive to the fluctuation of pirates attacks took place on Nigerian supply and demand. Rising fuel costs fishing trawlers. The Association stated rope in all other prices and thus affect that in the first month of 2011 alone virtually every individual on the earth there were already 30 attacks on fishing who buys anything the production or vessels (Whitman & Suarez, 2012). transport of which requires petroleum Thus, Nigeria stands to lose up to products (Tepp, 2012). US$600 million in export earnings due Furthermore, piracy has the potential to to piracy threats to its fisheries trigger a major environmental (Mbekeani & Ncube, 2011:6). catastrophe, especially if an attacked Children and youths are vulnerable and vessel is left to drift in a congested sea easily manipulated to take part in lane of communication. The criminal activities. The evidence that “nightmare” scenario is a mid-sea does exist with respect to the use of collision involving a heavily-laden oil children and youth in piracy activity tanker. Not only would the resulting indicates that the socio-economic discharge of petroleum cause factors (poverty, armed violence, lack irreparable damage to off-shore of educational or employment resources and marine life, but it would opportunities, orphans, displacement, also seriously degrade long stretches of and exposure to disease) that make

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 fertile coastal lowlands if the oil were strategic concept, NATO is taking steps left to drift (Chalk, 2009: 4). This toward establishing a robust operation would pose significant difficulties to off the Gulf of Guinea in order to any state that relies on the oceans as preclude the possibility of an energy primary source of food, either for supply crisis resulting from pirate domestic consumption or attacks on oil tankers and platforms regional/international export. (Tepp, 2012: 196).

Measures for Combating Piracy Secondly, in 2009 the IMO‟s Maritime Piracy is a threat not only to Africa but safety Committee approved revised also to global security and maritime guidance to operators: trade; because of its deepening ties to “Recommendations to Government for international criminal networks (such as preventing and suppressing piracy and smuggling of hazardous cargoes, armed robbery against ships‟ and terrorism and disruption of vital “Guidance to ship owners and ship maritime trade and commerce). Rather operators, shipmasters and crews on than seeing in isolation, each of the preventing and suppressing acts of different types of maritime crime as piracy and armed robbery against ships” examined in the paper should be (Mbekeani and Ncube, 2011:7). The addressed within the root of its causes. committee also agreed that a specific Thus, a holistic measures to combat “Guidance on piracy and armed robbery piracy is very important. against ships in waters off the coast of

Firstly, the increase in acts of piracy has Somalia” should include “Best led to enhance cooperation at management practices to deter piracy in international and regional levels. Joint the Gulf of Aden and off the coast of efforts are being made in various Somalia” which was developed by forums to find adequate solutions to industry organizations (Mbekeani and piracy. There is a growing awareness of Ncube, 2011). As part of its technical the need for comprehensiveness and cooperation programme, IMO is local cooperation. Local counter-piracy assisting countries to build capacity, so efforts are supported by the actions of that they can effectively contribute to major powers like the United States and overall efforts to combat piracy, China, as well as several European including through relevant national countries both individually and through legislations. the European Union; and major Thirdly, the rapid escalation of armed organizations such as the United attacks off the Horn of Africa has Nations and NATO. For instance, it is prompted unprecedented counter-piracy acknowledged that the maritime action by the international community. security forces of the Gulf of Guinea In January 2009, the United States states, individually as well as announced the formation of a new collectively, lack the funding, vessels, Combined Task force (CTF) 151 to training and discipline, as well as unity monitor and patrol defined maritime and cohesion necessary for providing corridors in the Gulf of Aden. This will viable surveillance and security in their supplement European Union (EU) naval water‟s. Recognizing the importance of flotilla which was developed in 2008, energetic security and safety of with contributions from the United maritime trade routes in its new Kingdom, France, Spain, Germany and

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Greece. Several other states have also There is also regional cooperation as a sent ships to the region, including India, measure to combat the growing nature China,, Russia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, of piracy. In 2009 a high-level meeting South Korea, Australia and the United of 17 countries from the Western Indian Arab Emirates (Chalk, 2009). In Ocean, Gulf of Aden and Red Sea areas addition, the UN Security Council has met in Djibouti and adopted a “Code of now sanctioned “cooperating” states to conduct concerning the repression of enter Somalia‟s territorial waters and piracy and armed robbery against ships attack pirates dens on land, passing in the Western Indian Ocean and the UNSC Resolutions 1816, 1846 and Gulf of Aden”. Signatories to the code 1851 between June and December 2008 of conduct to undertake wide-ranging (Chalk, 2009: 5). In the same vein, the commitments to cooperate in seizing, EU launched the Critical Maritime investigating and prosecuting pirates in Routes programme (CRIMGO) in 2013 the region, and to review their relevant to reinforce regional and international national laws (Mbekeani and Ncube, initiatives against piracy and armed 2011:7). The code of conduct allows robbery at sea in the Gulf of Guinea authorized officials to board the patrol (Germon, 2015). ships or aircraft of another signatory.

