ENGLISH THROUGH READING MODERN LITERATURE Part I

Home , Nazarene movement, Rudolf Maison, The Ark and the Aardvark

МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «ПЕРМСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

Н. Н. Меньшакова, Е. Н. Петкова

ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ КУРС ПЕРВОГО И ВТОРОГО ИНОСТРАННОГО ЯЗЫКА (АНГЛИЙСКИЙ) ENGLISH THROUGH READING MODERN LITERATURE Part I

Допущено методическим советом Пермского государственного национального исследовательского университета в качестве учебного пособия для студентов, обучающихся по направлению подготовки бакалавров «Лингвистика» и специальности «Перевод и переводоведение»

Пермь 2020

УДК 811.111: 378 ББК 81.2англ: 74.58 М513

Меньшакова Н. Н., Петкова Е. Н. М513 Практический курс первого и второго иностранного языка (английский): English through reading Modern literature. Part I [Электронный ресурс]: учеб. пособие / Н. Н. Меньшакова, Е. Н. Петкова; Перм. гос. нац. исслед. ун-т. – Электрон. дан. – Пермь, 2019. – 4,52 Мб; 144 с. – Режим доступа: http://www.psu.ru/files/docs/science/books/uchebnie-posobiya/ english-through-reading-modern-literature-1.pdf. – Загл. с экрана. ISBN 978-5-7944-3424-8

Пособие соответствует требованиям ФГОС ВПО по направлениям подготовки 45.03.02 «Лингвистика» (квалификация бакалавр) и составлено с использованием материалов из различных источников. Пособие предназначено для студентов языковых специальностей и последовательно реализует принципы системно-деятельностного подхода в обучении иностранному языку. Цель пособия – развитие у студентов навыков чтения и понимания сложных текстов различных жанров в различных областях знаний и формирование навыков аннотирования и реферирования. В основу пособия легли постмодернистский роман Дж. Барнза «История мира в 10½ главах» и его перевод, выполненный В. Бабковым.

УДК 811.111: 378 ББК 81.2англ: 74.58

Издается по решению ученого совета факультета современных иностранных языков и литератур Пермского государственного национального исследовательского университета

Рецензенты: департамент иностранных языков НИУ ВШЭ – Пермь (руководитель департамента, канд. психол. наук, доцент М. С. Шевелева); доцент кафедры иностранных языков, лингвистики и перевода ПНИПУ, канд. пед. наук, доцент Т. П. Фролова

ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

FOREWORD – ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ ...... 5 SECTION 1. READING THE NOVEL ...... 7 How to read the novel ...... 7 What to do with the Useful Vocabulary ...... 7 How to paraphrase sentences ...... 8 Becoming Julian Barnes ...... 8 Chapter 1 “The Stowaway” ...... 11 Chapter 2 “The Visitors” ...... 15 Chapter 3 “The Wars of Religion”...... 19 Chapter 4 “The Survivor” ...... 22 Chapter 5 “The Shipwreck” ...... 25 Chapter 6 “The Mountain” ...... 28 Chapter 7 “Three Simple Stories” ...... 31 Chapter 8 “Upstream” ...... 34 Chapter 9 “Project Ararat” ...... 37 Chapter 10 “The Dream” ...... 40 SECTION 2. VOCABULIARY EXTENTION ...... 43 Vocabulary to discuss fiction ...... 43 Miscellaneous tasks on the vocabulary of the novel ...... 44 THE LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE ...... 45 POLITICAL METAPHORS ...... 50 Useful Phrases for Rendering, Summarizing and Comparison ...... 61 SECTION 3. TEXTS FOR SUMMARIZING AND RENDERING ...... 63 How to render and summarize ...... 63 Chapter 1 The Stowaway ...... 64 The Holy Bible, English Standard Version. The Old Testament. Genesis 6–9...... 64 «Ной» – рецензия Фильм Про ...... 69 Chapter 2 The Visitors ...... 71 The war on terror continues and still no one counts the costs ...... 71 Захват «Акилле Лауро» ...... 72 Chapter 3 The Wars of Religion ...... 76 THE MYTH OF ICARUS AND DEADALUS AS TOLD BY AMY ADKINS ...... 76 THE MYTH OF DAVID AND GOLIATH AS TOLD BY MARY FAIRCHILD ...... 77 СУДЫ НАД ЖИВОТНЫМИ ...... 79

3 The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals ...... 83 Chapter 4 The Survivor ...... 87 IN 1492, Columbus Day Poem ...... 87 Columbus Poem Rewritten ...... 88 Chernobyl Disaster ...... 89 Авария на Чернобыльской АЭС и ее последствия ...... 90 Fukushima Accident(Updated April 2017) ...... 94 Chapter 5 The Shipwreck ...... 98 Romantic visual arts ...... 98 The Raft of the Medusa by Théodore Géricault. Influences ...... 101 NARRATIVE OF A VOYAGE TO SENEGAL IN 1816 ...... 103 Выживание в открытом море ...... 105 Chapter 6 The Mountain ...... 112 Noah's Ark Found in Turkey? ...... 112 «Ответ редакции: в какой стране находится Арарт» ...... 115 Chapter 7 “Three Simple Stories” ...... 116 Escape the Titanic – Devious Escape Puzzler ...... 116 Реальная история Титаника ...... 117 Exodus 1947...... 118 Еврейские беженцы от нацизма...... 120 Chapter 8 “Upstream” ...... 121 The seven stages of film production ...... 121 Неземной язык индейцев пираха ...... 123 Chapter 9 “Project Ararat” ...... 127 Moonstruck ...... 127 Отрывки из книги Оливера Сакса «Галлюцинации»...... 131 Chapter 10 “The Dream” ...... 134 Materialistic values may stem from early insecurities and are linked to lower life satisfaction, psychologists find. Accruing more wealth may provide only a partial fix...... 134 Как устроен ад: краткий путеводитель ...... 137 Reviews on the novel...... 139 A book review by Steven Wu ...... 139 But Noah Was Not a Nice Man ...... 141

4 FOREWORD – ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Пособие предназначено для студентов языковых специальностей, и в нем последовательно реализованы принципы системно-деятельностного подхода в обучении иностранному языку. Формирование и совершенствование иноязычной коммуникативной компетенции на профессиональном уровне являются главной задачей дисциплин «Практический курс первого иностранного языка (английского)» и «Практический курс второго иностранного языка (английского)» при подготовке бакалавров и специалистов в области лингвистики и перевода. Для её выполнения авторы опираются на постмодернистский роман Дж. Барнса «История мира в 10½ главах». Целевые установки пособия продиктованы чётким представлением о потребностях и возможностях учащихся – потребностью в развитии навыков чтения и понимания сложных текстов различных жанров в самых разных областях знаний и в ограниченном наборе необходимых и достаточных лексико-грамматических средств, позволяющих относительно быстро овладеть навыками аннотирования и реферирования, необходимыми для высоких уровней речевой деятельности. Материал курса также направлен на расширение когнитивного пространства учащихся в различных сферах человеческой деятельности. Диапазон актуализируемых предметно-содержательных тем варьируется от истории, политических отношений, культурного наследия, литературы и искусства до научно- технического прогресса и философии. Представленные в пособии информативные материалы, языковые и коммуникативные упражнения и задания служат решению этой задачи. Пособие состоит из трёх разделов, каждый из которых снабжён методическими рекомендациями по работе на английском языке, которые, по мнению авторов, будут полезны и студентам, и преподавателям. Первый раздел пособия, посвящённый работе непосредственно с текстом романа Дж. Барнса «История мира в 10½ главах», включает вопросы для понимания основного содержания глав, предложения из оригинала, предназначенные для перифраза, задания на поиск соответствий русскому переводу в оригинале, вопросы для обсуждения и коммуникативные задания. Способ формулировки вопросов для понимания глав романа демонстрирует стремление авторов побудить учащихся глубже проникнуть в смысл прочитанного. Задания на перифраз опираются на базовые принципы интерпретации текста и призваны способствовать эффективному и равномерному развитию навыков использования лексико-грамматических замен, синонимов и антонимов, компрессии и развёртывания. Задания на поиск соответствий русскому переводу в тексте оригинала носят иллюстративный характер и выступают в качестве подготовительного этапа к непосредственной переводческой деятельности.

5 Второй раздел представляет собой комплекс упражнений, нацеленных на овладение общеупотребительной и стилистически маркированной лексикой, а также идиоматическими выражениями. Особое внимание уделяется политическим и библейским метафорам. Основой для отбора лексических единиц также служит сам текст романа. Третий раздел представляет собой коллекцию текстов для реферирования и аннотирования на русском и английском языках. Их тематическое и жанровое разнообразие обусловлено в том числе и выбором художественного произведения, взятого за основу пособия. В подборе материала авторы попытались сделать акцент на расширении и углублении лингвострановедческих, исторических и общекультурных знаний. Сочетание работы с художественным произведением, традиционных лексико- грамматических заданий и заданий на аннотирование и реферирование позволяет формировать компетенции, которые выходят за пределы предметно- дисциплинарных знаний и умений. Пособие будет полезно как для организации и проведения семинарских и практических занятий по английскому языку, так и для самостоятельной работы.

Авторы

6 SECTION 1. READING THE NOVEL

How to read the novel (to a student who is going to read a post-modern novel for the first time)

Take your time. Post-modernism is all about the language and detail and allusions, so reading any of these works hastily or skipping to the end defeats the purpose. Settle in, and make sure that there are no distractions. Know that keeping track of the plot (if there even is one) is not the number one priority. In fact, it can be quite difficult to keep track of what is going on sometimes. Post- modernism is, as has been said, all about language, sometimes about conveying sensory experiences and often trains of thought. You won’t get it from the first time anyway. Keep reading. Don’t get bogged down by details that puzzle you, but keep going. If you let yourself get stuck every time it get confusing, your “reading flow” will be broken and you don’t want that; it’s better to push through until things makes sense again. Reread. Having taken in this flood of words, let it sink in for a bit. Brood on it, let it bounce around in your brain for a few days… And then go back. This is when you look up a plot summary, if necessary, and try to actually follow what is happening. Pay attention to how the events are depicted, who is talking, how they describe what is going on, what time and space are doing. Be aware of the effect this has on you as a reader. Use the comprehension questions to help you, they are aimed at getting you on the track. Analyse. This book can be difficult (or just plain impossible) to grasp in one go, so google and dig into the Wikipedia (proper names especially), break it down into little pieces, and see if you can make it make sense. Go down that rabbit hole, who knows that you might find! Use tasks for research and discussion to help you.

What to do with the Useful Vocabulary (to a student who do not know how to work with dictionaries)  look up and write out the meaning of an English word or phrase  find or think of the English translation of a word into Russian  check and write the pronunciation of a word  check the part of speech of a word, check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb, find out other grammatical information about a word  find the synonym or antonym of a word  look up the collocations of a word  find out about the register of a word  try to make use of the word in the writing and speaking tasks, and in the tasks for rendering and summarizing

7 How to paraphrase sentences (to students who find it difficult to interpret fiction) You may simply focus on the linguistic side. As long as the sentence you produce is grammatically correct, is neutral in tone and meets the criteria below, you are good: a) the grammar pattern is changed, key words are partly replaced with their synonyms; b) the grammar pattern remains unchanged, all the words are replaced with their synonyms; c) the idea is communicated avoiding the grammar and vocabulary of the original. For example: She towered over her husband like a skyscraper over a shack. • Her husband was much shorter than his wife. • She was much taller than her spouse. • The married couple were of different height: she was very tall, he was very short. • The spouses were not of equal height: she was very tall, he was very short. Becoming Julian Barnes

Task 1. Read biographical information about Julian Barnes. Write the answers to these questions: 1. When and where was Barnes born? 2. Where was he educated? 3. What was his first job after college? What jobs did he hold after that? 4. What was his childhood like?

8 Task 2. Conduct a research for class discussion: 1. What relationship does Barnes like to have with his reader? What does Barnes imagine that he and his reader are doing as he writes? 2. How does Barnes feel about students studying his works? 3. How did Barnes get his first publishing deal for his first novel? 4. What tone does Barnes like to use in his writing? 5. Are novels the genre that Barnes prefers to write? 6. What does Barnes say about becoming a writer? 7. Have you ever read a book by Julian Barnes or is this the first one for you? Do you have any expectations? If yes, what are they?

Task 3. Look at the various covers used by publishers for the novel. Would you take a book with any of them from the shelf in a bookstore? Why or why not? What do you expect read about when looking at these covers?

10 Chapter 1 “The Stowaway”

Task 1. Read the chapter and answer the following questions: 1. Which episode from the Bible does the chapter cover? 2. What was the Ark itself according to the narrator? 3. How does the narrator describe the atmosphere on the Ark? What can you compare it with? 4. What is the narrator’s attitude to God, Noah and the human race? Provide evidence from the text. 5. What does the narrator think of Noah’s navigating skills? 6. Who is the only member of the Noah family that the narrator speak well of? Why? What happened to them? 7. How does the narrator describe Noah’s appearance? 8. What kind of hierarchy existed in the animal kingdom before and after boarding the Ark? 9. What does the implication of the clean and the unclean give in understanding of human nature? 10. Why did the narrator and his species never appear together at the same place on the Ark? 11. What, according to the narrator, happened to the mythological creatures on the Ark? Why did it happen? 12. Who was the only child born on the Ark? What was rumoured about their birth? 13. Why, according to the narrator, did Noah announce the dove to discover dry land? 14. What does the stowaway accuse Noah and his Sons of? 15. What does the stowaway believe to be humans’ worst shortcomings?

Task 2. Discuss the following questions 1. What assumptions does the narrator make about the reader? Do you fit into his ideas about a reader who has a “nursery” version of the story of the flood in your head as you read this chapter? 2. Does the story produce humourous effect? If yes, where does the humour of the story derive from? Or, does the author’s view distress you in any way? 3. If you thought the reading was “laugh out loud funny,” was there a point at which you said to yourself, “Wait a minute. This is serious”? If so, where and why? 4. What did you think, and how did you feel, when the woodworm broke the news that “Noah was not a nice man.” 5. What are your reaction to the narrator’s view of God and Noah? 6. What did you think or feel when the woodworm (toward the end of chapter one) states: “Why didn’t God just restore the unicorn? We animals would have been happier with that, instead of a big hint in the sky about God’s magnanimity every time it stopped raining”?

11 Task 3. The style and tone of the chapter may hurt the feelings of a religious person, an atheist, on the other hand, may appreciate the author’s humour and idea. Work in groups of three, make up and act out a conversation between the two with a middleperson to monitor the argument.

Task 4. Find in the text the English equivalents to the following sentences. 1. Конечно, я понимаю, что те события описывают по-разному. 2. Я должен с прискорбием сообщить, что временами доносы властям были обычным явлением. 3. Моему отчету вы можете верить. 4. Представители вашего вида никогда не умели правильно оценивать сроки. 5. Наверняка, так ничего и не выяснили. 6. Поскольку они не хотели вызывать всеобщую панику, было объявлено соревнование парочек – нечто вроде конкурса красоты. 7. Как это у вас называется – естественный отбор? 8. И, конечно, не было ничего, кроме самой поверхностной проверки родословной. 9. Это не очень-то согласуется с вашей версией? 10. Две эти точки зрения нельзя назвать абсолютно несовместимыми. 11. Многие пытались пробраться туда тайком. 12. Но мы считали это естественным порядком вещей. 13. Вся болтовня о том, что каждой твари по паре, была правдой (…), но ведь этим дело не ограничилось. 14. Как видите, наш караван судов с самого начала был несчастливым. 15. Загадочные пробелы в спектре творения объясняются гораздо проще. 16. Двух таких больших туш должно хватить Ноевой семье не на один месяц. 17. Единорог, он пользовался некоторой свободой передвижения, дарованной ему в результате закулисных переговоров. 18. Он коротал дни, выдумывая для себя новые титулы и награды. 19. Он был крупным, этот Ной – размером с гориллу, но на этом сходство заканчивалось. 20. Попав на корабль и обретя надежное убежище, мы преисполнились самодовольства. 21. Это вызвало настоящую панику. 22. Надо сказать, что Ной был так себе моряк, хоть в дождь, хоть в вёдро. 23. Конечно, птицы предлагали Ною воспользоваться их знаниями и опытом. 24. Все время оглядываться через плечо и искать одобрения – это же по-детски? 25. Нужно выбирать материал соответственно его назначению. 26. Он точно знал, кто его кормит. 27. Тут мы покидаем гавань фактов и выходим в открытое море слухов.

12 Task 5. Paraphrase the sentences from the text. 1. You’ve seen hippos with their mouths open and bright little birds pecking between their teeth like distraught dental hygienist? 2. It wasn’t like those nursery versions in painted wood which you might have played with as a child – all happy couples peering merely over the rail from the comfort of the well- scrubbed stalls. 3. Someone at the very top became obsessed with information gathering; and certain of the travelers agreed to act as stool pigeons. 4. When I recall the Voyage, I feel no sense of obligation; gratitude puts no smear of Vaseline on the lens. 5. Your species has always been hopeless about dates. I put it down to your quaint obsession with multiples of seven. 6. The bird that nested in the Tree of Knowledge was no more proof against the waves than the brindled vole. 7. Every species wiped out except for a single breeding pair, and that couple consigned to the high seas under the charge of an old rogue with a drink problem. 8. The only puzzle was that he (God) chose to preserve anything at all of this species whose creation did not reflect particularly well on its creator. 9. Still, he certainly knew which side his bread was buttered. 10. The point of it isn’t to act as a cheap weather-vane for human beings. 11. We got up a petition and explained certain things to him about moulting and -have-you. Eventually he (Noah) seemed to take it in. But that was the Arctic plover gone. 12. Certainly there was more extermination than was strictly necessary for nutritional purposes – far more. 13. Ham’s wife was not the most popular person in the Ark; and the loss of the hospital ship, as I’ve said, was widely attributed to her. 14. They (the mammals) knew the male simian too well, they said, and could vouch for his high standards of personal cleanliness. 15. Was it legally enforceable? Try getting a rainbow stand up in court.

Useful vocabulary:  a sensible decision  to be superstitious about smth  to be overburdened with rota  to be short on serenity  to picture smth on a messier  a rump scale  to be no more proof against smth  to fix the rules in advance  to commit an obscure offence  a stool pigeon  political background  to rat  black propaganda  a matter of pride  to be under the charge of smb  to trace one’s family straight back  to have a competitive nature / to to the ark be of brutally intrusive nature  to have convenient lapses of  to vouch for smth/smb memory  professional incompetence  to cram into smth  a shambles / a slaughter  by one’s reckoning  insufficient attention

13  to have one’s claims dismissed  to scoff  on the insulting terms  to call by the same name  incompatible  to discern a pattern  to commandeer  a crossbreed  to propound rival selection  to vomit one’s stomach out principles  to give a formal covenant  a pathetic sight  to enter a place backwards  detectable  to incite someone to shame  in the first place  a neurotic response to fear of  grounds for unease extinction  to be superior/ inferior to  navigational system smb/smth  to put an expertise at smb’s  to deserve some patronage disposal  a mixed blessing  to go aloft  an outcast  out of self-interest / cynicism  to undermine one’s self-  it was his idea of a joke. confidence further  to eliminate  to obey blindly  treaty  to mimick smth  to lead to psychological side-  to be resentful about smth effects  to descend from smb  to stay one’s hand against smb  in a matter of hours  to elevate smb  a severe shock  to no avail  to revert to normal colour  ancestor / descendant  long / short term  it wasn’t much of a deal.  to live out one’s natural span  conspicuous beetles  to moult

14 Chapter 2 “The Visitors”

Task 1. Answer the comprehension questions to chapter 2. 1. Which kind of voyage was the Santa Euphemia taking? What was its route? 2. Who usually took that kind of tours? 3. What was Franklin’s attitude to his audience during the cruises? 4. What was Franlin’s attitude to the girls he was having affairs with? 5. What was Tricia’s expectations from Franklin and the tour? 6. Why did Franklin acquire an Irish passport? 7. When and how did the terrorists appear on the ship? 8. What meaning does the quotation from the Bible “separating the clean from the unclean” acquire in the context of the hijack? 9. How did the leader of the hijackers behave? 10. How did Franklin behave after the terrorists had exposed themselves? 11. How did the atmosphere on the Santa Euphemia change after the hijack? 12. What experiment is used by the narrator to illustrate the ideas of self-interest and altruism? 13. Why did Franklin agree to speak for the terrorists? 14. How did the passengers react to Franklin’s talk? What was the outcome?

Task 2. Discuss the following questions: 1) In what way is Chapter 2 similar to Chapter 1? Find as many similarities as possible. 2) Do you think Franklin Hughes to be a good person? Why or why not? 3) Do you believe in the altruistic nature of humans? Consider the experiment with the monkey. 4) In the chapter the true story has been exaggerated. Do you think it would be in any way possible to justify the terrorist actions if there were no victims? 5) Why do you believe Tricia never spoke to Franklin again?

Task 3. Find the original sentences in the text of chapter 2. 1. Американцев узнать было легче всего: мужчины в характерных для Нового Света прогулочных костюмах пастельных тонов, их жены, нимало не смущенные своими колышущимися животами. 2. Каждой твари по паре. 3. На Франклине же, который культивировал образ стреляного воробья, была длинная походная куртка и мятые джинсы. 4. Он начинал рупором чужих мнений. 5. Многие пассажиры говорили между собой об очевидной любви Франклина к своей работе, о том, как это приятно в наш циничный век, и о том, что благодаря ему история и впрямь оживает перед ними. 6. Она (Венеция) и через год никуда не денется, разве что еще на сантиметр-другой уйдет под воду, а ее розовая, как у него самого, физиономия еще чуток обшелушится. 7. … если все пойдет хорошо, она откроет правду, но сейчас Триша опасалась сглазить.

15 8. Франклин был в жизни такой же, как на экране. 9. Первый этап путешествия, на юг по Адриатике, прошел в общем-то как всегда. 10. Он тактично намекнул, что люди интересуются классической древностью в разной степени и что он со своей стороны не намерен вести журнал посещаемости и метить прогульщиков черным крестиком. 11. Твидовые куртки уступили место полотняным. 12. Приношу извинения за неудобство. 13. Мы не из тех, кто прибегает к насилию без необходимости. 14. …вам будет казаться, что вы видели нас всего лишь во сне. 15. С другой стороны, плохое было тесно связано с хорошим: не будучи истеричными, гости, наверное, были людьми упорными, деятельными, не привыкшими отказываться от своей цели. 16. Первоначальный всплеск эмоций – нечто близкое к восторженности – пошел на спад; взамен им овладели вялость и дурные предчувствия. 17. …мне иногда кажется, что споры бессмысленны, так же как бессмыслен закон. 18. Мы объясним пассажирам, что происходит. Как они оказались частью истории. 19. Во всех случаях, раньше или позже, собственные интересы торжествовали над альтруизмом. 20. …он жестокосердно перевел это в семь-восемь часов. 21. Но в этом особенность альтруизма: человек всегда может быть превратно понят.

Task 4. Paraphrase the sentences. 1. He fell lightly in love several times each year, a tendency in himself which he would occasionally deplore but indulge. 2. These Aphrodite tours brought a predictable clientele, disparate of nationality but homogeneous in taste. 3. They followed the guest lecturer everywhere, took most of the supplementary trips, and disdained straw donkeys in the souvenir shop. 4. The atmosphere seemed a little torpid to Tricia, but it was a well-organized torpor. 5. The cruise was ten days old when they stopped at Rhodes. 6. What Franklin occasionally wanted to say, though never did, was that these brisk guesses about earlier civilizations seemed to him to have their foundation as often as not in Hollywood epics starring Kirk Douglas or Burt Lancaster. 7. He could be franker with his audience, less careful with the booze, more receptive to the flirting glance. 8. Each breath was discreetly taken. 9. With a small gesture of their guns, they indicated as surely as such things can be that she was currently a large target and that any further advance would confirm the fact in an obvious and final way. 10. It also felt as if some feathered cloak of leadership had been thrown over him. 11. Empty threats are as useless as scabbards. 12. There’s some stiff upper lip for you. 13. Franklin felt sweat burst into the palms of his hands. 14. Hughes had at first placed the husband in the garment business, some master cutter who had set up on his own.

16 15. I can vouch for him being British. 16. In recent years Western governments had been noisy about terrorism, about standing tall and facing down the threat; but the threat never seemed to understand that it was being faced down, and continued much as before. 17. It is on their heads. 18. A Guinness passport awarded through some genealogical fluke suggested the possibility of sympathy with the visitors, and this was his protection. 19. Franklin was operating out of self-interest, saving his own skin by a foul piece of subservience. 20. The second-in-command had only come for a reply, not for renewed conversation. 21. Never had he felt such apprehension at a script. 22. Already he was straying into euphemism. 23. He was a showman and would stand on his head in bucket of herrings if that would raise viewing figures a few thousand. 24. Two years ago a civilian aircraft carrying three members of the Black Thunder group was forced down by the American air force in Sicily. 25. The Black Thunder group would not turn the other cheek.

Useful vocabulary:  to bear a stamp of smth  at a juncture  anonymity of origin  half-aloft  prominent  in direct line of sight  an old hand  apprehensive  a mouthpiece  stiff-necked  an engaging habit  habitation  corroboration  to latch on  to maintain  inscription  to allot duties  to shuffle  the ultimate credit  to have the nerve  the first leg of the trip  conciliatory  to bring off  lack of compliance  backstabbing  in the casual tone  a flush of apprehension  a spokesman  prudence  in a confessional tone  attendance book  insoluble  to mark down  with reasonable civility  outdated  to divert  apparent  a liaison man  zestful  exhilaration  to recapture one’s attention  a muted cheer  credentials  a refugee camp  to be shorthand for smb  to damp down  to massacre  to negotiate  proprietorial  a captor

17  to raise the stakes  to shudder  to breed complicity  to confide  to assemble  on the lookout  to take over  to acknowledge  dissimilar  a story-teller  to stand on alternate legs  inevitability  to suffer death  the negotiating table  to be sickened  to survive  repellent  plausible

18 Chapter 3 “The Wars of Religion”

Task 1. Answer the comprehension questions to the chapter. 1) What does the main part of the text present? 2) Who was Bartholomé Chassenée? Why is the name of the prosecutor not given? 3) What assumption does the narrator (translator) make about the purpose of the manuscript? 4) What are the parts the chapter is divided into? Name them in English. 5) What kind of felony was committed? Who is the defendant? 6) Why was the bishop visiting the church which turned to be a “crime scene”? 7) Where was the bishop’s throne kept throughout the year? 8) What are the main arguments of the prosecutor? What kind of similes does he use in his speech? 9) What are the main arguments of the advocate to prove the incorrectness of the summons? 10) Why does the court still see the accusations against the woodworm valid? 11) What are the verdict and the final sentence in this case?

Task 2. Using the headlines in the chapter, conduct a research on French-English equivalents for juridical terms, and restore the pattern for the overall procedure of the trial. Pétition des habitans Plaidoyer des habitans Plaidoyer des insectes Réplique des habitans Réplique des insectes Conclusions du procureur episcopal Sentence du juge d’Église Make up zig-zag scheme for the arguments used by both sides. Using your answers to questions 8 and 9 in task 1.

Task 3. Discuss the following questions: 1. The chapter is titled “Wars of Religion”, what kind of wars in your opinion does it illustrate? 2. How is the stereotypical medieval mindset illustrated in the chapter? Who represents it? 3. In what way do the jurists’ appeals differ? Consider the style, structure and rhetorical means of both speeches. 4. After reading the supplementary texts try to explain why the prosecutor’s similes sound questionable. 5. In what ways, both explicit and implicit, is this chapter connected with the previous ones?

19 Task 4. Find the original sentences in the text of the chapter. 1) Нижеследующее дело, отчет о котором до сих пор не публиковался, представляет особый интерес для историков права, поскольку в роли procureur pour les insectes выступал знаменитый юрист Бартоломе Шасене. 2) <…> отсутствует опрос свидетелей, могущих быть кем угодно, от местных крестьян до знаменитых экспертов по образу жизни подсудимых. 3) <…> поэтому читатель может получить вполне адекватное представление о ходе разбирательства. 4) Все материалы в рукописи идут подряд, и почерк везде один и тот же. 5) <…> из всех участников разбирательства по имени назван только Шасене. 6) Мною были приложены все усилия, чтобы передать местами экстравагантный стиль выступлений. 7) Эти злоумышленники навлекли на нас Божий гнев. 8) <…> я попытаюсь объяснить суду, почему обвинения в их адрес несостоятельны и почему иск должен быть отклонен как необоснованный. 9) <…> у суда нет полномочий рассматривать дело подзащитных. 10) <…> повестка в суд, направленная им, не имеет юридической силы. 11) <…> многие не представляют какой бы то ни было угрозы для жителей. 12) Разве не дал он им всем наказа плодиться, и размножаться, и наполнять землю? 13) Выньте бревно из своего глаза, прежде чем искать соломинку в глазах других. 14) Суд не во власти и не в праве огласить указ об отлучении. 15) Здесь рукопись обрывается.

Task 5. Paraphrase the sentences. 1. Students were being directed to examine the instructive dexterity of a distinguished defence counsel, regardless of the result of the case. 2. They lowered by rope from the rafters the Bishop’s throne, which is tethered there from one year’s end to the next and is descended only for the day of the Bishop’s pilgrimage, lest any child or stranger might by chance sit on it and thereby profane it, this being a humble and devout tradition. 3. How the Bishop fell, striking his head upon the alter step and being hurled against his will into a state of imbecility. 4. As if they were accustomed to employ the human tongue while going about their daily business. 5. This is no sound law. 6. Cast out of the beam from your own eye before you seek to extract the mote from the eye of another. 7. How therefore can it be lawful to excommunicate a beast of the field or a creeping thing from upon the earth which has never been a communicant of the Holy Church? 8. Where in the Holy Scripture does the Lord give unto the animals the right to devour His temples? 9. There has been no evidence from the prosecution as to the occasion and date upon which the woodworm are alleged to have entered the wood. 10. The woodworm did not have passage on the Ark of Noah and therefore must diabolically possessed.

20 11. But for all this it was evident and plain that the tithes have not been paid as the Church lays down, that there has been willful neglect amounting to disobedience of the Lord God and his spouse on earth the Church. 12. Such possession should allow the woodworm to outlive there normal span of years, and thus it might be that only a single generation of creeping things have wrought all the damage unto the throne and the roof. 13. What their status in the mighty hierarchy shall be – whether they be partly natural, whether they be living corruption, or whether they be creations of the devil – is a matter of those great doctors of the Church who weigh such matters.

Useful vocabulary:  a case  sufficient  a jurist  rebellion  a court  insolent  felony  the aforesaid  felonious  to do smb honour  a proceeding  cattle  in the same hand  holy  a plea  trial  almighty  to be in error  a spouse  a blessing  a malefactor  a blasphemy  obedient  a verse  to expel  a vessel  excommunication  eternal  to ruin one’s livelihood  shipwreck  to accuse of smth  spirit  trepid  a serpent  irruption  venom  sacrilege  foul  sacrilegious  penalty  apprehensive  the Garden of Eden  plague  hereby  locusts  habitation  grain  unworthy  to store up  crops  to offend  disobedience  to withdraw  a temple  to summon  rage  to try defendants  mercy  by writ  to commit the crime  a counter-argument  an iniquity  to have smth to do  customary  the sacred book of  without delay Genesis/Exodus  a sentence

21 Chapter 4 “The Survivor”

Task 1. Answer the comprehension questions to chapter 2. 1) Where is Kath from? How old is she? What is the approximate timeframe of the chapter? 2) What is Kath’s first school memory? 3) Why was she disappointed to find out that the deer in the Christmas sleigh were all male? 4) What did she think of reindeer antlers? Why was she surprised to see them bleed? 5) Why did people think Kath to be silly and sentimental after Chernobyl accident? 6) Why did she feel indignant about the actions of Norwegian government? What did she think of them? 7) What is the logical sequence Kath uses to prove that “everything is connected”? 8) Who is Greg? What kind of relationship Kath and he were in? 9) What did they quarrel and not quarrel about? Why? 10) What was Kath escaping from? How did she plan to do it? Who and what did she take with her? 11) How long did she travel in the high sea? What kind of health issues did she have? Why did she believe having them? 12) How does Kath come to the conclusion that the worriers survive? 13) At which point did she start seeing nightmares? What were they about? 14) What were the men in her nightmares trying to convince her in? How did they do it? 15) Why did she regret not getting pregnant before her voyage? 16) How did she find an island to land on? 17) Why did she start being tempted to believe in God?

Task 2. Make up a plan of the chapter according to the two types of narration presented in it. Distinguish between the events in the I-narration and she-narration.

Task 3. Discuss the following questions: 1. Who in your opinion does Kath blame for all the troubles in the world? 2. Why does she keep recollecting the episode from her school years? What is the quote from the Christopher Columbus poem for in the chapter? 3. How would you describe Kath as a person? Why? 4. Who sound more trustworthy in the chapter, Kath or the men from her dreams? Why? 5. How do the two kinds of narration (the I-narration and the she-narration) affect you as a reader?

Task 4. Find the original sentences in the text of the chapter. 1. Скорее всего, впервые она увидела их на рождественской открытке. 2. Они летали, вот в чем была вся штука. 3. Было ядовитое облако, и все следили, куда оно идет, как следили бы за перемещениями весьма любопытной области низкого давления на карте погоды. 4. Ей говорили, хватит сентиментальничать, в конце концов не придётся же ей жить на одной оленине, а раз она такая сердобольная, может лучше людей пожалеть?

22 5. …народ, очевидно, не станет есть оленину слишком часто, уж очень он напуган, а есть более заражённое мясо время от времени ничуть не вреднее, чем менее заражённое – постоянно. 6. Мне кажется, лучше было бы их хоронить. Тогда людям стало бы стыдно. 7. Грег был парень обыкновенный. 8. Он сказал, что не приходит домой, потому что ему надоело слушать мой нудеж. 9. Но через пару дней кошки свыклись друг с другом. 10. Наверно, она слегка перегрелась на солнце. 11. Меня дико мучала жажда и лихорадило. 12. Мы же все когда-то выползли из моря? 13. Эти мои сны продолжаются и после того, как я проснусь. Словно похмелье. 14. Было множество случаев, когда потерпевших крушение, которых прежде обязательно бы спасли, просто не замечали. 15. Я всегда сомневалась во фразе «выживают наиболее приспособленные». 16. Она соорудила себе маленький навес там, куда не добирался прилив. 17. Жара всё не спадала.

Task 5. Paraphrase the sentences. 1. People tried to argue her out of it, they said if you believe that you’ll believe anything. 2. It might even teach the Russians a lesson, people said. Make them think twice about dropping the big one. 3. It was much of a news story, just an inch or two on the foreign page. 4. I wouldn’t let him [Greg] have Paul [the cat] fixed, even if he did mess up the furniture quite a bit. 5. We didn’t row about the Big Thing. 6. He [Greg] said if he wanted a bit on the side then it wouldn’t be because of the world situation but because I was on his back all the time. 7. Still, he [Greg] only had a quarter share in her. 8. Greg could never tire of the joke. 9. Her expectations were not high. 10. I couldn’t have made it up, could I? 11. There were always people keeping an eye out for you. 12. So maybe that ship on the horizon wouldn’t have spotted her anyway. 13. You’ve been attacking men. – Oh, yes? What was I after, their wallets? 14. But I gave as good as I got, didn’t I? 15. What’s it got to do with Greg? 16. Perhaps, you were laying too many expectations on him? 17. You like putting all your eggs in one basket. 18. I decided on a switch of tactics.

23 Useful vocabulary:  obedient  tinned food  plait  high tide  reindeer  to exploit  to harness  to abandon  a stag  to be accustomed to  stubborn  a venture  antlers  to scatter  scarlet  a hangover  to teach a lesson  an engine  to track one’s course  urge  to make jokes of smth  notion  to gleam  to grin  to contaminate  bandages  a corpse  deception  a mink  plausible  to give up doing smth  destruction  a bloke  a trap  tame  ignorant  to turn smth into smth else  nuclear war  to back down  to respond  an impregnator  complacent  in tune  pathetic  to reckon

24 Chapter 5 “The Shipwreck”

Task 1. Answer the comprehension questions to the chapter. 1) Which actions were taken in order to save the cabin boy? 2) How did the “shipwreck” happen? What does the narrator view as its main cause? 3) What happened with most of the provisions for the raft? 4) Why could the raft not reach the shore? 5) What were the conditions for the people on the raft? 6) What were the causes for people dying on the raft? What did they do to survive? What brought them hope? 7) How many people were eventually rescued? And how did it happen? 8) What happened with the people who had chosen to stay on the frigate? In which way did their fate echo the fate of those on the raft? 9) Which genre is the second part in chapter 5? 10) What did Theodor Gericault do in order to create “The Raft of the Medusa”? 11) What does the narrator do first in order to answer the question of what Gericault’s intentions were? 12) In which way is the perception of the masterpiece different by the ignorant and the informed eye? What does each of them pay attention to? 13) What is the other painting mentioned in the chapter? What does it look like? 14) What were the reactions to the masterpiece described at the beginning and the end of chapter?