In addition, the use of private security Nine countries have so far signed the companies (PSC) to combat piracy has code of conduct. These include: been a global phenomenon. Although it Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, may be argued that the activities of the Maldives, the Seychelles, Somalia, PSCS are of military rather than non- Tanzania, and Yemen (Mbekeani and military nature, their functions however Ncube, 2011). is not part of a country‟s armed forces. Given the fact that piracy in the Horn of Services offered by PSCs range from Africa is essentially an extension of the advice and training to active on board land-based violence, corruption, and defense, escort protection, hostage lawlessness that has plagued Somalia release and maritime capacity (Chalk, since the collapse of the Barre 2012:10). While many find the idea of dictatorship in 1991, greater effort must employing armed private security be devoted to restoring a semblance of forces on board unacceptable, it has stability to this war-torn country. Until become not only a viable option, but a this void in regional governance is necessity for shipping companies decisively filled, the waters off the seeking to avoid the threats posed by Horn of Africa/Arabian Peninsula will pirates to their vessels, crews and cargo. remain a highly attractive theatre for In fact, PSCs offer several advantages armed maritime crime given their not only to shipping and insurance expanse, the lack of regulation, and companies, but also maritime states, their importance as a vital maritime including avoidance of loss of life and corridor linking the Mediterranean with property, reduction of insurance the Indian Ocean (Chalk, 2009: 6). premiums, reinforcement of regional Finally, in combating piracy in the Horn stability and possibly even reduction of of Africa the role of African consumer prices resulting from the Development Bank (ADB) is very global decrease of piracy (Tepp, 2009: crucial. The impact of piracy on 201). seaborne trade and maritime economic

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 opportunities pose serious challenge to define the crime. Although the issue of Africa‟s development agenda. piracy recently rather dropped out of Therefore, the Bank should support the the top headlines, the world‟s oceans African Union (AU) in the development have certainly not become any safer. On of an integrated maritime strategies to the contrary, the level of risk remains serve as a long-term multi-layered high, especially around the Horn of common vision to addressing seaborne Africa. The International Maritime challenges and sustain more wealth Organisation has rated the coastal water creation from the oceans and seas ways of Africa as one of the most (Mbekeani and Ncube, 2011). The long piracy attack-prone areas of the world. term solution to the problem of piracy This has adversely affected the global off the coast of Somalia is through the flow of goods and services along the creation of economic opportunities so maritime coastal region of the that the youth could be meaningfully continent. Piracy attacks may differ in employed. location, method and impact, they

Conclusion however become a threat to global This paper provides an insight for maritime security. The international examining the causes and consequences community has made appreciable of piracy in Africa. The face of piracy progress to fight global piracy; through may be different but today‟s pirates are regional cooperation and domestic similar to their historical predecessors legislation. But an effective strategy to in that many are motivated by economic combat piracy in the long term will factors and encouraged by a lack of law require the international community to enforcement. The historical record trace and address the principal cause of gives context to the act of piracy and piracy in Africa. provides a set of invariables to help

References Chalk, P. (2012). Private practice: Burgess, D.R. (2010). The world for Security companies assume ransom: piracy is terrorism, counter-piracy role, HIS Jone’s terrorism is piracy. New York: Intelligence Review (24). Prometheus Books. Essien, B.S. &Adongoi, T. (2015). Sea Cambell, P. (2010). A modern history piracy and security challenges of of the international legal maritime business operation in definition of piracy.In Bruce A. Bayelsa state, Nigeria: An Elleman, A. Forbes & D. empirical study. International Rosenberg (Eds.), Piracy and Journal of Humanities and Social maritime crime: historical and Sciences, Vol. 5. No. 2, pp. 213- modern case studies. USA: 221. Center for Naval War Studies. Germon, B. (2015). The geopolitical Chalk, P. (2009). Maritime piracy: dimension of maritime security. Reasons, dangers and solutions. Maritime Policy. Vol. 54, pp. Santa Monica, CA: RAND 137-142. Corporation.