Task 2. Discuss the following questions: 1. How is the idea of different accounts of history developed in the chapter? 2. Look at the masterpiece, which effect does it produce on you? Why? Are you looking at it as the ignorant or the informed eye? 3. At the beginning of part II the narrator asks the question “How to turn catastrophe into art?”. Provide other examples in both visual and other kinds of arts. Do you think this is ethical? 4. Comment upon the reactions of particular people mentioned in the chapter. Why do you think they were as they were or what did they imply? 5. Comment upon the quote from the chapter: “Truth to life, at the start, to be sure; yet once the process gets under way, truth to art is the greater allegiance.”

Task 3. Restore day by day a) the order of human losses, b) the provisions which helped the people to survive, c) the feelings they had.

Task 4. Find in the text the English equivalents to the following sentences. 1. Они шли на юг, подгоняемые свежим ветром, к фрегату приблизилась стая морских свиней. 2. Не удалось найти даже плотик, тем более юнгу. 3. Его советами пренебрегли. 4. К несчастью, они наткнулись на риф, когда вода стояла высоко.

25 5. Порядок был восстановлен. 6. Они кое-как смастерили из солдатских жетонов крючки для рыбной ловли. 7. Теперь подошло время принять самое ужасное решение. 8. Не будь все оружие, кроме единственной сабли, выброшено в море, кровь могла бы пролиться еще раз. 9. Иными словами, задуманная им картина не должна была быть <…> недвусмысленной. 10. Можно сказать больше, изобразив меньше. 11. Что говорит в пользу этого первого предположения? 12. Почему бы для начала не счесть моряков по головам? 13. Эта фигура помогает нам истолковать "Сцену кораблекрушения" как образ обманутой надежды. 14. Мы начинаем с шедевра и пробираемся назад сквозь отброшенные идеи и полуудачи; но у него эти отброшенные идеи рождались как озарения, и то, что нам дано сразу, он увидел лишь в самом конце. 15. Я бросился бежать и бежал как сумасшедший всю дорогу до своего дома на рю де ла Планш.

Task 5. Paraphrase the sentences from the text. 1. Now it(the expedition) continued south with its complement reduced by one. 2. But it was at this instant of greatest hope and expectation for those upon the raft that the breath of egotism was added to the normal winds of the seas. 3. The next day the seas were calm, and for many hope was rekindled. Nevertheless, two young lads and a baker, convinced that there was no escape from death, bade farewell to their companions and willingly embraced the sea. 4. A group of men, certain that they were lost, broke open a cask of wine and resolved to soothe their last moments by abandoning the power of reason. 5. Dominique’s head had been split open by a sabre. 6. Delirium now menaced the unhappy survivors. 7. Even those sceptical ones who declined to recognize a divine instrument knew with cautious hope that butterflies travel little distance from the dry land. 8. The manner in which they were saved was truly miraculous, and the finger of Heaven was conspicuous in the event. 9. How did they feel about posing for this reprise of their sufferings? 10. He painted for as long as there was light with a remorselessness which was also rooted in technical necessity 11. Cannibalism was a heathen practice which could be usefully condemned in paint while surreptitiously enflaming the spectator. 12. Better to wait until more on board have died, the raft has risen out of the water, and the horizontal plane becomes fully available. 13. The ignorant eye yields, with a certain testy reluctance, to the informed eye. 14. Whatever we decide that the old man is thinking, his presence becomes as powerful a force in the painting as that of the hailer. 15. we feel as if the frantic waving by those on the raft might have some effect over the next few minutes, and that the picture, instead of being an instant of time,

26 propels itself into its own future, asking the question, Will the ship sail off the edge of the canvas without seeing the raft? 16. It is a normal temptation to schematize, reducing eight months to a finished picture and a series of preliminary sketches; but we must resist this. 17. The painter isn’t carried fluently downstream towards the sunlit pool of that finished image, but is trying to hold a course in an open sea of contrary tides. 18. Withered castaways in tattered rags are in the same emotional register as that butterfly, the first impelling us to an easy desolation as the second impels us to an easy consolation.

Useful vocabulary:  to marvel at smth  to swallow  a vessel  a portent  a raft  fatal  an oar  timbers  a rudder  prey  to maneuver  an ordeal  to perish  to interrogate  ineptitude  a canvas  in shallows  a masterpiece  to discount one’s advice  a concern  by misfortune  a shipwreck  personnel  preliminary  to trace upon loose sand  to resemble  to cast off  grief  to cast away  grievous  to cast aside  to rescue  to take command of smth  to presume  to tow  presumption  barely  to assume  scarcely  assumption  to roar  to back up smth  to mingle  an icon  delusion  muscular  despondency  a spectator  deceptive  to depict  to madden  over-life size  a mutiny  to generate public interest  a mutineer  praise  a villain  condemnation  cannibalism  in equal measure  to perform an execution  to exhibit  to put on allowance  to assume vs. to presume

27 Chapter 6 “The Mountain”

Task 1. Answer the comprehension questions to the chapter. 1) What was the ticking sound that Colonel Fergusson heard on his death bed? What meaning did it have for him and his daughter? 2) What was Amanda Fergusson’s attitude to her father? Why had she never married? 3) In what way did Amanda’s and Colonel’s views differ? Did it affect their attitude to each other in any way? 4) After Colonel’s death where did Amanda decide to travel? For what purpose? 5) Who did Amanda choose as her companion in the trip? What kind of person was it? Which interests did they share? 6) What impression did both of them produce on the Ambassador at the Turkish border? 7) How did their journey go? What was their route? 8) When they first saw the Mount Ararat, what did it look like? What was the local name for it? What two explanations was Miss Fergusson talking about? 9) What was the bargain that the ladies and the Armenian priest were trying “to strike”? Why? 10) What did the monastery look like? What were the monks busy with? 11) How were they received at the monastery? How did the impressions of the two ladies differ? 12) Why were they not served wine in the house of an old man? 13) What thoughts preoccupied Miss Logan on their way from the village to the mountain? 14) Why did Miss Fergusson have to stay in the cave? 15) What prevented Miss Logan from returning to her?

Task 2. Discuss the following questions: 1. What do you think of the three main characters of the chapter – Colonel Fergusson, his daughter Amanda, and Miss Logan? Do you consider any of them to be righteous or sinful? Support your point of view with examples from the chapter. 2. Do you think that Miss Fergusson had a low opinion of Miss Logan? Find examples in the text of the chapter, proving either this or the contrary. 3. What are the connections between this chapter with the previous one. How 4. Colonel Fergusson and his daughter had opposing views on what is art and how it tells a story. Think of a plot or real event that has become a base for both a piece of art and a piece of pop culture. Describe them in detail. In what way are they different? 5. Think of two people, who like Colonel Fergusson and Amanda, despite having cardinally different outlooks on the world, sincerely care for each other. What in your opinion unites them?

Task 3. Restore Miss Fergusson and Miss Logan’s route from Dublin to Ararat. Make a research on geopolitical situations regarding the territories the ladies traveled along.

28 Task 4. Find in the text the English equivalents to the following sentences. 1. Его дочь Аманда сидела у кровати в профиль к нему – чопорная, с надутыми губами – и читала очередную книжонку, полную религиозной зауми. 2. <…> он верил в способность мира к прогрессу, в победу человека, в крах суеверий. 3. Аманда Фергюссон опустила книгу на колени; теперь она тревожно смотрела на потолок. 4. Одна сцена сменяла другую, на разматывающемся полотне играли разноцветные огни, а оркестровое сопровождение подчеркивало драматичность событий. 5. Приехав домой, она так и сказала отцу. 6. Ты обязан умирать, как им хочется, да еще изволь любить их сколько можешь. 7. Прослушав эту странную лекцию, мисс Логан скрыла свое удивление, однако почувствовала, что дальнейшие расспросы будут нелишними. 8. Без сомнения, – ответил посол, переводя взгляд на мисс Логан в поисках какого-нибудь ключа к личности ее нанимательницы. 9. <…> она чувствовала, что превратилась едва ли не в обузу и ее теперешний статус немногим выше, чем у уволенного драгомана или вновь нанятого курда. 10. Однако купля-продажа так и не состоялась 11. Писание не дает точных указаний на этот счет. 12. Между тем мисс Фергюссон оставалась деятельной и целеустремленной. 13. Но ведь зверям было наказано плодиться и размножаться. Им следовало бы исполнить Божью волю. 14. Грех должен быть смыт водой. 15. Мисс Логан была серьезно обеспокоена этими словами. 16. Все призывало их спуститься, но они по-прежнему шли вверх.

Task 5. Paraphrase the sentences from the text. 1. If he hadn’t adored her he would have treated her as a credulous imbecile. 2. He could tell she hadn’t really got her nose in the Reverend Abraham. 3. Amanda had been chosen above her five siblings by reason of her precocity with water-colour – at least, this was Colonel Fergusson’s official excuse for indulging his natural preference once again. 4. Amanda’s grief for her father was compounded by anxiety over his ontological status. 5. Miss Logan was a vigorous and seemingly practical woman some ten years older than Miss Fergusson, and had been fond of the Colonel without any zephyr of indiscretion arising. 6. They took mackintoshes and heavy greatcoats, anticipating that Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s dream of perennial sunshine was unlikely to be fulfilled for lesser voyagers. 7. Miss Fergusson was disinclined to assist the heathen in his false adorations. 8. Miss Logan had further imagined that their journey, while devotional in its final purpose, might afford pleasant opportunities for sketching, the activity which had first established a bond between employer and companion.

29 9. Miss Fergusson, on the other hand, had merely been put into a temper: first by the attempt to thrust some foolish meaning on to the scriptural verse; and secondly by the priest’s brazen commercial behaviour. 10. She did not communicate this reflection to Miss Logan, who had so far proved dismally unreceptive to the transcendental. 11. Something urged Miss Logan to kneel before the pastor of Noah’s church; but the presence and certain disapproval of Miss Fergusson <…>prevented her. 12. It seemed to Miss Logan that her employer had perhaps exhausted her stock of civility on the long journey to Mount Ararat 13. Miss Logan made indeterminate gestures to the priest, then set off in pursuit of her employer. 14. Miss Logan looked at Amanda Fergusson cautiously, unsure how to express the view that to her humble and ignorant mind the punishment seemed excessive. 15. She pitched forwards and sideways, sliding a dozen yards down the slope before the Kurd was able to arrest her progress. 16. She felt resolved in spirit but uncertain how best to proceed. 17. Miss Logan could not help observing to herself that the earthquake had killed all the inhabitants while leaving intact those vines which – if Miss Fergusson should be believed – were the very source of their temptation and their punishment 18. The question she was avoiding was whether Miss Fergusson might not have been the instrument of her own precipitation, in order to achieve or confirm whatever it was she wanted to achieve or confirm.

Useful vocabulary:  to acquire an opinion  a companion  to bluff  approval/disapproval  to play tricks on smb  a heathen  a sibling  a summit  insubordination  to disembark  commandments  a dwelling  in accordance with  gracious  a savage  dismissive  to manifest  arrogant  to mould  a blasphemy  to exhibit  hospitality  divine intent  precipitation  hazard  temptation  malice  to ascend  to rebuke  to descend  mockery  a slope  to flourish  in pursuit of  a lantern  to indulge  gunpowder  indiscretion  an ambassador  inclination  inconvenience  excessive  secure

30 Chapter 7 “Three Simple Stories”

Task 1. Answer the comprehension questions to the chapter. 1) Under which circumstances did the narrator meet Lawrence Beesley? 2) Which features of character did the narrator reveal? How did he use to treat the old man? 3) What was L. Beesley famous for? How did he survive at the Titanic? 4) What was the narrator’s outlook on the world? What did he see as evidence to prove it? 5) Why did L. Beesley try to get on board the ship in the screen version of the notorious shipwreck? How did he manage to do that? 6) Why does the narrator reckon that Beesley’s example is an example of “Marx’s elaboration of Hegel”? 7) Jonah was swallowed by the fish as punishment for having disobeyed God’s order. What was the order? How did Jonah disobey it according to the chapter? 8) How does the narrator describe God? What does he reckon God should be credited for? 9) What do we ignore when we focus on the whale in this myth? 10) In what respect is Noah mentioned in the chapter? 11) What assumptions does the narrator make about the reason why we remember the myth? 12) What kind of examples does the narrator provide to debunk our common sense views on chances to survive in a whale’s belly? 13) What is the mechanism of a myth turning into reality described in the chapter? 14) Why were Jewish refugees allowed to take only 10 Reichsmarks with them when leaving Nazi Germany? 15) Why did the Jews find the treatment on the St.Louis abnormal? What was the overall atmosphere during the “cruise” up to the moment they anchored in Havanah? 16) Why were their visas declared invalid? 17) Why did some people attempted to commit suicide? 18) Who and why was shamed by the American press? Who felt the shame? 19) What was the liner route after Havanah? Why was it so intricate? 20) Where did the passenger of the liner end up?

Task 2. Discuss the following questions: 1. What do the three simple stories have in common with each other? What are references can be found to the previous chapters? What kind of “verbal connections” can be found between the stories and the chapters? 2. Would you agree with the quote from the first story that “bad blood drove out good”? Support your views. 3. What do you think of the narrator’s reflection in the second story that myths look forward to reality? 4. How do you know that in the third story fact is described but not fiction?

31 Task 3. Find the original sentences in the text of the chapter. 1. <…> библиотека по непонятной причине казалась чем-то большим, нежели просто набитой книгами комнатой. 2. Школу основал дед, и он до сих пор жил вместе со всеми. Хотя ему давно перевалило за восемьдесят, он лишь в последнее время был отлучен от преподавания каким-то моим товарным предшественником. 3. Бизли, дока по части критических ситуаций, подделал пропуск, открывающий доступ на палубу копии «Титаника». 4. В этой истории мало правдоподобного. 5. Бог решил-таки пощадить город. 6. Подобно большинству ветхозаветных историй, эта отличается гнетущим отсутствием свободной воли. 7. Когда появился фильм «Челюсти», было много попыток объяснить его воздействие на зрителей. 8. Строго говоря, этот китовый мотив получил отнюдь не лучшее воплощение. 9. если им удавалось перехитрить систему, тогда они были экономическими преступниками, удирающими с награбленным добром. 10. Высадка застопорилась. 11. <…> различным влиятельным людям были отправлены послания с просьбой вмешаться. 12. Ход событий освещала немецкая, английская и американская пресса.

Task 4. Paraphrase the sentences. 1. You know the social moral of the story: the meritrocrat becomes infected with snobbery. Reality proved more local. 2. Had I read enough French novels at the time, I would have known what to expect. 3. He <…> was crossing the Atlantic – according to subsequent family legend, at least – in half-hearted pursuit of an American heiress. 4. The heroes, the solid men of yeoman virtue, the good breeding stock, even the captain (especially the captain!) – they all went down nobly with the ship; whereas the cowards, the panickers, the deceivers found reasons for skulking in a lifeboat. Was this not deft proof of how the human gene-pool was constantly deteriorating, how bad blood drove out good? 5. When other ships were sunk by icebergs he would be telephoned by newsmen eager for him to imagine the fate of the victims. 6. Years later I have still to discover a better one (illustration of the process described by K.Marx). 7. <…> Nineveh, a place which, despite God’s substantial record of annihilating wicked cities, was still <…> a wicked city. 8. As if it wasn’t enough, God, tireless to prove himself top dog, now pulled a fancy parable on his minion. 9. Jonah (portrayed as everything from muscular faun to bearded elder) has an iconography whose pedigree and variety would make Noah envious.

32 10. <…> the captain largely circumvented such orders, decreeing that this journey should resemble other cruises by the St Louis… 11. <…> no one on board was “an idiot, or insane or suffering from a loathsome or contagious disease”. 12. <…> if Cuba proved inaccessible, the United States, to which most of his passengers had the right of eventual entry, would surely accept them earlier than promised. 13. Was it (the selection of people to disembark) to be done by casting lots? 14. In the end, the Cuban government was to fix on a bond of $500 for each Jew. 15. Venezuela, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay and Argentina were all approached; each declined to bear the world’s shame single-handed. Useful vocabulary:  shuttered  the Purgatory  self-conscious  primal  gaudy  archetypical  to stuff  grip (n)  robust  plausible  daunt  to suffocate  genuine  to bleach  to nod in reply  evasion  an octogenarian  to enforce  confirmation  to dispossess  cunning  courteous  to make no mention of smth  in accordance with the  successive regulations  adept  landing permits  to insinuate  transition  a wicked city  to anchor  superstitious folk  whereabouts  to swallow  sound (adj.)  to vomit  marooned  to prove oneself top dog  xenophobia  to spare (one’s life)  syringe  a schizophrenic contempt of  counter-proposal court  to withdraw an offer  jail  to terminate  salvation  to revive  womb

33 Chapter 8 “Upstream”

Task 1. Answer the comprehension questions to the chapter. 1. What does the main part of the text present? 2. What is the narrator’s occupation? Why do kids in Caracas recognize him? 3. Who is he writing to? How did the letters get to the post office? 4. What are they filming? Where is the coming film set? Why was it decided to shoot there? Who are Matt and Vic, whose names are most mentioned in the letters? 5. What was the myth told by the electrician? How was he treated for telling it? Did the myth prove to be true? 6. How much time passed till the filming crew reached the location and met the Indian tribe? Why were there two camps set? 7. What are the main things the narrator constantly complaining about? 8. What does he think of the Indians, their way of life and manner of communication? What amazes him about them? 9. One of the letters finishes with the following words “My blessings on thee, daughter, sin no more.” Why, do you think, Charlie uses them? 10. What was the Indians’ reaction to the death of one of their own? How did the crew react to the incident? 11. In what way the relationships between Fimin and Antonio (the characters of the film) were parallel to the actors’ playing them? 12. What were Charlie, Vic and Matt arguing about (see the end of Letter 7)? 13. What kind of accident took place at the shooting? Who does Charlie think is to blame and what does he assume their motifs to be? 14. How does the tone of Charlie’s letters change after the accident? What does he keep questioning? 15. What do the final letters and telegrams tell about Charlie and Pipa’s relationship?

Task 2. Discuss the following questions 1. Would you say that Charlie is a famous actor or not? What makes you think so? 2. What kind of person is Charlie? What assumptions can we make about his relationships with Pippa before his trip to Columbia? 3. Charlie’s letters and wires are in a way a diary. We can see how his views are changing from the beginning up to the end. Do you believe these changes to be conscious attempts to give the recipient a particular impression or do they reflect some unconscious process? 4. What do think to be true reasons for the catastrophe at the end of the chapter? 5. The Indians had no alphabet or writing system, they passed their stories orally. In your opinion what is their role and the role of storytelling in general in this chapter?

34 Task 3. Find the original sentences in the text of the chapter. 1. <…> старое доброе христианство что-то не шибко повлияло на его манеру крутить баранку. 2. <…> в Каракасе меня все-таки раскололи. 3. Я рассказал ему свою плаксивую любовную историю, а он мне свою. 4. Звучит вроде бы неправдоподобно, но вспомни, к примеру, лососей. 5. <…> я только и вижу, как он крутит шуры-муры со всей съемочной группой. 6. Матт мне потом заметил, что вся эта затея казалась ему почти безнадежной. 7. Я начинаю видеть вещи в истинном свете. 8. К этому, видимо, и сводится вся его философия. 9. <…> дело, чувствую, дохлое. 10. Ради пущей безопасности плот был привязан длинной веревкой к дереву на берегу <…>. На нас с Маттом тоже были веревки – все по контракту. 11. Это случилось на третий прогон.

Task 4. Paraphrase the sentences. 1. <…> we <…> had our last night on the Jonny Walker now it’s local firewater or nothing. 2. <…> I like myself thinking into the part as soon as possible. 3. <…> I told him (Vic) <…> about shouldn’t he (the Jesuit) be given a bit more obvious humanity because priests aren’t great box-office nowadays. 4. Got stinko paralitico together on our last night in town. 5. Ouch in spades, to say the least of it. 6. <…> forty of us slogging into the Jungle all because we bought his line about needing to work our way into the reality of a couple of deeply dead Jesuit priests. 7. If you’re telling fibs, keep them simple, that’s the rule, isn’t it? 8. <…> the only exercise in the normal run of things is putting their legs under a table and aiming their snouts at the trough. 9. Not much chance of this particular member of this particular tribe watching British telly the same night Fish Sparks was. And not much chance Fishy learning enough of the local lingo to set up a sting like this. 10. <…> he (Vic) thought we (Charlie and Matt)’d gel together on screen. 11. What’s more they (the Indians) might have done him an injury if he hadn’t pulled off his cassock pretty smartish and turned back into Matt, which calmed them down. 12. Matt and me get edgier with one another off camera as well as on. The film’s all spilling over into the rest of the time. 13. Taking two days off. I think that’s a silly decision be Vic but I expect he’s got the unions on his back. He says it’s a good idea to recharge the batteries before the big scene. I think if you’re on a roll you better go with the flow. 14. <…> Matt and I were already into our quarrel and it shows what a pro he was to his fingertips that he carried on as per normal. So did I for that matter. 15. It’s the sort of thing that gets handed down as the women are pounding the manioc root or whatever.

35 16. Apparently the movie has to be officially called off in some way and that takes time. Task 5. The making of the film has definitely caught media’s attention right after the news of the accident started spreading. Produce coverage for the events either for the press or for TV. You may include short commentaries from the people involved (Charlie, Vic, Fish Sparks). Useful vocabulary:  dashboard  to sweep away  to strangle  spiritual  to nag  sophisticated  tummy  breakdown  to charge for smth  swagger  downpour  ludicrous  to crumple  hostile  headquarters  to baptize  to zip/unzip  pointer  agile  permissiveness  squeamish  subversive  spell  to giggle  stitch  the ten commandments  comradeship  rehearsal  mature  biro  obscure  the apple of one’s eye  stumble  to dub  to track down  to pass out  to vanish  knot  to wipe out  trustworthy  ancestor  to offend  outfit  insult  garment  coincidence  bloke  descendant  to persuade  appalling  crew

36 Chapter 9 “Project Ararat”

Task 1. Read the chapter and answer the following questions: 1) What was Spike Tiggler famous for? How did he get his nickname? 2) How was he received by the town after the project Apollo? 3) What was his occupation and achievements before the project? 4) How did Spike court Mary-Beth and persuade her to marry him? What was her mother’s attitude to Spike? 5) What were Spike’s “relationships” with church and faith before the project? 6) How did his life change right after the flight to the Moon? 7) When he heard the voice telling him to find the Ark, what did it sound to him? 8) How did the conversation with the governor of North Carolina in the limousine go? 9) What did Mary-Beth try to talk about after they had got to the hotel? 10) How did Mary-Beth’s visit to the NASA psychiatrist affect Spike’s career? 11) Why did Mary-Beth felt cheated and occasionally think of divorcing Spike? 12) What did she fear and consider to be the worst before Spike’s first fund-raising event at the Moondust Diner? 13) Why did she regain confidence in her husband by the end of the event? 14) Who was Reverend Gibson and what relation did he have to the campign? 15) How did the fund-raising campaign go and what kind of things did people donate? 16) How were Spike and Jimmy received in Turkey? 17) What kind of conversation did Spike and Jimmy have about the mountain being divided among the three nations? 18) How long did the search for the Ark go? What did find out about the location? What did the find in the end? 19) What kind of doubts did Jimmy have about the finding? What did they decide to do in the end?

Task 2. Discuss the following questions 1. In your opinion, how would Spike and Mary Beth’s marriage develop after Project Ararat? 2. How do people fit religious convictions of any sort into a “scientific explanation” of the world? 3. What religious motifs are used in the chapter that connects mountains with mysticism? Have these motifs been employed by the author before? Task 3. Spike Tiggler has stepped on the moon and become famous. He has also used this fame to start a project of his life. Make up and act out a full-time interview for an evening TV show that Spike and Mary-Beth are giving after his return from Ararat.

Task 4. Find in the text the English equivalents to the following sentences. 1. Однако в 1943 году, когда отец Спайка Тиглера, едва выросшего из коротких штанишек, взял его с собой в Китти-Хок, этого ковчега еще не было.

37 2. <…> Уэйдсвилл, Северная Каролина, – маленький городок об одном банке, где хозяину автозаправочной станции приходилось торговать еще и спиртным, чтоб хоть как-то свести концы с концами 3. Кое-кто из слушавших вообще вряд ли когда покидал Уэйдсвилл, так что не имел насчет этого своего мнения. 4. <…> все решили, что слова Спайка можно принять на веру. 5. <…> взбаламученная им пыль, которая медленно оседала позади, смахивала на песок с грязного пляжа. 6. Спайк обернулся посмотреть, куда он убежал. 7. Она приголубила его. 8. Я думал, следит ли за мной камера. 9. <…> он ответил только: «А вы как думаете?» – что отнюдь не рассеяло сомнений Бетти.

Task 5. Paraphrase the sentences from the text. 1. You have been warned to expect all manner of religious excrescence in the Carolinas 2. the Wadesville diner, which Spike had once thought very grand but which now reminded him of a funeral parlor 3. it wasn’t just Mary-Beth’s mother who’d thought him wild and regretted that the war had ended too soon for them to ship young Tiggler out East and fight the Japs instead of fighting half the town. 4. Spike Tiggler’s home town was strong for the Democrats and even stronger for the Baptists. 5. If it were not for the Sabbath, the Lord might very well have intended Spike to receive a whack upside the head. 6. But nobody could have put a recorder in his helmet – there wasn’t room for it, he’d have noticed, they wouldn’t have allowed it. 7. After splashdown came the personal how-de-do from the White House. 8. The Governor followed Spike’s head indulgently as it panned through 180 degrees, then answered his question without it being put. 9. this time he was out on his own. 10. with the stress of the flight and the enormous publicity attending the missions, it wasn’t altogether surprising that one or two reality shifts might have taken place 11. it must be tough coming back from up there and having to readjust to the daily grind 12. This was a new development she couldn’t help noticing in him. 13. He looked around the room, giving hi-there inclinations of the head to those he recognized. 14. He didn’t refer to lunar commands from the Almighty, not once. 15. Reporters were given fact-sheets itemizing the latest contributions and endorsements. 16. He also guested on a number of religious TV shows. 17. He came across as good and simple and true, which helped the checks roll in to Project Ararat, care of Betty Tiggler, who naturally paid herself a salary.

38 18. You did not seek to outdraw the Lord, unless you wanted a slug in the gut. 19. At times this could get to bug you, but Jimmy was one hundred ten per cent funded by Project Ararat, so he endured such high spirits as he would have suffered bad temper. 20. Piety, convenience and greed were all silently present. Useful vocabulary:

 to worship  to handle smth low-profile  to keep poker face  a desk job  a convertible  sympathetic  a proprietor  to hit the back porch  hereabouts  a stunt  way back  a prophecy  a replica  sophisticated technology  allure  a whirlwind  fund-raising  a charitable institution  back at the time  simple-minded  resentful  a reverend  a piece of cargo  a well-wisher  indulgent  a church congregation  upside down  a zealot  a cover story  a token of good will  appropriate  reluctant  to apprehend  to kneel  all of a sudden  solitude  suspicious  a summit  outrageous  intact  to anticipate  to christen  a behavioural pattern  to smuggle  a long-lasting effect  a vertebra

39 Chapter 10 “The Dream”

Task 1. Read the chapter and answer the following questions: 1. Where did the narrator wake up and who brought him breakfast? 2. What kind of breakfast was it? What was so special about its every detail? 3. What were his clothes like? What kind of things happened to some pieces before his eyes? 4. How did his first shopping go? What kind of things did he purchased and why? 5. Why was the narrator so much amazed at the news of his football club winning FA Cup? What other striking things were on the news? 6. How did his first golf game go? What were his achievements? What did he attempted to do afterwards? Did he get what he wanted? 7. Why was he worried about his wife’s arrival? 8. What kind of explanation does he provide for his dream of being judged? How did his “trial” go? 9. Who were the celebrities he met? Why did he choose to meet them? 10. Why did he have to part with Brigitta? 11. What troubled him? What kind of questions did he ask to Margaret? How did their conversation go? How did she treat him? 12. What other experiences did have and how did he feel about them? What questions bothered him when he addressed Margaret the second time? 13. What was the Hell like over there? What was the Old Heaven like? 14. What did Margaret think of the New version of Heaven and people’s desire to stick to their bodies? 15. What were the relationships between the New and Old Heaveners once the New Heavens had been created? 16. Why did Heaveners want to die off and how did it happen? In what way was it different from dying in real life? What kind of people died off first? What kind of people died off last? 17. What did the narrator occupy himself with afterwards?

Task 2. Discuss the following questions 1. Do you like the idea of the Heavens pictured in the chapter? What would your experiences in this case be? What kind of breakfast would you have? What kind of clothes would wear? Which celebrity or historical figure would you meet? 2. Do you know all the famous people mentioned in the chapter? Find out what they are known for. 3. With the concept of free will on the one hand and the idea of permissiveness on the other J.Barnes creates his Heavens. Why there is no place for God in it? 4. Would you consider yourself to be an average person, as the narrator claims?

Task 3. Make up a series of 5–7-commercials for the Heaven described in the chapter. Try to reflect every aspect of the New Heaven to make it attractive to all kinds of people. Think of a common slogan and the brand name.

40 Task 4. Find in the text the English equivalents to the following sentences. 1. Я отбился от остальных и забрел туда, где живут настоящие богачи. 2. Если подумать, работа у нее довольно скучная. 3. У вас есть пластиковая карта, и вы опускаете ее в щель рядом с товаром, который хотите купить, а потом пробиваете нужное количество. 4. Я тоже все это перебрал, только потом. 5. Какое блестящее сочетание мастеров и воли к победе! 6. Все клюшки были мне точно по руке. 7. <…> у нее было слабое сердце, так что перенапряжение могло оказаться опасным. 8. Я боялся <…> мучился размышлениями о предоставленном мне огромном кредите. 9. На их месте я бы устроил какие-нибудь вступительные экзамены или хотя бы иногда выносил нам оценки. 10. Я освоил эту игру в совершенстве. 11. Мим стоял у входа в театр и периодически резко вскидывал вверх руки, чтобы вызвать у посетителей приятный испуг. 12. <…> они просили меня держать их личную жизнь в секрете.

Task 5. Paraphrase the sentences from the text. 1. The sausage: again, not a tube of lukewarm horsemeat stuffed into a French letter, but dark umber and succulent … a … a sausage, that’s the only word for it. 2. All the others, the ones I’d thought I’d enjoyed in my previous life, were merely practicing to be like this; they’d been auditioning – and they wouldn’t get the part, either. 3. I couldn’t believe that serious thought had once gone into the matter of how to relieve this tea-drinking gentleman of the incredible burden of picking up a normal strainer with his free hand. 4. And don’t look down your nose at me, by the way. You’d have done much the same yourself. 5. But I know a thing or two about football, and I’ve supported Leicester City all my life, and I wouldn’t have believed it, that’s the point. Don’t get me wrong, I’m not running my team down. 6. She would be there if I needed more than mere practical assistance. 7. Did it all add up to more than a mere adjustment problem? 8. But I knew a few people who went to church, had their babies christened, didn’t use rude words. What about them?’ – ‘Oh, we get those,’ she said. ‘They’re catered for. 9. There are bound to be a few surprises. 10. We’ve got free will sorted out here, as you may have noticed.’ 11. Scholarly people, they tend to last as long as anyone. 12. my caddy’s astonishment became routine.

41 Useful vocabulary:  To audition  To indicate  A crescent  To drag smb down/up  Succulent  To confess  A definition of luxury  A confession  To spot smth  An amenity  An insignia  Sturgeon  To pamper  perverse  To blink  Crisp (adj)  A midnight feast  Off the pitch  Transparent liquid  To impose  currant  Defensive  To tassel  reasonable deduction  To tug  patch of bad weather  To plunder  tenaciously  A golf course  surgery  A golf club  to shrug  Pushy  complacently  To run one’s team down  eternity  A se pffender  to diminish  To repent  a millennium  To ladder (about tights)  sympathetic  A caddy  perpetual  Adamant  to complain  Reluctant  willing

42 SECTION 2. VOCABULIARY EXTENTION This section contains lexical units which might be useful at any point of reading and discussing the book. “Vocabulary to discuss fiction” would be useful in reviewing the chapters and pieces, in expressing your opinions and views. “Useful phrases for rendering, summarizing and comparison” is aimed at more objective and impersonal writing works. “Political metaphors” and “The language of the Bible” will help to better understand the novel.

Vocabulary to discuss fiction Task 1. When discussing books we usually talk about their plot, characters and language. The adjectives below are used to express our positive or negative attitude to them. Translate the adjectives and divide them into following groups: adjectives for describing adjectives expressing a. plots a. approval b. ideas of the author b. disapproval c. language and writing d. characters e. some episodes Mind that some adjectives can be used in more than one case. absorbing, believable, breathtaking, chilling, clichéd, compelling, confusing, contrived, convincing, depressing, dull, enjoyable, entertaining, gripping, haunting, hilarious, humourless, imaginative, implausible, impressive, incredible, inventive, likable, magnificent, marvelous, monotonous, moving, over-complicated, poor, predictable, profound, realistic, remarkable, ridiculous, riveting, shallow, spine-tingling, stirring, thought-provoking, unconvincing, unimaginative, weak Task 2. Match the adjectives from task 1 to their definitions. Mind that in some cases several answers are possible. 1) extremely exciting, beautiful, or surprising 2) admired or respected because it is special, important, or very large 3) very interesting and keeping your attention 4) beautiful, but in a sad way and often in a way that cannot be forgotten 5) not showing serious or careful thought 6) happening or behaving in a way that you expect and not unusual or interesting 7) causing strong feelings of sadness or sympathy 8) not changing and therefore boring 9) having or showing the ability to design or create something new 10) extremely funny and causing a lot of laughter 11) making you feel unhappy and without hope for the future 12) seeming unlikely to be true, or unable to be believed

43 Miscellaneous tasks on the vocabulary of the novel Task 1. The following animals or classes of animals are mentioned in chapter 1. Divide them into groups: real or mythological ones. according to their class 1. insects and worms 2. birds 3. amphibians 4. quadrupeds 5. mammals 6. crossbreeds a behemoth, a rhino, a hippo, a simurgh, a beast, a serpent, a sloth, species, an elk, larva, a raven, a pigeon, a basilisk, a sphinx, a plover, a salamander, a carbuncle, a woodworm, a hawk, a unicorn, a reindeer, an ass, a mare, a pelican, a heron, a hoopoe, a camel, a lizard, a shellfish, a lobster, a stork, a seal, a simian, a muskrat, an ostrich, an aardvark Describe two or three creatures of your choice in detail.

44 Task 2. Look at the pairs of synonyms. Using the dictionary and the English language Corpus describe the differences between them in meaning, form, etymology and usage. flood vs. deluge willful vs. short-tempered fastidious vs. squeamish queasy vs. nauseous tempest vs. storm shambles vs. slaughter a stunt vs. a trick to comprehend vs. to apprehend faith vs. belief terror vs. horror vs. fright vs. dread selfish vs. egoistic to vanish vs. to disappear

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE Task 1. Look at the list of most common biblical names and notions. Classify them into a. people b. place c. events d. parts of the bible and holy texts e. artefacts Adam, the Annunciation, the Apocalypse, an apostle, Armageddon, Calvary, crucifixion, a disciple, Eden, the elect, an epistle, the Holy Scripture, Eve, the Exodus, the Flood, the Genesis, Goliath, a gospel, the Holy Spirit, Jehovah, Jesus Christ, the Judgment Day, Madonna, manna, the messiah, Noah's ark, Our Lady, the paradise, a passion, the Promised Land, a psalm, the Resurrection, the Decalogue, the Fall of Man, the Holy Grail, the Last Supper, the Magi, the Old Testament, the Second Coming, the Ten Commandments, the Torah, a verse, the New Testament, the deadly sins, Our Saviour, the Purgatory Task 2. Match the words from task 6 with their Russian equivalents. Remember that biblical words and notions are to be translated according to tradition, especially in religious context. Learn them by heart. Священное писание, благовещение, Спаситель наш, апокалипсис, апостол, ученик, Армагеддон, Голгофа, распятие, Эдем, избранник, послание апостола, Ева, Адам, потоп, книга Бытие, книга Исход, Иегова, Голиаф, судный день, Ноев ковчег, земля обетованная, Новый Завет, Ветхий Завет, Тайная вечеря, грехопадение, священный Грааль, волхвы, Чистилище, десять заповедей (Декалог), Тора, строфа, Второе пришествие, мессия, страсть (соблазн, грех), смертный грех, Евангелие, Святой дух, Иисус Христос, Мадонна, Дева Мария, псалм.