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Hanson, S. (2007). MEND: The Niger Remondus Van der Meijden, L. (2008). Delta‟s umbrella militant group. The influence of modern piracy http//www.cfr.org/publication on maritime commercial Harvard Draft. (1932). American transport. Msc Dissertation, Journal of International Law. Erasmus University Rotterdam. International Maritime Organization Riggs, S.L. (2009). Piracy in the Horn (IMO). (2011). Reports on acts of of Africa: A comparative study piracy and armed robbery against with Southeast Asia. MA ships: Annual report – 2010. Dissertation, Nawal Postgraduate http//www.cmo.org School. http//www.hsdl.org. Mair, S. (ed.) (2011). Piracy and Talha, E.A. (2013). Political and maritime security: Regional economic impact of Somalia characteristics, political, military, piracy during 1990 – 2012. legal and economic implications. Tokyo: Graduate School of Berlin: German Institute for Public Policy, The University of International and Security Tokyo. Affairs. Tepp, E. (2012). The Gulf of Guinea: Mbekeani, K.K. &Ncube, M. (2011). Military and non-military ways of Economic impact of maritime combating piracy. Baltic Security piracy. African Economic Brief, and Defence, Vol. 14, Issue 1. Pp. Vol. 2. Issue 10. 181-214. Murphy, M.N. (2010). Small boats, United Nations Conventions on the Law weak states, dirty money: Piracy of the Sea. and maritime in the modern http://www.un.org/depts/los/conv world. London: C Hurst and Co. entionagreements. Onuoha, F.C. (2009). Piracy and Venter, D. (2017). India and Africa: maritime security in Nigeria and Maritime security and India‟s Somali waters: Nature, trend and strategic interest in the Western lessons learned. Nigerian Forum. Indian Ocean. E-Book-Fluid Vol. 30. Networks and Hegenomic Raidt, J. & Smith, K.E. (2010). Powers in the Western Indian Advancing U.S., African, and Ocean. Centro de Estudos global interests: Security and Internacionais do Instituto stability in the West Africa Universitoride Liboa. Maritime domain. Whitman, S. &Suarez, C. (2012). The http//www.acus.org/files/publicati root causes and true costs of on/advancing-us-african- maritime piracy. Canada: Marine globalinterests-security-stability- Affairs Program, Dalhouise west-africa-maritime-domain. University.

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Covenant University Journal of Politics & Internationall Affairs. Vol. 6 No. 1, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal Available Online

Globalization and ‘Africanization’ of Contemporary Pop Music: Implications for History and Theory

Okoli Al Chukwuma (Ph.D)1 & Atelhe George Atelhe (Ph.D)2

1Department of Political Science, Federal University Lafia, Nigeria, 2Department of Political Science, University of Calabar, Nigeria, [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract: Globalization is the essence of the contemporary world order. As a dynamic evolutionary process, globalization identifies both with homogenization and hybridization of cultures. The process of globalization has been associated with the paradoxes of globalism and localism: the global is getting rather localized while the local is becoming increasingly globalized. The impact of globalization on aspects of world‟s civilizations has been tremendous. With reference to popular culture, the influence has been far- reaching. This influence has often been described as westernization in view of its western predilection. But whilst contemporary popular culture has been overly reflecting the dynamic of western cultural homogenization, its pop music component tends to have been corresponding to an „Africanized hybridization‟. This has been exemplified in some inter-related tendencies, viz: (i) African artists are currently dominating the pop music art worldwide (ii) African sound-scapes feature very prominently and predominantly in the music (iii) African ethno-musicological heritage find copious and profound expression in the prevailing genres. The study thus explores how globalization tends to be transforming contemporary pop music into a sort of an Africanized pattern. Relying on a discursive descriptive analysis, the study problematizes this „Africanization‟ tendency, drawing its implications for the history, theory, and praxis of cultural globalization. Capitalizing on the global exploits of Afro- pop, Reggae/Ragga and Hip-hop/Rap, the paper posits that the influence of globalization on contemporary African popular music is promising; adumbrating a prospect of an African cultural renaissance in the era. Keywords: Africanization, Cultural Globalization, Homogenization, Hybridization, Pop Music.

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1. Introduction More elaborately, Agawu and Agawu .Globalization is evidently the essence (2016:305-306) opine: of the contemporary world order. It is One can nowadays attend mega the consummation of the age-long concerts in parks, on college transformation of the world into global campuses, and in community society, based on advances in theatres and dance halls in communication, transportation, and Berlin, Paris, Toronto, Moscow, Madrid, Melbourne, Rio, Atlanta, information technologies (Onu, 2004; and New York and observe Okoli, 2017). The world in the Twenty- thousands of (mostly) non- first Century is thus characterized by African youths dancing “the integration of humanity and the enthusiastically to African compression of temporal and spatial beats…Nowadays, recorded dimensions of human interaction African music can be heard on worldwide”, (Chirila-Donciu, n.d), such any number of radio or TV that economic, political, ecological and shows, accessed at various socio-cultural “events in one part of the internet sites, including YouTube, world quickly come to have and of course listened to in the personal listening libraries of significance for people in other parts of millions of young people strapped the world” (William, 2009: para 1). to iPods. This is nothing less than The impact of globalization has been an explosion of African music radically tremendous in all facets of the onto the world stage. contemporary society: politics, The paper examines the seeming economy, environment and culture. ascendancy of African pop music on the Within the sphere of culture, world stage in the era of globalization. globalization has brought about wide Among other things, the paper ranging global exchanges and diffusion problematizes this apparent seeming in the areas of education, sports, „Africanization‟ of contemporary pop religion, ideology, and popular culture. music against the backdrop of the The dynamics of globalization has theory, history and praxis of cultural vigorously transformed how cultural globalization. products are made, circulated and 2. Methodology, Scope and Structure consumed. It has equally transformed of the Paper how the associated capital is generated This paper is exploratory and and appropriated (Varboord & discursive. It utilizes a thematic Brandellero, 2016). approach to advance its discourse,

The transformative impact of relying wholly on theoretical and globalization in the arena of popular empirical insights generated from culture is immanently evident on the secondary sources. Within the wider field of music. From the perspective of frame of cultural globalization, the African music, Agawu and Agawu locus of the study resides in the (2016:305) interestingly observe that discursive episteme that interrogates the the impacts of globalization “have impact of globalization on the process combined to make African music more of cultural production, but also and more audible and less and less consumption. By cultural production it avoidable in many parts of the world”. is meant “the conscious creation of cultural artistic services and goods for

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 both purely aesthetic and personal framework of the paper. Next is the purposes, and commercial purposes examination of the nexus between (Breton1982, cited in Dube, globalization and contemporary pop 1996:99).The crux of the globalization- music from the standpoint of the rising cultural production discourse is to profile of some African popular musical understand how cultural flows (cultural genres on the world stage. This is products and capital) arising from followed by a section on the globalization emanate and circulate implications of the outcome of the from point of production to that of analysis for history, theory and praxis. consumption. More pertinently, the The last section is the conclusion, discourse is also concerned with which winds up the paper. ascertaining the interests of who are 3. Conceptual Clarifications served in the process (cf. Deloumeaux, Three basic terms constitute the 2016). conceptual thrust of this papers namely

As a veritable example of cultural globalization, Africanization and goods, pop music nicely fits into the popular music. This section considers cultural production schemata, within the these concepts in turn in an effort to wider remit of cultural globalization situate their operational meanings in the discourse (Deloumeaux, 2016).So, to context of the present discourse. properly appreciate and situate the stake 3.1 Globalization: This refers to the of Africa in the globalizing arena of pop transformation of the world into a music, it is germane to ask fundamental global society, characterized by questions regarding whose identity, interconnectivity and inter-dependence values, and/or interests are being (cf. Onu, 2004). According to McLean promoted thereof. Here, the analytical and McMillan:

posers adverted to in Bender (2001) are Globalization is about the universal found opposite: i. Who are the process offset of processes which ambassadors? ii. In what language do generate a multiplicity of linkages they communicate? iii. What images of and inter-connections which African/Black culture convey? iv. What transcend the states and societies stereotypes do they further or dispel? v. which make up the modern world In what ways is Africa beneficiaries of system. It involves a dramatic the global exposure and visibility? increase in the density and depth of economic, ecological and societal The aforementioned questions, among interdependence, with „density‟ others, would form the points of referring to the increased number, reference in the course of the paper. range and scope of cross border The remainder of the paper is broadly transactions; and „depth‟ to the organized in five sections. Following degree to which that interdependence the foregoing is a section on conceptual affects and is affected by, the ways in clarifications, whereby the key terms which societies are organized domestically (2003:223). that constitute the conceptual thrust of the paper are considered in an effort to Globalization is characterized by the situate their operational meanings. This dynamics and dialectics of spatial and is in turn followed by a theoretical temporal integration on the worldwide discourse on globalization and culture, and regional scales (Penalver, 2002; designed to dovetail into the theoretical Chirila-Donciu, n.d). It is a dynamic