45 Task 3. Read the information about most common biblical metaphors and expressions. By the skin of my teeth (Job 19:20) = to have a narrow escape This is one of the many proverbs that owe their origin to the colorful language of the Book of Job. The tormented hero Job is complaining about his woes. He has become, he says, so emaciated that “my bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth.” The proverbial meaning is that he has missed death by a tiny margin – as narrow as the (non-existent) skin on a person’s teeth. But biblical scholars have argued endlessly about what the phrase originally signified. Some argue for a more literal interpretation: that Satan kept Job’s mouth – the skin of his gums, jaws, and lips – healthy in order to encourage him to blaspheme against God. More recently, the heavy metal band Megadeath put an interesting slant on the saying when they used it as the title for a track on their third album in 1992. Frontman Dave Mustaine explained to a live audience: “This is a song about how many times I tried to kill myself and just couldn’t get the job done.” A house divided against itself (Matthew 12:25) = without unity there can be no strength Without unity there can be no strength In Matthew’s Gospel, Jesus tells a crowd of impudent Pharisees, “Every kingdom divided against itself is brought to desolation; and every city or house divided against itself shall not stand.” However, the phrase didn’t enter the modern lexicon until it was memorably quoted by Abraham Lincoln in his famous nomination acceptance speech of 1858. Addressing the contentious issue of slavery in the United States, he told an audience of Republican politicians that “a house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free.” His words were prophetic. Three years later, the U.S. government did indeed split, and the resulting civil war between slave and free states cost more than 600,000 lives. The phrase meanwhile, became famous, immortalized as the title of a 1913 movie, a 1935 novel, and, rather grandiosely, an episode of the hit TV series Dallas. Not exactly what Jesus had in mind. A drop in the bucket (Isaiah 40:15) = something negligible or insignificant Stuck between the mighty pharaohs on one side, and a succession of great Mesopotamian empires on the other, Israel was always destined to be a small fish in a big and dangerous pond. By the middle of the sixth century BC, the Jewish kingdoms had been conquered repeatedly, and a decent chunk of the population was living in painful exile in Babylon. Amid all this geopolitical gloom, the Book of Isaiah had some words of comfort. Compared to God, says the prophet, “the nations are as a drop of a bucket, and are counted as the small dust of the balance.” These days, in keeping with the modern enthusiasm for “super- sizing,” the “bucket” is often replaced with the “ocean.” A fleshpot (Exodus 16:13) = a place of vice and luxury, something sensual allure In the Book of Exodus, Moses leads the Hebrews out of Egypt to escape from the tyrannical pharaoh and find the Promised Land. They follow him eagerly enough at first, but it soon becomes clear that the journey will be far from straightforward. As geography students will remember, between Egypt and Israel lies the barren wasteland of the Sinai Desert. It 46 isn’t long before Moses’ flock start complaining: “Would to God we had died by the hand of the Lord in the land of Egypt,” they moan, “when we sat by the flesh pots, and when we did eat bread to the full.” “Flesh pots,” in this passage, means exactly what it sounds like: pots in which you cook flesh. But the fleshpots of Egypt became a popular metaphor for any luxurious scene imagined with regret or disapproval. Gradually, the Egyptian reference dropped away – in 1710, Jonathan Swift writes of the “fleshpots of Cavan Street” – until fleshpot became an all-purpose word for anywhere that was particularly alluring. These days a “fleshpot” can be anything from a casino in Las Vegas to a London nightclub. A scapegoat (Leviticus 16:8) = someone who is unfairly made to take the blame for something The Book of Leviticus describes the proper ceremonies to be observed on the Jewish Day of Atonement, when the land of Israel would be ritually cleansed of its sins. The procedure was that one goat would be offered to God as a sacrifice, while the other – the “scapegoat” – would be symbolically loaded with all the misdeeds of the nation before being driven into the wilderness. This ceremony was said to have been carried out each year since the Exodus from Egypt. It did, however, acquire one important modification after an unfortunate incident in which the scapegoat wandered out of the wilderness and merrily back towards Jerusalem. To prevent a repeat of this extremely bad omen, subsequent priests arranged that the scapegoat’s journey to the wilderness should start with a headlong plunge down a local cliff. After that, scapegoats became significantly less mobile. To cast pearls before swine (7:6) =to waste something valuable on those who cannot appreciate it This famous phrase is a quote from Matthew’s Gospel: “Give not that which is holy unto the dogs,” writes the Evangelist, “neither cast ye your pearls before swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and turn again and rend you.” This dramatic image – which of course gains extra power from the fact that pigs are considered unclean animals by orthodox Jews – became a favorite in the Middle Ages, first mentioned in English by William Langland in Piers Plowman in the fourteenth century. Charles Dickens used the phrase in his 1848 novel “Dombey and Son”, to mean “doing a thankless thing.” But the most famous occurrence, which gives a twist to the ancient meaning, is in a story about Dorothy Parker, the great American humorist of the 1920s. “Age before beauty,” said a cheeky young woman while holding a door open for Parker to pass. Quick as a flash Parker replied: “Pearls before swine.” To everything there is a season (Ecclesiastes 3:1) = there is a right time and a wrong time for everything This handy aphorism is another piece of wisdom from the Book of Ecclesiastes, in which the author offers his thoughts on life, death, and what it all means. “To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven,” he writes. Warming to his theme, he continues, there is “a time to kill and a time to heal”; “a time to weep and a time to laugh”; there’s even “a time to cast away stones.” The full list has twenty-eight different times, and covers eight biblical verses. With its philosophical and reflective tone, it has become one of the most quoted and most popular passages in the Old Testament, a firm favorite for readings at funerals and other sad occasions. In 1959 the famous words 47 even became a surprise hit when they were set to music by the folk musician Pete Seeger in a song called “Turn! Turn! Turn!” Covered by The Byrds in 1965, the track rocketed to number one on the U.S. singles chart – the iron-age lyrics are by far the oldest words ever to have become a chart-topping hit. Kiss of Life (Matthew 26:48–50) = mouth-to-mouth resuscitation; anything which revives and reinvigorates “Kiss of life” is thought to have entered English as an opposite to Judas’ treacherous “kiss of death.” It’s been used in Britain since at least 1961 as a term for mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, and its use in a more general sense goes back even further – in 1947 the phrase was briefly an advertising slogan for a firm of Detroit car salesmen. Today, however, the kiss of life – both as a phrase and as an action – is falling out of favor. Research shows that unconscious patients do better with chest compressions alone than they do when someone’s trying to blow air down their throat. And mouth-to-mouth resuscitation can go horribly wrong, with patients coughing up blood and vomiting and other such unpleasantness. In one famous incident from the 1970s, a British man almost died from a disease he caught when he gave the kiss of life to his dead pet parrot. Gird your loins (Peter 1:13) = to prepare, especially for something strenuous Two archaic words come together in this phrase. “Gird,” from the Old English gyrdan, means to put a belt (or girdle) around something. Loins, from the Latin lumbus, originally described the flanks of an animal and, from the fourteenth century, those parts of the human body which, as medieval writers primly put it, “should be covered.” In biblical times, when long robes were still in fashion, anyone embarking on strenuous physical activity or going into battle ran a serious risk of tripping on a trailing hem and falling flat on their face. The solution? To tuck one’s robe into one’s belt, i.e. to gird one’s loins. The phrase, in this literal sense, occurs frequently in the Bible, starting from the Second Book of Kings. The phrase can also be found in the Bible as a metaphor, in the First Epistle of Peter. “Gird up the loins of your mind,” writes the apostle to his followers – an awkward image, but he got his point across. Leviathan (Job 40:15, Isaiah 27:1) = something or someone that is extremely large and powerful Leviathan is a creature with the form of a sea serpent from Jewish belief, referenced in the Old Testament. some 19th century scholars have pragmatically interpreted it as referring to large aquatic creatures, such as the crocodile. Leviathan already figures in the Hebrew Bible as a metaphor for a powerful enemy, notably Babylon (Isaiah 27:1). The word Leviathan has come to refer to any sea monster, and from the early 17th century has also been used to refer to overwhelmingly powerful people or things (comparable to Behemoth), influentially so by Thomas Hobbes' book “Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil” (1651). The work concerns the structure of society and legitimate government, and is regarded as one of the earliest and most influential examples of social contract theory, and ranks as a classic Western work on statecraft. As a term for sea monster, it has also been used of great whales in particular, e.g. in Herman Melville's Moby-Dick. In Modern Hebrew, the word now simply means "whale". 48

The behemoth (Job 40:15–24) = a huge animal, anything extremely large The behemoth is a mysterious animal mentioned in the Book of Job. With bones “like bars of iron” and a tail “like a cedar,” this mighty beast was said to be able to suck the whole River Jordan into its mouth. Biblical scholars have long debated whether the behemoth is a mythical creature or just an exaggerated description of an ordinary animal (the most popular candidate is a hippopotamus). This is what English words would look like without classical origins. Whatever the original “behemoth” may have been, the name has become a metaphor for anything that reaches spectacular size. This figurative use is first recorded in a pamphlet of 1593, written by Gabriel Harvey as part of his vicious literary feud with Thomas Nashe. Nashe, writes Harvey, is “a Behemoth of conceit,” but “a shrimp in wit, a periwinkle in art, a dandiprat in industry,” and “a dodkin in value.”

Task 4. Choose several metaphors suitable to describe the situation in the novel “A History of the World in 10 ½ Chapters”. Write a paragraph using these metaphors.

POLITICAL METAPHORS Task 1. Read the information about most common political metaphors Metaphors relating to the executive  Eminence grise: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind- the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch. NOTE: An éminence grise or grey eminence is a powerful decision-maker or adviser who operates "behind the scenes", or in a non-public or unofficial capacity.  Figurehead: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch. NOTE: A literal "figurehead", a wood-carved decoration in the prow of a ship. Much like a literal figurehead aesthetically represents the ship while being irrelevant to its actual seafaring, a political figurehead is someone who appears hold to hold a high-profile office while having little actual power.

 Puppet government: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests. NOTE: A puppet state, puppet régime or puppet government, is a state that is de jure independent but de facto completely dependent upon an outside power and does its bidding. Puppet states have nominal sovereignty, but a foreign or otherwise alien power effectively exercises control, for reasons such as financial interests, economic or military support. Puppet states are distinguished from allies in that allies choose their actions on their own or in accordance with treaties they voluntarily entered.  Star chamber: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form. NOTE: The Star Chamber (Latin: Camera stellata) was an English court which sat at the royal Palace of Westminster, from the late 15th century to the mid-17th century (c. 1641), The Star Chamber was originally established to ensure the fair enforcement of laws against socially and politically prominent people so powerful that ordinary courts would probably hesitate to convict them of their crimes. However, it became synonymous with social and political oppression through the arbitrary use and abuse of the power it wielded.

Metaphors relating to legislation  Blank check legislation which is vaguely worded to the point where it can be widely exploited and abused. NOTE: A blank cheque (US: blank check) or carte blanche, in the literal sense, is a cheque that has no monetary value written in, but is already signed. In the figurative sense, it is used to describe a situation in which an agreement has been made that is open- ended or vague, and therefore subject to abuse, or in which a party is willing to consider any expense in the pursuance of their goals.  Grandfather clause that allows a piece of legislation not to apply to something old or incumbent. NOTE: A grandfather clause (or grandfather policy or grandfathering) is a provision in which an old rule continues to apply to some existing situations while a new rule will apply to all future cases. Those exempt from the new rule are said to have grandfather rights or acquired rights, or to have been grandfathered in. Frequently, the exemption is

51 limited; it may extend for a set time, or it may be lost under certain circumstances. For example, a "grandfathered power plant" might be exempt from new, more restrictive pollution laws, but the exception may be revoked and the new rules would apply if the plant were expanded. Often, such a provision is used as a compromise or out of practicality, to allow new rules to be enacted without upsetting a well-established logistical or political situation. This extends the idea of a rule not being retroactively applied.  Poison pill a provision in an act or bill which defeats or undermines its initial purpose or makes it politically unacceptable. NOTE: In legislative debate, a wrecking amendment (also called a poison pill amendment or killer amendment) is an amendment made by a legislator who disagrees with the principles of a bill and who seeks to make it useless (by moving amendments to either make the bill malformed and nonsensical, or to severely change its intent) rather than directly opposing the bill by simply voting against it.  Pork barrel legislation or patronage: acts of government that blatantly favor powerful special interest groups. NOTE: Pork barrel is a metaphor for the appropriation of government spending for localized projects secured solely or primarily to bring money to a representative's district. The usage originated in American English. Scholars use it as a technical term regarding legislative control of local appropriations. In election campaigns, the term is used in derogatory fashion to attack opponents.

Typically, "pork" involves funding for government programs whose economic or service benefits are concentrated in a particular area but whose costs are spread among all taxpayers. Public works projects, certain national defense spending projects, and agricultural subsidies are the most commonly cited examples.  Rider that attaches something new or unrelated to an existing bill. NOTE: In legislative procedure, a rider is an additional provision added to a bill or other measure under the consideration by a legislature, having little connection with the subject matter of the bill. Riders are usually created as a tactic to pass a controversial provision that would not pass as its own bill. Occasionally, a controversial provision is attached to a bill not to be passed itself but to prevent the bill from being passed (in which case it is called a wrecking amendment or poison pill).

52  Sunset clause – to prevent legislation from being permanent. NOTE: In public policy, a sunset provision or clause is a measure within a statute, regulation or other law that provides that the law shall cease to have effect after a specific date, unless further legislative action is taken to extend the law. Most laws do not have sunset clauses and therefore remain in force indefinitely, except under systems in which desuetude applies.  A trigger law that will automatically "spring" into effect once some other variable occurs. NOTE: A trigger law is a nickname for a law that is unenforceable, but may achieve enforceability if a key change in circumstances occurs.

Metaphors relating to elections  Character assassination: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public. NOTE: Character assassination (CA) is a deliberate and sustained effort to damage the reputation or credibility of an individual. The term could also be selectively applied to social groups and institutions. Agents of character assassinations employ a mix of open and covert methods to achieve their goals, such as raising false accusations, planting and fostering rumors, and manipulating information. Character assassination happens through character attacks. These can take many forms, such as spoken insults, speeches, pamphlets, campaign ads, cartoons, and internet memes. As a result of character attacks, individuals may be rejected by their professional community or members of their social or cultural environment. The process of CA may resemble an annihilation of human life as the damage sustained can last a lifetime. For some historical figures, that damage endures for centuries.  Dark/black horse: a candidate who is largely ignored by opponents yet makes significant gains. NOTE: A dark horse is a previously less known person or thing that emerges to prominence in a situation, especially in a competition involving multiple rivals, or a contestant that on paper should be unlikely to succeed but yet still might.  Gerrymandering: reshaping district lines to include/exclude segments of voters that may help/hurt your chances of election. NOTE: Gerrymandering /ˈɡɛrimændərɪŋ/ is a practice intended to establish a political advantage for a particular party or group by manipulating district boundaries. The term is named after Elbridge Gerry, who, as Governor of Massachusetts in 1812, signed a bill that created a partisan district in the Boston area that was compared to the shape of a mythological salamander. The term gerrymandering has negative connotations.

 Landslide victory: a huge victory for one side. NOTE: A landslide victory is an electoral victory in a political system, when one candidate or party receives an overwhelming majority of the votes or seats in the elected body, thus all but utterly eliminating the opponents. The winning party has reached more voters than usual, and a landslide victory is often seen in hindsight as a turning point in people's views on political matters.  Muckraking: uncovering and publicizing scandalous information about a person or organization. NOTE: The muckrakers were reform-minded journalists in the Progressive Era in the United States (1890's–1920's) who exposed established institutions and leaders as corrupt. They typically had large audiences in popular magazines. The modern term is investigative journalism or watchdog journalism; investigative journalists in the US are often informally called "muckrakers".  Mudslinging: harsh partisan insults exchanged between candidates. NOTE: Negative campaigning or mudslinging is the process of deliberate spreading negative information about someone or something to worsen the public image of the described. Deliberate spreading of such information can be motivated either by honest desire of the campaigner to warn others against real dangers or deficiencies of the described, or by the campaigner's dishonest ideas on methods of winning in political, business or other spheres of competition against an honest rival.  Parachute candidate / carpetbagger: a candidate who runs for election in an area which he or she is not a native resident or has no ties. NOTE: A parachute candidate, also known as a “carpetbagger” in the United States, is a pejorative term for an election candidate who does not live in and has little connection to the area they are running to represent. The allegation is thus that the candidate is being “parachuted in” for the job by a desperate political party that has no reliable talent indigenous to the district or state or that the party (or the candidate himself/herself) wishes to give a candidate an easier election than would happen in one's own home area.  Paper candidate: a candidate who puts no effort into his campaign and is essentially just a name on the ballot. NOTE: In a representative democracy, the term paper candidate is often given to a candidate who stands for a political party in an electoral division where the party in question enjoys only low levels of support. Although the candidate has little chance of 54 winning, a major party will normally make an effort to ensure it has its name on the ballot paper in every constituency. In two-party systems, a paper candidate may also be known as token opposition.  Riding coattails: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians. NOTE: The coattail effect or down-ballot effect is the tendency for a popular political party leader to attract votes for other candidates of the same party in an election. For example, in the United States, the party of a victorious presidential candidate will often win many seats in Congress as well; these Members of Congress are voted into office "on the coattails" of the president.  Sacrificial lamb: a candidate who is put forward to run for office, by his party or others, but who has no chance of winning. NOTE: A sacrificial lamb is a metaphorical reference to a person or animal sacrificed for the common good. The term is derived from the traditions of Abrahamic religion where a lamb is a highly valued possession.

 Stalking horse: a perceived front-runner candidate who unifies his or her opponents, usually within a single political party. NOTE: A stalking horse is a figure that tests a concept with someone or mounts a challenge against someone on behalf of an anonymous third party. If the idea proves viable or popular, the anonymous figure can then declare its interest and advance the concept with little risk of failure. If the concept fails, the anonymous party will not be tainted by association with the failed concept and can either drop the idea completely or bide its time and wait until a better moment for launching an attack. In hunting, it refers to a horse, or a figure of a horse, behind which a hunter hides when stalking game.

 Grassroots: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community. NOTE: A grassroots movement is one which uses the people in a given district, region, or community as the basis for a political or economic movement. Grassroots movements and organizations use collective action from the local level to effect change at the local, regional, national, or international level. Grassroots movements are associated with bottom-up, rather than top-down decision making, and are sometimes considered more natural or spontaneous than more traditional power structures.  Astroturfing: formal public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that seek to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior. NOTE: Astroturfing is the practice of masking the sponsors of a message or organization (e.g., political, advertising, religious or public relations) to make it appear as though it originates from and is supported by grassroots participants. It is a practice intended to give the statements or organizations credibility by withholding information about the source's financial connection. The term astroturfing is derived from AstroTurf, a brand of synthetic carpeting designed to resemble natural grass, as a play on the word "grassroots". The implication behind the use of the term is that instead of a "true" or "natural" grassroots effort behind the activity in question, there is a "fake" or "artificial" appearance of support.  Stooge – to mislead a candidate or campaigner, or to masquerade as a constituent interested in an issue being promoted. NOTE: /stuːdʒ/ third-person singular simple present stooges, present participle stooging, simple past and past participle stooged. To act as a straight man. Perhaps an abbreviation of Russian студе́нт (studént) [stʊˈdʲent]; the original meaning was “stage assistant, actor who assists a comedian”.