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 and complex phenomenon with contemporaneous music with broad, multifaceted expressions in the realms immediate and implicitly transient of politics, economy, environment, and attractiveness which appeals to a mass culture (Okoli, 2017). This paper is audience. Such music is quite receptive concerned with the cultural dimension to people since they are familiar with its of globalization, which has to do with idioms and does not require guided the socio-cultural manifestations of the listening”. globalizing trend. Pop music is an important aspect of the 3.2 Africanization: The concept of contemporary global popular culture „Africanization‟ is applied in its industry (Throsby, 2002; Achtenberg, et problematic sense in this paper. In this al, n.d). It is generally characterized by regard, it denotes an attempt to the following: i. currency and indigenize something to an African contemporaneous outlook ii. mass- mode (Brizuela-Garcia, 2006). audience appeal iii. trans-generational Africanization, therefore, means the orientation iv. transient attractiveness v. cultural process whereby non-African familiar and fashionable idioms vi practices, concepts, process, or systems urban and cosmopolitan outlook, etc. are indigenized or adapted to an African 4. Perspectives on Cultural modus. Contemporary understanding of Globalization: Issues and Theories „Africanization‟ owes a lot to the Globalization is characterized by contributions of Africanist historians expansive and extensive cross–cultural and philosophers who use the concept exchanges and diffusion (Delonmeaux, to represent the effort towards 2016). The transnational dynamism of reclaiming the true African origins and globalization makes is possible that essences from the adulterating heritage cultural products produced in sub- of colonialism and external civilization national, national and regional localities (Maake, 2008; Franke et al, 2008; are circulated and consumed globally Scuttner, 2010). (Dube, 1996; Salm, 2010). Cultural Extant scholarship on „Africanization‟ globalization, therefore, “implies that is fraught with deep-seated cultural exchange between countries philosophical cum academic polemics expands and that countries around the and cynicism. The tendency is depicted globe increasingly enjoy foreign by Maake (2008:24), who opines that cultural goods besides their domestic “Africanization is an inchoate, if not a production (Achtenberg, n. d: 5). desirable state, and has to be seen in the The international circulation and clear perspective of history before we appropriation of cultural goods, can even contemplate a tropism services, and capital in keeping with the forwards”. imperative of globalization is a 3.3 Popular music: Simply put, dialectical process that yields popular music is the genre of music that contradictory outcomes. Here, the local appeals to a mass audience within a often get globalized and the global contemporaneous time and space correspondingly get localized; all in (Taylor, 1997; Onyeji, 2002; Shonekan, varying dimensions and degrees (cf. 2012; Okuyade, 2012). According to Onu, 2004; Okoli, 2017). More Ojukwu, Obielozie and Esimone importantly, this dynamic process (2016:117), “Popular music refers to all makes it possible for civilizations to

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 negotiate, infiltrate, subvert and negate Yue-yu, 2005). But this „give and take‟, each other in such a manner that although largely reciprocal, is not typifies the „syntheses and antitheses of necessarily mutually beneficial to all civilizations. This trend has been nations. In effect, the process and variously characterized in the extant outcomes of such exchange are never literature as Americanization, even (cf. Penalver, 2002). Scholars Africanization, Westernization, de- have over the years sought to come to Westernization, and the like (Maultsby, terms with how the process of cultural 2005; Iwabuchi, 2010). globalization impact on nations, and

The cross-cultural exchanges that their endeavours in this regard have characterize cultural globalization are a yielded three important theoretical matter of „give and take‟ (Wang and perspectives (see Table 1).

Table 1: Theoretical Perspectives on Cultural Globalization Theoretical Perspective Highlight(s) Homogenization One-way cultural flow from the global core to the periphery, leading to Western cultural hegemonization or imperialism.

Glocalization or Hybridization Global cultures are not unilaterally imposed worldwide but are actively adapted according to local circumstances.