56 Metaphors relating to world politics  Hard power: using military force against another country as form of punishment. NOTE: Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most immediately effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power. Hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history.  Soft power: using economic and diplomatic sanctions against another country as a form of punishment. NOTE: Soft power is the ability to attract and co-opt, rather than coerce (hard power). Soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others through appeal and attraction. A defining feature of soft power is that it is non-coercive; the currency of soft power is culture, political values, and foreign policies.  Soft tyranny: when a democratic government uses its power in a manner which diminishes the rights or power of the voters. NOTE: Soft tyranny is an idea first coined by Alexis de Tocqueville in his 1835 work titled Democracy in America. It is described as the individualist preference for equality and its pleasures, requiring the state – as a tyrant majority or a benevolent authority – to step in and adjudicate. In this regime, political leaders operate under a blanket of restrictions and, while it retains the practical virtues of democracy, citizens influence policymaking through bureaucrats and non-governmental organizations. This is distinguished from despotism or tyranny (hard tyranny) in the sense that state of government in such democratic society is composed of guardians who hold immense and tutelary (protective) power.  Big stick diplomacy: flexing muscles militarily against other countries to show dominance. NOTE: Big stick ideology, big stick diplomacy, or big stick policy refers to President Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy: "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." Roosevelt described his style of foreign policy as "the exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis."

Metaphors relating to the issues  Wedge issue: an issue which turns members of a party against each other. NOTE: wedge issue is a political or social issue, often of a controversial or divisive nature, which splits apart a demographic or population group. Wedge issues can be advertised or publicly aired in an attempt to strengthen the unity of a population, with the goal of enticing polarized individuals to give support to an opponent or to withdraw their support

57 entirely out of disillusionment. The use of wedge issues gives rise to wedge politics. Wedge issues are also known as hot button or third rail issues.  Third rail: an issue which is so controversial, pursuing it or even attempting to address it could end one's political career. NOTE: The third rail of a nation's politics is a metaphor for any issue so controversial that it is "charged" and "untouchable" to the extent that any politician or public official who dares to broach the subject will invariably suffer politically. The metaphor comes from the high-voltage third rail in some electric railway systems.

This third rail, used to power trains, would likely result in the death by electrocution of anyone who comes into direct contact with it.  Straw man: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy. NOTE: A straw man is a form of argument and an informal fallacy based on giving the impression of refuting an opponent's argument, while actually refuting an argument that was not presented by that opponent. One who engages in this fallacy is said to be "attacking a straw man". The typical straw man argument creates the illusion of having completely refuted or defeated an opponent's proposition through the covert replacement of it with a different proposition (i.e., "stand up a straw man") and the subsequent refutation of that false argument ("knock down a straw man") instead of the opponent's proposition. Straw man arguments have been used throughout history in polemical debate, particularly regarding highly charged emotional subjects.

 Sacred cow: an institution which few dare question, because it is so revered. NOTE: Sacred cow is an idiom, a figurative reference to sacred cows in some religions. This idiom is thought to originate in American English, although similar or even identical idioms occur in many other languages. The idiom is based on the popular understanding of the elevated place of cows in Hinduism and appears to have emerged in America in the late 19th century. The reverence for cows in the traditionally agrarian Vedic Hindu society stems from the reluctance to harm an animal whose milk humans consume after being weaned off the mother's milk. In Jewish tradition, there is a similar moral stigma against cooking veal (calf meat) in cows milk. A literal sacred cow or sacred bull is an actual cow or bull that is treated with sincere respect. A figurative sacred cow is a figure of speech for something considered immune from question or criticism, especially unreasonably so.

Other political metaphors  Bread and circuses: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.  Government in the sunshine: a government which keeps all its records and documents open and easily accessible by the public.  Lame duck: a politician who has lost an election, or who is serving his last term in an office where the law limits the number of times he may succeed himself, and is simply waiting for his term to expire.  Melting pot: a society in which all outsiders assimilate to one social norm. salad bowl: a society in which cultural groups retain their unique attributes (opposite of melting pot theory).  Spin (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.  Turkeys voting for Christmas: acting against one's own interests with no conceivable gain.  Witch-hunt: a hysterical pursuit of political enemies.

59 Task 2. Choose several metaphors suitable to describe the situation in the novel “A History of the World in 10 ½ Chapters”. Write a paragraph using these metaphors.

Task 3. Do the test on political vocabulary. Choose the best response:

1. What's Barak Obama's ______( = position) on the war in Iraq? a) stance b) distance 2. The voters have to decide which candidate is better ______to handle the current problems with the economy. a) suits b) suited 3. It's a ______. = Either candidate could win. a) wash-out b) toss-up 4. Most voters are concerned about the rising price of ______. ( = called "petrol" in the UK) a) gas b) gases 5.McCain has a slight ______. = McCain is doing slightly better, is slightly more successful, etc. a) advantage b) plus

6. A ______margin = A very small margin/difference a) wafer-like b) wafer-thin 7. George Bush currently has a very low approval ______. ( = very few people approve of how he is performing as president) a) rating b) score 8. The mood between the two candidates was not relaxed, it was ______. a) tension b) tense 9. The two candidates got into a ______( = impassioned) argument during their first debate. a) heating b) heated 10. Obama is making an effort to ______( = get rid of, lessen) divisions within the Democratic party. a) heal b) help

60 Useful Phrases for Rendering, Summarizing and Comparison

Task 1. Read the extract from the Old Testament of the Bible (see Appendix). Compare and contrast the biblical story and Barnes's interpretation of it, from factual information to the images of the main characters. Use the expressions given below.

Language to Compare and Contrast Comparing:  Both stories narrate about…  In both stories the characters are…/ the plot is…  The main connection/similarity between these stories is that…  … rather like/ similar to/ as much the same as…  … in the same/ similar way as…  … bears a strong/ remarkable resemblance to… Contrasting:  The first story narrates about …, whereas the second one …  In the biblical story …, whereas in the fiction…  The main/most striking difference between the two stories is that…  There are several differences between the stories: firstly, …, secondly…  … quite/ totally/ completely different from…  … bears little/ no resemblance to…  … worlds apart from…  … in stark contrast to… Expressing opinions:  In my view…  I am inclined to believe…  What I think is…  My view is that…

61 Task 2. Read the chapters or extracts in English or Russian in Section. Practice providing their contents using the phrases below in the form of:  a brief summary (150 words)  an extended summary (for longer texts 400 words)

Useful Phrases for Summary Writing The text • is about… • deals with… • presents… • describes… In the text • the reader gets to know… • the reader is confronted with… • the reader is told about… The author • says, states, points out that… (the narrator) • claims, believes, thinks that… • describes, explains, makes clear that… • uses examples to confirm/prove that… • agrees/disagrees with the view … • contradicts the view • criticises/analyses/ comments on… • tries to express… • argues that… • suggests that… • compares X to Y… • emphasizes his point by saying that… • doubts that… • tries to convince the readers that… • concludes that… About the • The texts consists of…./may be divided into… structure of a • In the first paragraph/exposition the author introduces… text: • In the second part of the text/ paragraph the author describes… • Another example can be found … • As a result… • To sum up/ to conclude… • In his last remark/ with his last remark/statement the author concludes that…

62 SECTION 3. TEXTS FOR SUMMARIZING AND RENDERING

How to render and summarize Good summarizing skills are essential for success in writing, and are crucial in preparing to write research papers and essays. You need these skills because summarizing is efficient and it helps you distinguish between more and less important material. A summary is a shortened version of the original. The main purpose of such a simplification is to highlight the major points from the genuine (much longer) subject, e.g. a text, a film or an event. The aim is to help the audience get the gist in a short period of time. Nonfiction summaries serve to familiarize the reader with an entire work’s subject matter in a short space of time. They are written in a balanced and objective way, mirroring the genre’s aim to portray actual events from the author’s point of view. Generally, nonfiction summaries do not offer analysis or assessment. Summarizers use their own words to write the shortened versions and draw on the original make-up of the pieces to structure the distillations. They exclude superfluous examples, descriptions and digressions. The opening sentence should introduce the topic, and the final sentence should sum up the theme, taking into account the knowledge gained from the body of the text. What to begin with? Read the passage carefully. Determine its structure. Identify the author's purpose in writing. (This will help you to distinguish between more important and less important information.) Remember – you cannot summarize material until you understand it fully. There are no shortcuts on the way to success. Reread, label, and underline. This time divide the passage into sections or stages of thought. The author's use of paragraphing will often be a useful guide. Label, on the passage itself, each section or stage of thought. At this point underline important ideas, terms and arguments to support these ideas. Write one-sentence summaries, on a separate sheet of paper, of each stage of thought. Write the main statement (a thesis) – a one-sentence summary of the entire passage. The thesis should express the central idea of the passage, as you have determined it from the preceding steps. You may find it useful to keep in mind the information contained in the lead sentence or paragraph of most newspaper stories – the what, who, why, where, when, and how of the matter. For persuasive passages, summarize in a sentence the author's conclusion. For descriptive passages, indicate the subject of the description and its key features. Note: In some cases a suitable thesis may already be in the original passage. If so, you may want to quote it directly in your summary. Write the first draft of your summary by (1) combining the thesis with your list of one- sentence summaries or (2) combining the thesis with one-sentence summaries plus significant details from the passage. In either case, eliminate repetition. Eliminate less

63 important information. Disregard minor details, or generalize them. Use as few words as possible to convey the main ideas. The summary starts with a lead, including title, author, text type and the main idea of the text. It has a clearly arranged structure and is written in a logical, chronological and traceable manner. In contrast to a résumé or a review, a summary contains neither interpretation nor rating. Only the opinion of the original writer is reflected – paraphrased with new words without quotations from the text. Unlike a retelling, a summary has no dramatic structure and is written in present tense or historic present. Because summaries should be significantly shorter than the original, minor facts have to be left out. In summaries only indirect speech is used and depictions are avoided. Check your summary against the original passage, and make whatever adjustments are necessary for accuracy and completeness. Revise your summary, inserting transitional words and phrases where necessary to ensure coherence. Check for style. Avoid series of short, choppy sentences. Combine sentences for a smooth, logical flow of ideas. Check for grammatical correctness, punctuation, and spelling. Chapter 1 The Stowaway

The Holy Bible, English Standard Version. The Old Testament. Genesis 6–9. https://www.biblegateway.com

Increasing Corruption on Earth

6 When man began to multiply on the face of the land and daughters were born to them, 2 the sons of God saw that the daughters of man were attractive. And they took as their wives any they chose. 3 Then the LORD said, “My Spirit shall not abide in[a] man forever, for he is flesh: his days shall be 120 years.” 4 The Nephilim[b] were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of God came in to the daughters of man and they bore children to them. These were the mighty men who were of old, the men of renown.

5 The LORD saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every intention of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually. 6 And the LORD regretted that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved him to his heart. 7 So the LORD said, “I will blot out man whom I have created from the face of the land, man and animals and creeping things and birds of the heavens, for I am sorry that I have made them.” 8 But Noah found favor in the eyes of the LORD. Noah and the Flood

9 These are the generations of Noah. Noah was a righteous man, blameless in his generation. Noah walked with God. 10 And Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth.

64 11 Now the earth was corrupt in God's sight, and the earth was filled with violence. 12 And God saw the earth, and behold, it was corrupt, for all flesh had corrupted their way on the earth. 13 And God said to Noah, “I have determined to make an end of all flesh,[c] for the earth is filled with violence through them. Behold, I will destroy them with the earth. 14 Make yourself an ark of gopher wood.[d] Make rooms in the ark, and cover it inside and out with pitch. 15 This is how you are to make it: the length of the ark 300 cubits,[e] its breadth 50 cubits, and its height 30 cubits. 16 Make a roof[f] for the ark, and finish it to a cubit above, and set the door of the ark in its side. Make it with lower, second, and third decks. 17 For behold, I will bring a flood of waters upon the earth to destroy all flesh in which is the breath of life under heaven. Everything that is on the earth shall die. 18 But I will establish my covenant with you, and you shall come into the ark, you, your sons, your wife, and your sons' wives with you. 19 And of every living thing of all flesh, you shall bring two of every sort into the ark to keep them alive with you. They shall be male and female. 20 Of the birds according to their kinds, and of the animals according to their kinds, of every creeping thing of the ground, according to its kind, two of every sort shall come in to you to keep them alive. 21 Also take with you every sort of food that is eaten, and store it up. It shall serve as food for you and for them.” 22 Noah did this; he did all that God commanded him.

7 Then the LORD said to Noah, “Go into the ark, you and all your household, for I have seen that you are righteous before me in this generation. 2 Take with you seven pairs of all clean animals,[a] the male and his mate, and a pair of the animals that are not clean, the male and his mate, 3 and seven pairs[b] of the birds of the heavens also, male and female, to keep their offspring alive on the face of all the earth. 4 For in seven days I will send rain on the earth forty days and forty nights, and every living thing[c] that I have made I will blot out from the face of the ground.” 5 And Noah did all that the LORD had commanded him. 6 Noah was six hundred years old when the flood of waters came upon the earth. 7 And Noah and his sons and his wife and his sons' wives with him went into the ark to escape the waters of the flood.8 Of clean animals, and of animals that are not clean, and of birds, and of everything that creeps on the ground, 9 two and two, male and female, went into the ark with Noah, as God had commanded Noah. 10 And after seven days the waters of the flood came upon the earth. 11 In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on that day all the fountains of the great deep burst forth, and the windows of the heavens were opened. 12 And rain fell upon the earth forty days and forty nights.13 On the very same day Noah and his sons, Shem and Ham and Japheth, and Noah's wife and the three wives of his sons with them entered the ark, 14 they and every beast, according to its kind, and all the livestock according to their kinds, and every creeping thing that creeps on the earth, according to its kind, and every bird, according to its kind, every winged creature. 15 They went into the ark with Noah, two and two of all flesh in which there was

65 the breath of life. 16 And those that entered, male and female of all flesh, went in as God had commanded him. And the LORD shut him in. 17 The flood continued forty days on the earth. The waters increased and bore up the ark, and it rose high above the earth. 18 The waters prevailed and increased greatly on the earth, and the ark floated on the face of the waters. 19 And the waters prevailed so mightily on the earth that all the high mountains under the whole heaven were covered. 20 The waters prevailed above the mountains, covering them fifteen cubits[d] deep. 21 And all flesh died that moved on the earth, birds, livestock, beasts, all swarming creatures that swarm on the earth, and all mankind. 22 Everything on the dry land in whose nostrils was the breath of life died. 23 He blotted out every living thing that was on the face of the ground, man and animals and creeping things and birds of the heavens. They were blotted out from the earth. Only Noah was left, and those who were with him in the ark. 24 And the waters prevailed on the earth 150 days. The Flood Subsides

8 But God remembered Noah and all the beasts and all the livestock that were with him in the ark. And God made a wind blow over the earth, and the waters subsided. 2 The fountains of the deep and the windows of the heavens were closed, the rain from the heavens was restrained, 3 and the waters receded from the earth continually. At the end of 150 days the waters had abated, 4 and in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat. 5 And the waters continued to abate until the tenth month; in the tenth month, on the first day of the month, the tops of the mountains were seen. 6 At the end of forty days Noah opened the window of the ark that he had made 7 and sent forth a raven. It went to and fro until the waters were dried up from the earth. 8 Then he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters had subsided from the face of the ground. 9 But the dove found no place to set her foot, and she returned to him to the ark, for the waters were still on the face of the whole earth. So he put out his hand and took her and brought her into the ark with him. 10 He waited another seven days, and again he sent forth the dove out of the ark. 11 And the dove came back to him in the evening, and behold, in her mouth was a freshly plucked olive leaf. So Noah knew that the waters had subsided from the earth. 12 Then he waited another seven days and sent forth the dove, and she did not return to him anymore. 13 In the six hundred and first year, in the first month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried from off the earth. And Noah removed the covering of the ark and looked, and behold, the face of the ground was dry. 14 In the second month, on the twenty- seventh day of the month, the earth had dried out. 15 Then God said to Noah,16 “Go out from the ark, you and your wife, and your sons and your sons' wives with you. 17 Bring out with you every living thing that is with you of all flesh – birds and animals and every

66 creeping thing that creeps on the earth – that they may swarm on the earth, and be fruitful and multiply on the earth.” 18 So Noah went out, and his sons and his wife and his sons' wives with him. 19 Every beast, every creeping thing, and every bird, everything that moves on the earth, went out by families from the ark. God's Covenant with Noah

20 Then Noah built an altar to the LORD and took some of every clean animal and some of every clean bird and offered burnt offerings on the altar. 21 And when the LORD smelled the pleasing aroma, the LORDsaid in his heart, “I will never again curse[a] the ground because of man, for the intention of man's heart is evil from his youth. Neither will I ever again strike down every living creature as I have done.22 While the earth remains, seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night, shall not cease.” 9 And God blessed Noah and his sons and said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth. 2 The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth and upon every bird of the heavens, upon everything that creeps on the ground and all the fish of the sea. Into your hand they are delivered. 3 Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you. And as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything. 4 But you shall not eat flesh with its life, that is, its blood. 5 And for your lifeblood I will require a reckoning: from every beast I will require it and from man. From his fellow man I will require a reckoning for the life of man. 6 “Whoever sheds the blood of man,

by man shall his blood be shed,

for God made man in his own image.

7 And you,[a] be fruitful and multiply, increase greatly on the earth and multiply in it.” 8 Then God said to Noah and to his sons with him, 9 “Behold, I establish my covenant with you and your offspring after you, 10 and with every living creature that is with you, the birds, the livestock, and every beast of the earth with you, as many as came out of the ark; it is for every beast of the earth. 11 I establish my covenant with you, that never again shall all flesh be cut off by the waters of the flood, and never again shall there be a flood to destroy the earth.”12 And God said, “This is the sign of the covenant that I make between me and you and every living creature that is with you, for all future generations: 13 I have set my bow in the cloud, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between me and the earth. 14 When I bring clouds over the earth and the bow is seen in the clouds, 15 I will remember my covenant that is between me and you and every living creature of all flesh. And the waters shall never again become a flood to destroy all flesh. 16 When the bow is in the clouds, I will see it and remember the everlasting covenant between God and every

67 living creature of all flesh that is on the earth.” 17 God said to Noah, “This is the sign of the covenant that I have established between me and all flesh that is on the earth.” Noah's Descendants

18 The sons of Noah who went forth from the ark were Shem, Ham, and Japheth. (Ham was the father of Canaan.) 19 These three were the sons of Noah, and from these the people of the whole earth were dispersed.[b] 20 Noah began to be a man of the soil, and he planted a vineyard.[c]21 He drank of the wine and became drunk and lay uncovered in his tent. 22 And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father and told his two brothers outside. 23 Then Shem and Japheth took a garment, laid it on both their shoulders, and walked backward and covered the nakedness of their father. Their faces were turned backward, and they did not see their father's nakedness. 24 When Noah awoke from his wine and knew what his youngest son had done to him, 25 he said, “Cursed be Canaan;

a servant of servants shall he be to his brothers.”