Multiculturalization/Multiculturalism International cultural flows lead to cultural blend or co-existence in such a manner that there are no longer distinctions between the dominant cultural core and the dominated periphery. Source: Achtenberg, P. et al (n. d: 5).

All the above theoretical perspectives is in the light of this fact that the paper are relevant in explaining Africa‟s appropriates the theory of cultural experience with cultural globalization. hybridization as its analytical While the theory of homogenization anchorage. forecloses the possibilities of African 5. Globalization and the cultural arrival on the global stage, the Africanizing Tendency in theory of multiculturalism obscures the Contemporary Music innate cultural imperialism of That African music is gaining a global globalization. Together, the two cannot popularity is a truism. More plausible explain the potential and/or fundamentally, it is a platitude that this prospects and African-biased cultural trend is associated with globalization; renaissance in the arena of hence “it is not surprising that African contemporary pop music. The music has become a global perspective of this paper aligns with the phenomenon in the twenty-first century theory of (Agawu & Agawu, 2016:5). There are „glocalization‟/‟hybridization‟, for it important influences that account for recognizes such an affirmative the rising profile and popularity of possibility, however problematically. It African music and pop music in

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 particular, on the world‟s stage. These (Rockwell, 1981). So, in addition to factors are (i) the Afro-Diaspora Afro-Diaspora influences, globalization connections (ii) the Information and of African music and, „arguably‟, Communications Technology‟s (ICT‟s) „Africanization‟ of global music has revolution, and (iii) increased been promoted by explosions in ICTs international migration and networking. and transnational migration (Letts,

Regarding the Afro-Diaspora 2003). ICTs have bolstered the connection, Agawu and Agawu (2016: portability, transmissibility and 307) observe that significant retentions visibility of African music, thereby of African music could be found on the promoting its global reach and “sounds capes of many nations.” These patronage. Allied to this is the dynamics nations include those of the Americas of transnational migration and and Caribbean whose musical forms networking which affords an enabling bear enormous retentions of African social capital for the promotion of heritage, namely “Argentina, Brazil, African music globally (Muehrer, Chile, Cuba, Dominican, Republic 2012).

Haiti, Jamaica, Peru, Puerto Rico, From the foregoing, it can be deduced United States of America, and that African music is actively Uruguay” (Green, 2015: 5). The responding to the imperative of musical traditions of these nations globalization in specific ways. But today, to a large extent, bear “African while it is simple and logical that roots resulting from the shared history African pop music is globalizing based of the African slave trade executed on the indicators highlighted in the under European colonialism” (Green, preceding paragraphs, it is problematic 2015:1). to establish that contemporary pop

Prominent examples of the Africanized music is Africanizing. Suffice it, musical genres include Reggae in however, to note that the presupposition Jamaica, Samba in Brazil, and Rumba of this paper is that contemporary pop in Cuba and Calypso in Trinidad music bears Africanizing tendencies. As (Agawu & Agawu, 2016). The geo- submitted by Wilber (2017: para10) cultural spread and dominance of “Almost every current popular musical Africanized musical forms in the genre has roots in earlier musical styles Hemisphere and West Indies has been created by African American historically significant. According to musicians”. In the subsections that Green (2015:3) “The music of the follow, attempt is made, however Americas, African, Caribbean and discursively, to pursue this argument African-America (North-South) towards a „tentative‟ conclusion from represents a triumph of reinvention of the examples of Afro-pop, the self, a transformation of culture reggae/ragga, and hip-hop/rap. emerging from the crudest conditions 5.1 Afro-Pop: This refers to a variety yet capable of maintaining an African of contemporary African music genres Identity”. that are characterized by dynamic,

The advent of globalization has further electric-mastered rhythm and urban consolidated the African heritage of the idioms (cf. Shonekan, 2012). This musical expressions of the derives from regionally dominant music contemporary world pop music styles, such as the West African

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 highlife, East African taraab, and The influence of Afro-pop on Central African Soukus or Makosa. contemporary world‟s musical terrain Contemporary Afro-pop is has been so dramatic and immense. The characterized by the articulation of art form has produced a corpus of modern African and Afro-American world-class celebrities who make waves beats (cf. Charry, 2012). As a mode of on globally competitive music charts in musical expression, Afro-pop is the West. A recent case in point is characterized by the tendency towards Nigeria‟s D‟banj whose global hit titled “linking the past to present, merging “Oliver Twist” reached number two (no African and non-African styles, and 2) on the UK R & B chart in 2012 highlighting artists who reside in (MsAfropolitan, 2013). Some other multiple localities and manage a mosaic reigning Afro-pop artists who are of cultural resources in the age of currently globally revered are globalization” (Salm, 2010:1328). highlighted in Table 2 alongside their global Twitter following.

Table 2: Some Popular Contemporary African Musicians & Twitter Following Artiste/Country Twitter Remarks Following Amr Diab/Egypt 3,454,405 Amr Abd El-Basset Abd El-Azeez Diab, is an Egyptian popstar with a B.A in Arabic Music from the Cairo Academy of Arts. Amr Diab has received 7 World Music Awards and with over three million followers on twitter.

Hamza Namira/ Egypt 3,094,216 Namira is an Egyptian pop singer, songwriter, instrumentalist and a political activist. The subject matter of his songs cover Arabic modern culture, social and humanitarian issues. Namira gained prominence in the wake of the 2011 Egypt revolution that led to the ousting of President Hosni Mubarak. In 2014, his songs were banned from state radio stations from (for) being critical of the Egyptian government.

Saber Rebai/Tunisia 1,822,234 Saber Rebai is a Tunisian Arab singer and composer with his popularity spanning across the Middle East and some Europe. Saber Rebai has released a total of 10 albums and has been on tours across Europe, USA and Australia.

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Wizkid Ayo Balogun/ 1,527,063 Ayodeji Ibrahim Balogun, who‟s better Nigeria known by his stage name, Wizkid, is a Nigerian popstar. He bagged the BET Awards in 2012 along with other plaques on the strength of two solo albums.

Salma 749,847 Salma Rachid is a Moroccan vocalist. She Rachid/Morocco gained prominence after participating in the second season of the Arab idol where she made it to the top five. Tiwatope Savage/ 1,014,110 Tiwa Savage is an R&B singer and Nigeria songwriter. In 2006, she contested in the UK edition of the X Factor and finished in the final 24.

. Source: Fadoju, L. (2015); https://techcabal.com/2015/04/30/spinlet-index-who-are-the-most- popular-african-musicians-on-twitter/

African pop artists have excelled in following its internationalization and terms of global celebrations and popularity in the Americas, Europe and collaborations. Through such African. Of this transformation, Green international engagements, they have (2015:5) remarks that “reggae been able to promote their career, but emanating from the Island of Jamaica in also the African heritage on the global the Caribbean resounds and is actively stage. In this respect, “migrant cultivated everywhere from Hawaii to musicians on the African continent have Malawi.”

established intricate network between By mid 1980s, “an electronic, techno- Europe and home, often returning from pop-based variation of reggae, known abroad to re-energize in their local as ragamuffin or ragga” had emerged communities…” Whether performing at (Belague, 2009: para 5). Over the years, home in the continent or abroad, Afro- reggae and ragga have dominated pop artists celebrate the essences of world‟s music stage, with artists like African identity and culture UB40, Shabba Ranks, Shaggy, and (Nwadigwe, Chouala, Omenya, Kah, Sean Paul topping Popular Music Ayele & Nwangi, 2017). Embedded in Charts and winning coveted awards. their celebrations and performances are The adaptive and subversive character conscious and unconscious projection of reggae music has made it stood the of aspects of African identity and test of time, influencing other genres of heritage. music without losing its essence and 5.2 Reggae/Ragga: Reggae music is originality fundamentally. Today, one of the most authentic and most elements of reggae could be found in vibrant musical retentions in the Afro-pop, Afro-Latino Hip-hop, African Diaspora. Originating from the American Hip-hop, and like (Bender, Caribbean Islands, reggae bears copious 2001; Dennis, 2006). Other world elements of African roots. Reggae music forms, such as dance-hall, gospel music became a dominant genre of and country, have also been influenced contemporary world music in the 1970s by the lyrical and rhythmic patterns of

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 reggae. The Afro-centric heritage and In spite of the above downside, rap character of reggae/ragga has been music has been a valuable „African‟ sustained amidst the dynamics of contribution to the contemporary pop cultural globalization to which it has music (Sullivan, 2001; Hilbruner, been exposed. 2015). This contribution must be