26 He also said,

“Blessed be the LORD, the God of Shem;

and let Canaan be his servant.

27 May God enlarge Japheth,[d]

and let him dwell in the tents of Shem,

and let Canaan be his servant.”

28 After the flood Noah lived 350 years. 29 All the days of Noah were 950 years, and he died.

68 «Ной» – рецензия Фильм Про https://www.filmpro.ru/movies/4926/filmproreview/467

Фэнтезийный блокбастер «Ной» задолго до выхода оброс скандальной славой. Многие верующие заранее отказались смотреть этот фильм, а Папа Римский благословил его, вновь продемонстрировав свой либерализм. Заранее нужно настроить себя на то, что Аронофски снял не столько свою версию библейских событий, сколько создал оригинальную историю «по мотивам».

Праведного Ноя посещает видение. Он узнаёт, что дикий, бесчеловечный мир должен погибнуть в результате грандиозного наводнения. Спастись должен только он, его семья и животные, потому что животные безгрешны. Ной принимается за строительство, но у него будет множество непредвиденных препятствий, и неизвестно, выдержит ли его разум все трудности.

Все те три года, которые Даррен Аронофски работал над фильмом «Ной», проект неизменно считался среди ценителей американских блокбастеров одним из самых долгожданных. Здесь совпали мода на исторические фильмы, мода на фильмы- катастрофы и мода на конкретно Даррена Аронофски, а к ним можно добавить участие универсального актёра Рассела Кроу и популярной актрисы из «Гарри Поттера» Эммы Уотсон, а также неостывающий интерес к библейской тематике.

Одной из ключевых фигур повествования является сам ковчег. Версия Аронофски здесь довольно оригинальна.

На рубеже выхода «Ноя» последовали один скандал за другим, которые способствовали мировой славе фильма. Так, студия Paramount потребовала у Аронофски изъять из фильма ряд сцен, которые могли бы препятствовать мировому прокату блокбастера. Аронофски отстоял режиссёрскую версию, которая в результате и пойдёт в кинотеатрах. Известно, что ряд мусульманских государств не станут прокатывать фильм вовсе, так как Коран запрещает изображать пророков, к которым относят Ноя. Христианские общины всего мира высказывали настороженность в отношении фильма, а Рассел Кроу открыто просил аудиенции у Папы Римского и предлагал главе Католической церкви посмотреть и оценить фильм лично. После двух неудачных попыток встреча состоялась, и Папа поддержал фильм. Словом, реклама «Ноя» вышла далеко за пределы традиционных роликов в кинотеатрах и на ТВ, фильм стал культурно значимым явлением.

Критика восприняла фильм «Ной» в основном скептически, и фильм, действительно, есть за что порицать. Как только в повествование вторгаются явно фэнтезийные элементы, вроде колдующего отца Ноя или каменных гигантов, помогающих строить и оборонять ковчег, отношение к фильму сразу становится снисходительным.

69 Драматичный сюжет о праведнике Ное, который, словно безумец, строит свой ковчег в погрязшем в пороках мире, быстро перерастает во что-то сказочное и более легковесное. Будто бы не в силах справиться с трагизмом и загадочностью библейского текста, Аронофски изменил проблематику, изменил сюжет, ввёл дополнительных героев, которые отвлекают зрительское внимание от главного. Предельно неуклюже решена история с Хамом, не прикрывшим наготу отца. Смазан мотив голубя, принёсшего масличный лист. Вообще, особенно интересно было представить себе, как жили люди до потопа, какова была их психология, как развивались их отношения. Аронофски отказался от всего этого. Кроме того, явно в угоду рекламным целям, была приглашена на одну из главных ролей Эмма Уотсон, игра которой относится к неудачам фильма. Многие драматичные по замыслу моменты воспринимаются комическими. Недостатков у фильма много, это правда. Аронофски, тем не менее, создал очень интересный фильм, если отвлечься от его технической вторичности и сюжетного несоответствия Библии. Он вводит ряд важных для современного человека тем, часть которых напрямую связана с Библией. Прежде всего это тема жертвы Авраама, о которой со времён Кьеркегора размышляют все религиозные философы Запада. Тема искушения, которому подвергается человек и которое, прежде всего, заключается в том, является ли он сам богом и хозяином своей судьбы. То есть мотив Каина, тоже связанный в Западной культуре с XIX столетием. Туда же, наконец, эсхатологический мотив, который в массовой культуре сегодня очень востребован. Если говорить просто, то Аронофски ставит зрителя перед всеми ужасами современного мира, замаскировав его под древность, и спрашивает, имеет ли право человечество продолжать жизнь. Ответ на этот вопрос у Аронофски не слишком убедителен, но этот автор никогда и не был силён в ответах. Он старается развернуть каждый конфликт в психологическом и иногда в психоделическом ключе, который может дать зрителю новую перспективу. В смысле этой перспективы «Ной» очень и очень заслуживает внимания. Главное – не ждать соответствия Библии.

70 Chapter 2 The Visitors

The war on terror continues and still no one counts the costs Kenan Malik

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/nov/25/war-on-terror- never-ending-count-costs

The power of terrorists has never been greater. It’s time to look at the effects of counter- terrorism

The war on terror. A phrase forever in the media and on our lips. Its very ubiquity helps obscure the reality of that war.

America, according to a new study from Brown University, is running counter-terror operations in 76 countries – 39% of all the nations in the world. Since 2001, at least half-a- million people have been killed in wars in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq alone. The real figure is likely to be far higher. A New York Times investigation last year suggested that the civilian toll in Iraq from coalition airstrikes could be 31 times greater than officially admitted.

Include the conflicts in Libya, Syria and Yemen and the toll would be significantly higher still. These are just direct deaths. The number of indirect deaths – from the destruction of health facilities or infrastructure – run into the millions. Meanwhile, the 2017 Global Terrorism Index suggested that terrorist attacks accounted for 25,000 deaths in just the previous year. Up to 106 countries, more than half the nations in the world, suffered deadly attacks, 94% of which were in Africa, Asia and the Middle East.

The level of terrorism is usually the justification for the intensity of the war on terror. Yet, despite the effective destruction of Islamic State, the influence and scope of terror groups is greater now than it was in 2001. Already this year, the US has dropped more bombs on Afghanistan than in any previous year. The Taliban still controls 20% of the country and its bloodlust remains undiminished. Just last week, a suicide bomber killed at least 53 people in Kabul.

What began after 9/11 as an attempt to eliminate al-Qaida has metastasised into a never- ending war against an ever-expanding universe of terror groups. And yet it’s become little more than background noise in the west. Isn’t it time we started asking serious questions about the war on terror, its scope and its consequences?

71 Захват «Акилле Лауро» Материал из Википедии – свободной энциклопедии https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8 2_Achille_Lauro

Захват «Акилле Лауро» – террористическая акция Палестинского фронта освобождения, проведённая в октябре 1985 года. Четырьмя боевиками в море был захвачен итальянский круизный лайнер «Акилле Лауро». Один из заложников был убит террористами.

Палестинский фронт освобождения (ПФО) во главе с Абу Аббасом был одной из радикальных фракций Организации освобождения Палестины. До 1985 года ПФО было организовано несколько нападений на Израиль через границу с Ливаном.

Захват судна

7 октября 1985 года четыре вооружённых террориста ПФО во главе с Юсуфом Маджид аль-Мульки захватили итальянское круизное судно «Акилле Лауро» с 349 пассажирами на борту на пути из Александрии в Порт-Саид. Боевики заранее сели на корабль в Генуе с фальшивыми паспортами. Организатором акции был Абу Аббас. В 13:07 боевики, вооружённые автоматами Калашникова, вошли в столовую, где обедали пассажиры, открыли огонь поверх голов и затем заявили о захвате судна.

Согласно заявлению ПФО первоначально планировалось осуществить атаку в израильском городе Ашдод, куда судно должно было зайти позже. Эта акция была якобы ответом на израильскую бомбёжку штаб-квартиры Организации освобождения Палестины в Тунисе 1 октября 1985 года. Однако в 2013 это было опровергнуто вдовой Абу Аббаса Рим аль-Нимер: она заявила, что акция готовилась 11 месяцев и боевики ПФО дважды путешествовали на судне, проверяя маршрут. Захват судна вместо нападения на Ашдод произошёл, по словам самих террористов, потому, что член экипажа обнаружил их в тот момент, когда они проверяли оружие. По мнению аль-Нимер, молодые люди просто не захотели умирать, поскольку нападение на Ашдод не оставляло им никаких шансов на возвращение.

Сигнал SOS был передан радистом судна в 15:00. Итальянские и американские ВВС, морские силы и антитеррористические подразделения в регионе были приведены в боевую готовность. Итальянская авиация начала поиск судна, а на флагманском крейсере «Витторио Венето» к штурму «Акилле Лауро» были подготовлены 4 вертолёта с 60 десантниками 9-го парашютно-штурмового полка Col Moschin. Одновременно итальянское правительство пыталось наладить канал переговоров с террористами через президента Египта Хосни Мубарака и председателя ООП Ясира Арафата.

72 Ультиматум и убийство заложника

8 октября корабль прибыл в сирийский порт Тартус. Террористы выдвинули требование к Израилю освободить 50 палестинских арабов, членов организации Force-17 (личная охрана Ясира Арафата), находящихся в израильских тюрьмах, а также ливанского террориста Самира Кунтара. Захватчики угрожали в случае попытки освобождения заложников взорвать корабль. Однако Израиль проигнорировал требования террористов, а Сирия отказалась принять «Акилле Лауро» в Тартусе.

После отказа Сирии принять судно, террористами был убит один заложник – 69-летний американский еврей Леон Клингхоффер, инвалид, прикованный к коляске. Аль-Мульки выстрелил ему в голову и в грудь. Тело Клингхоффера было выброшено за борт на глазах его жены Мерилин. Террористы пообещали убивать каждые три минуты по заложнику, однако затем отказались от этого и взяли курс на Египет. По некоторым данным, решение направить судно в Египет было принято Ясиром Арафатом. Абу Аббас связывался с угонщиками по радио и инструктировал их.

Сдача террористов и их преследование

9 октября в 15:30 судно пришло в Порт-Саид и после напряжённых переговоров террористы сдались египетским властям. Итальянское правительство гарантировало террористам свободу, если пассажиры не пострадают, и утверждало, что на момент сдачи террористов не знало об убийстве Клингхоффера, хотя американцы сообщили им о получении разведывательной информации об убийстве пассажира. В этот день Совет Безопасности ООН единогласно осудил захват «Акилле Лауро».

Президент Египта Хосни Мубарак 10 октября в 12 часов дня на пресс-конференции также утверждал, что не знал об убийстве и сказал, что террористы вылетели в Тунис египетским самолётом Boeing 737. На самом деле в этот момент, по данным американских спецслужб, они находились на военной базе Аль Маза в 30 километрах от Каира, а вылет состоялся только в 21:15 того же дня. На борту были 4 террориста- угонщика, 2 представителя ООП (в том числе Абу Аббас) и 8 египтян. В 22:00 самолет был перехвачен 4 американскими истребителями F-14 с авианосца USS Saratoga и приземлён на аэродром военно-морской базы Сигонелла в Сицилии.

Противоречия между американским и итальянским правительством (президент США Рональд Рейган требовал экстрадировать убийцу американского гражданина в США, итальянцы считали, что они сами вправе судить террористов) чуть не привели к вооружённому столкновению между солдатами итальянских ВВС и карабинерами, с одной стороны, и американскими коммандос из отряда «Дельта» – с другой.

12 октября Абу Аббас, чья персональная причастность к захвату судна на тот момент формально не была доказана, был освобождён итальянскими властями и бежал в

73 Югославию. Участвовавшие в нападении на корабль террористы были приговорены судом Генуи к длительным срокам тюремного заключения, всего обвинения, в том числе заочно, были предъявлены 11 лицам, замешанным в этом преступлении.

Участники теракта

Четверо участвовавших в захвате террористов были идентифицированы итальянскими правоохранительными органами:

Юсуф Маджид аль-Мульки, 23 года, родом из Иордании;

Ахмад Маруф аль-Ассади, 23 года, из Дамаска;

Ибрагим Фатайер Абделатиф, 20 лет, из Бейрута;

Бассам аль-Аскер, 19 лет, из Триполи. Впоследствии выяснилось, что ему 17 лет и, следовательно, он по итальянским законам несовершеннолетний.

Пятый, несостоявшийся участник нападения, Мохаммед Исса Аббас (двоюродный брат Абу Аббаса) был арестован ранее итальянской полицией за использование поддельного паспорта.

Абу Аббас в 1986 году как организатор теракта был заочно приговорён к пяти пожизненным заключениям. В 1996 году Аббас извинился за смерть Клингхоффера, сказав, что это была ошибка. До апреля 2003 года он скрывался от правосудия в Ираке, где был задержан американским спецназом, и впоследствии умер в заключении 9 марта 2004 года.

Юсуф Маджид аль-Мульки (убийца Леона Клингхоффера) был приговорён к 30 годам заключения. В 1996 году бежал из тюрьмы, но был найден и повторно арестован в Испании. Он был условно-досрочно освобождён за примерное поведение 29 апреля 2009 года, отсидев 24 года. Ибрагим Фатайер Абделатиф был приговорён к 25 годам и 2 месяцам заключения. 7 июля 2008 года он был досрочно освобождён после 20 лет отбытия наказания.

Аль-Аскер был приговорён к 17 годам заключения. Ассади получил по суду 15 лет и 2 месяца заключения. В 1991 году они были условно-досрочно освобождены и немедленно скрылись.

Отголоски скандала и последствия

Освобождение Абу Аббаса привело к серьёзным проблемам в отношениях между США и Италией, вызвало политический скандал, который привёл к отставке министра обороны Италии Джованни Спадолини, а затем к отставке всего правительства Италии.

74 Предполагаемая связь террористов с ООП и её главой Ясиром Арафатом стала причиной ряда конфликтов. Так, в 1995 году мэр Нью-Йорка Рудольф Джулиани возглавил комитет «Нью-Йорк принимает гостей», проводивший торжественные мероприятия, посвящённые пятидесятой годовщине ООН. Он отказался направлять приглашения на эти мероприятия делегации Палестинской национальной администрации, поскольку считал, что её руководство причастно к захвату «Акилле Лауро» и гибели Леона Клингхоффера. Явившегося без приглашения Ясира Арафата Джулиани приказал «вышвырнуть» из Линкольн-центра. В ответ на претензии политиков и общественности Джулиани заявил: «Вы не должны забывать, что этот человек является диктатором, и что он убийца, и что он убивал американцев».

Дочери погибшего Леона Клингхоффера подали против «Организации освобождения Палестины» иск на 1,5 млрд долларов. В декабре 1985 года Фарук Каддуми, официальный представитель ООП при ООН, публично обвинил Мэрилин Клингхоффер, что Леон не был убит террористами, а она сама столкнула мужа за борт чтобы получить страховку. К тому времени, помимо заявлений свидетелей убийства, уже было найдено тело Леона Клингхоффера с двумя огнестрельными ранениями. В 1997 году ООП урегулировало финансовые претензии с семьей Клингхоффер, сумма соглашения не разглашается. На полученные деньги дочери Клингхоффера совместно с «Антидиффамационной лигой» создали «Фонд памяти Леона и Мэрилин Клингхоффер». Фонд занимается лоббированием законодательства по борьбе с терроризмом.

75 Chapter 3 The Wars of Religion

MYTHS IN CHAPTER 3

THE MYTH OF ICARUS AND DEADALUS AS TOLD BY AMY ADKINS https://www.ted.com/talks/amy_adkins_the_myth_of_icarus_and_daedalus/tra nscript

In mythological ancient Greece, soaring above Crete on wings made from wax and feathers, Icarus, the son of Daedalus, defied the laws of both man and nature. Ignoring the warnings of his father, he rose higher and higher. To witnesses on the ground, he looked like a god, and as he peered down from above, he felt like one, too. But, in mythological ancient Greece, the line that separated god from man was absolute and the punishment for mortals who attempted to cross it was severe. Such was the case for Icarus and Daedalus. Years before Icarus was born, his father Daedalus was highly regarded as a genius inventor, craftsman, and sculptor in his homeland of Athens. He invented carpentry and all the tools used for it. He designed the first bathhouse and the first dance floor. He made sculptures so lifelike that Hercules mistook them for actual men. Though skilled and celebrated, Daedalus was egotistical and jealous. Worried that his nephew was a more skillful craftsman, Daedalus murdered him. As punishment, Daedalus was banished from Athens and made his way to Crete. Preceded by his storied reputation, Daedalus was welcomed with open arms by Crete's King Minos. There, acting as the palace technical advisor, Daedalus continued to push the boundaries. For the king's children, he made mechanically animated toys that seemed alive. He invented the ship's sail and mast, which gave humans control over the wind. With every creation, Daedalus challenged human limitations that had so far kept mortals separate from gods, until finally, he broke right through. King Minos's wife, Pasiphaë, had been cursed by the god Poseidon to fall in love with the king's prized bull. Under this spell, she asked Daedalus to help her seduce it. With characteristic audacity, he agreed. Daedalus constructed a hollow wooden cow so realistic that it fooled the bull. With Pasiphaë hiding inside Daedalus's creation, she conceived and gave birth to the half-human half-bull minotaur. This, of course, enraged the king who blamed Daedalus for enabling such a horrible perversion of natural law. As punishment, Daedalus was forced to construct an inescapable labyrinth beneath the palace for the minotaur. When it was finished, Minos then imprisoned Daedalus and his only son Icarus within the top of the tallest tower on the island where they were to remain for the rest of their lives. But Daedalus was still a genius inventor. While observing the birds that circled his prison, the means for escape became clear. He and Icarus would fly away from their prison as only birds or gods could do. Using feathers from the flocks that perched on the tower, and the wax from candles, Daedalus constructed two pairs of giant wings. As he strapped the wings to his son Icarus, he gave a warning: flying too near the ocean would dampen the wings and make them too heavy to use. Flying too near the sun, the heat

76 would melt the wax and the wings would disintegrate. In either case, they surely would die. Therefore, the key to their escape would be in keeping to the middle. With the instructions clear, both men leapt from the tower. They were the first mortals ever to fly. While Daedalus stayed carefully to the midway course, Icarus was overwhelmed with the ecstasy of flight and overcome with the feeling of divine power that came with it. Daedalus could only watch in horror as Icarus ascended higher and higher, powerless to change his son's dire fate. When the heat from the sun melted the wax on his wings, Icarus fell from the sky. Just as Daedalus had many times ignored the consequences of defying the natural laws of mortal men in the service of his ego, Icarus was also carried away by his own hubris. In the end, both men paid for their departure from the path of moderation dearly, Icarus with his life and Daedalus with his regret.