5.3 Hip-Hop/Rap: This is a form of appreciated in the light of its historical music that originated in New York in African-American connection. But the 1970s, following the creative while the Americas have presented the endeavours of immigrants of Caribbean enabling promotional space and capital, ancestry. Overtime, the music form Africa largely remains the fountain of evolved into a subculture that the associated ethno-musicological influences. After all: encompasses street-life styles, break dancing, graffiti, to mention but a few. America owes much, if not all, of The African roots of Hip-hop are its musical innovation to African attested to by its Caribbean origins. Americans. Without the musical Over the years, the music art has been contributions of African Americans, we wouldn‟t have dominated by Afro-American most of the popular music styles youngsters who use the medium to we know today. Everything from celebrate their black history and identity rock to hip-hop to bluegrass has (Bender, 2001; Dennis, 2006). been influenced by traditional

Contemporary rap music in the West is, African music styles and the more or less, an „identity movement‟. It music created by African slaves has promoted “black visibility” in America. (Wilber, 2017: para 1) (Bender, 2001:730), in a socio-cultural milieu where African youths have often 6. Implications for History, Theory suffered stereotyped identity bashing. and Praxis But besides providing a veritable The state of contemporary pop music platform for “black visibility, it has also could be linked to a cultural panorama provided a pretext for anti-social characterized by dynamic and activities, such as gangsterism, drug dialectical adaptations in the fashion of abuse, street violence, hooliganism, „give and take‟ (Wang and Yueh-yu, vulgarism, queer living. A typical 2005). Of this scenario, Charry instance of this disservice is the issue of (2012:166) succinctly notes that street-identity divide and violence. In “everywhere there is a mixture, respect of this, Dennis (2006:730) collision, and collusion (citing comments that: Stapleton and May 1985). The

As much as rap music has done to globalizing context and imperative of create Black visibility, it has contemporary pop music is such that nonetheless incited violence and dealt sundry musical genres „intermix‟ and Blacks a setback by creating of redefine one another in fundamental mimicking Black identity divides on the manner. In this context, “Africa impacts geographic (East v. West Coast), on the West and the West impacts on gender/power (“pimps” and “Hoes”) Africa” (Stapleton and May 1985, cited in Charry, 2012:166). and other (“Players” and Playa Haters”) lines. African pop music artists are utilizing the platform and opportunities offered

Covenant University Journal of Politics & International Affairs (CUJPIA) Vol. 6 No. 2, Dec. 2018 by globalization to promote and project expression in a fact of society, African contents through their songs including the polity, economy, ecology and performances. Accordingly, to and culture. Globalization is Dennis (2006: iii) observes that “these characterized by historical dynamics performances are strategically and dialectics. The dialectical essence appropriating and combining „foreign‟ of globalization is best understood with elements together with „local‟ ones to reference to the apparent unity and celebrate their cultures, redefine conflict of its forces. While cultural localities and accentuate their globalization has often presented „blackness‟”. In this process of cross- pretexts for „clash of civilizations‟, it cultural diffusion, an aspect of African has nonetheless provided veritable music art has gained international, even avenues for cross-cultural diffusion and global, recognition, acceptance and hybridization worldwide. Although it is dominance. Although pessimists have plausible to argue that globalization predicted that African music would lose brings about transnational cultural its essence in the process, it has been assimilation, it is highly contentious as posited that given its strongly to whether the process is beneficial to entrenched and resilient Africanist all nations. foundations, African music “will not Contrary to the views of against and lose its identity” (Charry, 2012:167). skeptics, who posit that globalization is

The strong expression of Afro-biased almost entirely inimical to Africa, this characteristics in contemporary pop paper posits that the impact of music points to the fact that globalization on Africa‟s popular music globalization is benefitting Africa after has been potentially positive and all. This is in contradistinction to the promising. The paper demonstrated dominant cynical standpoint to the how contemporary African pop music effect that Africa is always at the forms have gained worldwide currency, receiving end of the globalization recognition, acceptance and ascendancy process (Iwabuchi, 2010). More under the influence of globalization. importantly, the outcome of the study Arguing from the arrival of Afro-pop, tends to align with the “hybridization” reggae/ragga and hip-hop/rap on the perspective of cultural globalization world‟s musical stage, the paper that “global cultures are not unilaterally submitted on the note that imposed, but are actively negotiated contemporary pop music may as well and adapted according to local be responding rather progressively to circumstances” (Achtenberg et al, n.d: the logic and dynamics of globalization. 5). Comprehending this trend in its historical significance would require a 7. Conclusion more rigorous empirical study beyond Globalization is the essence of the the current exploratory effort. contemporary world order. It is a fundamental force that has found

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