THE MYTH OF DAVID AND GOLIATH AS TOLD BY MARY FAIRCHILD https://www.learnreligions.com/david-and-goliath-700211

The Philistines were at war with Saul. Their champion fighter, Goliath, taunted the armies of Israel daily. But no Hebrew soldier had dared to face this giant of a man.

David, newly anointed but still a boy, was deeply offended by the giant's haughty, mocking challenges. He was zealous to defend the Lord's name. Armed with the inferior weapons of a shepherd, but empowered by God, David killed the mighty Goliath. With their hero down, the Philistines scattered in fear.

This triumph marked Israel's first victory at the hands of David. Proving his valor, David demonstrated that he was worthy to become Israel's next King.

Scripture Reference (1 Samuel 17)

David and Goliath Bible Story Summary

The Philistine army had gathered for war against Israel. The two armies faced each other, camped for battle on opposite sides of a steep valley. A Philistine giant measuring over nine feet tall and wearing full armor came out each day for forty days, mocking and challenging the Israelites to fight. His name was Goliath. Saul, the King of Israel, and the whole army were terrified of Goliath.

One day David, the youngest son of Jesse, was sent to the battle lines by his father to bring back news of his brothers. David was just a young teenager at the time. While there, David heard Goliath shouting his daily defiance, and he saw the great fear stirred within the men of Israel. David responded, "Who is this uncircumcised Philistine that he should defy the armies of God?"

So David volunteered to fight Goliath. It took some persuasion, but King Saul finally agreed to let David oppose the giant. Dressed in his simple tunic, carrying his shepherd's staff,

77 sling, and a pouch full of stones, David approached Goliath. The giant cursed at him, hurling threats and insults.

David said to the Philistine: "You come against me with sword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in the name of the Lord Almighty, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you have defied ... today I will give the carcasses of the Philistine army to the birds of the air ... and the whole world will know that there is a God in Israel ... it is not by sword or spear that the Lord saves; for the battle is the Lord's, and he will give all of you into our hands." (1 Samuel 17:45–47)

As Goliath moved in for the kill, David reached into his bag and slung one of his stones at Goliath's head. It found a hole in the armor and sank into the giant's forehead. He fell face down on the ground. David then took Goliath's sword, killed him and cut off his head. When the Philistines saw that their hero was dead, they turned and ran. The Israelites pursued, chasing and killing them and plundering their camp.

Major Characters

In one of the Bible's most familiar stories, a hero and a villain take the stage:

Goliath: The villain, a Philistine warrior from Gath, was over nine feet tall, wore armor weighing 125 pounds, and carried a 15-pound spear. Scholars believe he may have descended from the Anakim, who were ancestors of a race of giants living in Canaan when Joshua and Caleb led the people of Israel into the Promised Land. Another theory to explain Goliath's gigantism is that it may have been caused by an anterior pituitary tumor or excessive secretion of growth hormone from the pituitary gland.

David: The hero, David, was Israel's second and most important king. His family was from Bethlehem, also called the City of David, in Jerusalem. The youngest son of Jesse’s family, David was part of the tribe of Judah. His great-grandmother was Ruth.

David's story runs from 1 Samuel 16 through 1 Kings 2. Along with being a warrior and king, he was a shepherd and accomplished musician.

David was an ancestor of Jesus Christ, who was often called "Son of David." Perhaps David's greatest accomplishment was to be called a man after God's own heart. (1 Samuel 13:14; Acts 13:22)

78 СУДЫ НАД ЖИВОТНЫМИ Владислав АРТЕМОВ

журнал "История" № 02/2003, издательский дом "Первое сентября"

http://his.1september.ru/article.php?ID=200300204

Судебные процессы над животными, которые порой затевались в средневековой Западной Европе, интересны еще и тем, что наглядно демонстрируют нам принципиальное отличие западноевропейского правосудия от правосудия отечественного.

Известно, что русский человек весьма скептически относится ко всякого рода судам и не так слепо следует букве закона, как это принято в других странах, где всё тщательным образом расписано и регламентировано. В Европе уважение к букве закона прививалось и воспитывалось столетиями. Нам кажется абсурдом то, что можно было проводить судебные процессы над бессловесными животными, причем обставлять эту процедуру самым тщательным образом в строгом соответствии с нормами тогдашнего уголовного права, с вызовом свидетелей, с допросами, с выступлениями обвинителей и адвокатов...

Процессы против животных известны с XIII в. По всей видимости, они происходили и раньше, но в архивах не сохранилось записей.

Животные рассматривались как существа, сознающие то, что они делают, и обязанные поэтому отвечать, подобно людям, на основании общих законов, за всякое «свершенное ими преступление и за всякий причиненный ими имущественный вред».

Процессы поражают своей абсурдностью и наивностью. Интересно, тем не менее, что тогдашняя юриспруденция признавала право животных существовать на земле. Это право может быть у них отнято только по постановлению законной власти и только в том случае, если они злоупотребляют этим правом и причиняют человеку вред. В случае доказанной их вины, они, подобно людям, могут быть отлучаемы от Церкви. Отлучение животных считалось весьма тяжким наказанием.

В уголовных процессах фигурируют следующие животные: свиньи, козлы, козы, быки, коровы, мулы, лошади, кошки, собаки и петухи.

Животные привлекались к судебному следствию и присуждались к наказаниям за преступления, ими совершенные – убийство или причинение ран людям. Почему-то свиньи наиболее часто встречаются в таких процессах.

79 Животному, совершившему преступление, предъявляется формальное обвинение, которое поддерживается представителем государственной власти. В случае необходимости обвиняемое животное подвергается аресту и заключается в общую для всех преступников тюрьму.

Сохранился счет от 1408 г., из которого видно, что на ежедневное содержание свиньи, арестованной по обвинению в убийстве ребенка, отпускалось столько же, сколько и на иных заключенных.

В судебном заседании допрашиваются свидетели и также подвергается допросу само подсудимое животное, которое приводится в суд. Так как оно не отвечает – по крайней мере понятным для людей языком, – то ответом служат звуки, издаваемые животным при сопровождающей допрос пытке, причем обычно эти звуки толкуются судом.

Следствие ведется с соблюдением всех формальностей. Суд назначает обвиняемому животному защитника, выслушивает его защитительные доводы, дает ему сроки для апелляции и вообще гарантирует обвиняемому все средства защиты.

Процесс обычно кончается присуждением к смертной казни. Сохранилось указание, что суд одного австрийского города XVII в. приговорил собаку к одиночному заключению. Но, как правило, осужденные животные приговаривались к повешению, погребению живьем, убиению камнями, сожжению или обезглавливанию.

Часто животные подвергались отрубанию ног, ушей и других частей тела, указанных в приговоре. Часто суды заменяли смертную казнь дорогих и полезных домашних животных продажей их на убой – с тем, что голова убитого животного выставлялась в каком-либо публичном месте. Такую резолюцию мы находим в актах гентского суда 1578 г. Речь шла об осуждении коровы, причем суд постановил, чтобы половина дохода с продажи преступного животного поступила в пользу потерпевшего, а другая половина – в городскую казну в пользу бедных.

Приведение в исполнение приговора происходило с соблюдением тех же торжественных и сложных формальностей, какие были разработаны для людей. Казнь происходила открыто, в присутствии народа, на городской площади, в некоторых местах – при звоне колоколов. Исполнение приговора поручалось государственному палачу. Сохранились в архивах счета на вознаграждение за исполненную казнь.

Осужденное животное волочили в сопровождении большой толпы к месту казни, часто оно было одето в человеческую одежду. Для повешения специально возводилась виселица. <…>

80 <…> Главная особенность этих процессов заключалась в том, что животные выступали как настоящие ответчики. Обвинителем или истцом является собственник земли или воды, которой наносится ущерб. Дело рассматривалось по существу; предлагался к разрешению вопрос об удалении ответчиков-животных из страны, причем стороны приводят возражения и доводы за и против изгнания. Когда ответчики отказываются повиноваться решению суда и не удаляются из страны, тогда возникает спор о применении к ним церковного проклятия или отлучения.

Процесс начинается подачей иска обвиняющей стороны. Суд назначает ответчику- животному адвоката, который должен отвечать от имени животных на предъявленное обвинение. Животным повелевается, чтобы они в течение разбирательства дела удержались от дальнейшего размножения.

Эти тяжбы тянулись очень долго, иногда целые годы.

Процессы обычно кончались постановлением об изгнании ответчиков из страны. Приговор приводился в исполнение не сразу. Обыкновенно животным-ответчикам давался определенный срок, во время которого они могли собраться в дорогу. Животным часто отводился принадлежащий общине участок – с тем условием, чтобы они щадили остальную часть принадлежащей общине земли. Всё это закреплялось в виде договора.

Множество условий и договорных пунктов, которые регулировали подробности этих уступок, показывает, насколько серьезно люди относились тогда к договорам с животными.

Сохранились подлинные акты процессов против шпанских мух, гусениц, полевых мышей, кротов и др. Сохранился также текст прений сторон.

Есть описание случая, когда в окрестностях одной французской деревни случилось вторжение белых червей, которые стали опустошать местность. Жители подали на них жалобу в суд. Белые черви, конечно, не прислали на эту жалобу никакого возражения. Тогда суд, выждав определенный срок, дал ход делу и назначил ответчикам адвоката. По рассмотрении обстоятельств дела суд признал, что «указанные черви – создания Бога, они имеют право жить, и было бы несправедливо лишать их возможности существования, а потому суд определяет назначить им местожительством лесистую и дикую местность, дабы они отныне могли жить, не причиняя вреда обрабатываемым полям».

Рассказывается и о другом подобном деле, возбужденном жителями этой же местности, – против шпанских мух. Судья, прежде всего ввиду того, что обвиняемые мушки – маленькие и, следовательно, по его мнению, малолетние, назначил им опекуна и защитника, который так хорошо защищал своих клиентов, что ему удалось

81 добиться не слишком сурового приговора. Мушек изгнали из страны, но им все-таки была отведена территория, где они могли бы поселиться и существовать.

«И теперь еще, – добавляет писатель XV в., – жители каждый год возобновляют контракт с указанными мушками, по которому предоставляют этим насекомым известное пространство, а эти последние обязуются не выходить за условленные пределы, и обе стороны свято соблюдают это миролюбивое соглашение». <…>

<…> Чем же объясняется это удивительное явление Средневековья – процессы против животных?

Мы находим у исследователей различные толкования. Некоторые выводят правовое отношение к животным из первобытного права, перешедшего в Европу от древних народов. Прежде всего указывают на Моисеево право. По законодательству Моисея повелевается забросать камнями быка, забодавшего человека, и запрещается есть мясо этого быка. Этот закон находил оправдание в том, что Бог обещал Ною и его потомкам, что Он отомстит за них не только людям, но и животным. Отсюда уравнение животных с людьми перед земным правосудием.

У восточных народов в свое время тоже сохранялись наказания животных. Один историк рассказывает, что он был очевидцем публичного распинания льва в Финикийских колониях.

У древних персов наказания животных тоже были обычным явлением. Заратустра спрашивает Агурамазду, как следует поступить с бешеной собакой, кусающей людей и скот. Этот вопрос имел для Заратустры особенно большую важность потому, что собаки принадлежат у персов к числу святых животных, которых нельзя истреблять.

По ответу, данному Агурамаздой, «владелец собаки, не следивший за нею надлежащим образом, должен быть наказан за убийство, совершенное с намерением. Собаке же должно в первый раз отрезать правое, во второй раз левое ухо, при следующих же укушениях нужно ей отрезать каждый раз по одной ноге».

Другие исследователи связывают процессы против животных и отлучение животных от Церкви со средневековой демонологией и верой в оборотней. Существовало убеждение, что дьявол охотно и чаще всего принимает вид животного – сам принимает вид какого-либо животного, чтобы вредить, и также обращает в животных людей, в которых он поселился или которые вступили с ним в связь.

Полагали, что это излюбленный способ дьявола вредить. Эти оборотни и бегали якобы по деревням, пожирая детей и домашний скот.

Кроме всего прочего процессы против животных должны были служить предупреждающим и устрашающим актом для людей. Наказания животных должны 82 были побуждать владельцев к большей бдительности в присмотре за животными и удерживать их самих от преступных действий. Так, при осуждении свиньи в 1572 году приговор мотивируется желанием «поощрять людей к бдительному присмотру за животными».

Во всяком случае, средневековая юриспруденция, очевидно, признавала равенство между людьми и животными во всем, что касалось исполнения всех Божеских и человеческих законов.

The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals by Jen Girgen (extract)

https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Girgen_Historical.pdf

THE PROSECUTION AND PUNISHMENT OF ANIMALS IN MODERN TIMES

why the prosecution and punishment of animals has continued into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries Our modern criminal justice system regularly holds animals responsible for their “offenses.” Dogs, especially, frequently find themselves in the position of defendant in modern American legal proceedings. Consider, for example, the laws mandating the execution of “vicious” dogs, which can set the stage for modern animal trials.

A. Vestiges of the Old Trials: “Death Row” Dogs (Vicious Dog Proceedings)

Under the typical vicious dog law, the process of having a dog declared “dangerous” begins when a formal complaint is filed, either by the person injured or threatened by the dog, or by an animal control officer. A hearing is then held, at which time evidence is presented and a judge or public health official makes the declaration of whether or not the accused dog meets the applicable statutory definition of “vicious” or “dangerous.” If the judge determines the dog to be “dangerous,” he or she will then order the dog’s guardian to take certain precautionary measures aimed at preventing the dog from harming anyone in the future. Generally, at a minimum, the guardian will be ordered to keep the dog securely confined. However, if the judge determines that society will still not be protected from the dog, he or she may order the animal killed.

The most famous of all “death row” dog cases involved a 110-pound, three-year-old Japanese Akita named Taro. In 1991, Taro was seized and quarantined by Bergen County officials after biting his guardian’s ten-year-old niece. On February 11, 1991, the judge ordered that Taro be killed. Taro’s guardian appealed the death sentence, and the county health department ordered that Taro be held in jail until judges decided whether he

83 would, in fact, be killed. The press quickly dubbed him New Jersey’s “death row dog,” and the nation spent the next three years following the case.

By the time it was finally over, the case was as expensive as it was time consuming. The total cost of the case was more than $100,000. In the end the dog went to another guardian.

Of course, not every dog is so fortunate. Many, many dogs are declared “vicious” and are subsequently executed.

B. Animal Justice Today: Summary Justice

The case of Taro - although interesting - truly is an anomaly. Formal animal “trials” are now rare. To be certain, the dog’s life was spared only because its case was made known to the public.

Animal justice today is much more typically summary justice.

No formal charge is levied, no legal counsel is provided, and no public hearing is held to ensure that at least some basic form of due process is followed.

“Justice” today comes much more quickly and surreptitiously than it did during the era of the animal trials, or even in the few contemporary vicious dog “trials.” While Taro had the benefit of legal counsel procured by their guardians, many animals accused of harming humans or human interests receive no such protection. All too often, an animal who causes harm to a human being is unceremoniously declared guilty by a private person (often the animal’s guardian) and executed hastily – very often brutally – in private, without any of the formalities or protections of the law.

Such was the case a few years ago in Middleburg, Florida after a 21-month-old girl wandered into a neighbor’s yard where six pit bulls were kept chained. One of the dogs attacked and critically injured the toddler. Following the incident, the dog’s guardian brutally killed the animal with a hammer.

Because no database of these private killings exists, and no law requires them to be reported to authorities, there is no way of knowing with any certainty how many occur each year. Still, accounts of private killings appear daily in brief articles newspaper and television news. This enables us to draw the following three conclusions. First, although the formal prosecution of animals has for the most part ended, animals nevertheless continue to be punished for their “crimes” against human beings. Second, the public executions of the past have been replaced by out-of-sight animal shelter and veterinarian office euthanizations and hasty backyard executions. Finally, it is extremely rare for a person who summarily executes an animal to be charged with, and convicted of, cruelty to animals. 84 The official response to these acts of summary justice almost certainly would have been different had they occurred during the era of the animal trials. Chassan´ee and his contemporaries would have looked upon each of these incidents with great disdain, for although animal offenders were certainly killed during the age of the animal trials, it was generally only after having first received the benefit of legal due process. Killing an animal without such due process was generally condemned.

C. Keeping Animals in Their Place: Restoring Order and Achieving Vengeance

Why today, do we still hold animals accountable for the harms they commit against human beings? Certainly, sometimes we kill animals under the pretext of assuring human safety. However, often no reason is specified, particularly when animals are executed at the “scene of the crime.”

In at least some of the cases, particularly those involving the summary killing of an animal who has caused harm, the motive appears to be based, at least in part, upon a simple primal desire for revenge. In 1997, a tiger named Arnie bit and seriously injured circus trainer Richard Chipperfield. Nearby trainers were able to come to the man’s aid and returned the tiger to his cage. Nevertheless, Graham Chipperfield, the trainer’s brother, fired a shotgun multiple times into the tiger’s cage, killing Arnie. Prosecutors declined to pursue animal cruelty charges against Graham Chipperfield, deciding that he had been justified in killing the animal, notwithstanding the fact that the animal was secured in a cage and no longer posed a threat.

In other cases where an animal has seriously injured or killed a person, it seems that the motive behind killing the offending animal is to restore the hierarchical order that the animal, by her actions, has upset. Like in the Middle ages, today’s animal offenders pose a real threat to the hierarchical order set out in the Book of Genesis, which places human beings above all other forms of life. It is not too far a stretch to suggest that when animals are killed for their offenses, the executions are motivated, either in whole or in part, because the transgressing animals have “forgotten their place” in the scheme of things. Animals are not supposed to injure or kill human beings. We are, after all, their “masters” and “owners.” Thus, for perhaps one of the same reasons the medieval Europeans punished animals who failed to observe this separation of the species, so we, too, restore order by punishing transgressing animals.

In short, by killing and permitting the killing of animals who have harmed human beings, we achieve two ends: vengeance on behalf of the injured person, and restoration of the hierarchical order. Prosecutors, in refusing to press animal cruelty charges, and judges and juries, in refusing to convict, further affirm the notion that we have an innate right to achieve these ends.

85 IV. CONCLUSION

Although today’s trials and executions of animal offenders are rarely the formal occasions they once were, the practice of prosecuting and punishing animals for their offenses continues into the twentyfirst century. Indeed, only the manner by which we hold animals accountable for their transgressions has changed. Where once we afforded animals who allegedly caused harm due process and a trial, today we seldom guarantee them even the most basic of legal protections before killing them.

Both theoretically and pragmatically, we should be concerned with what happens to animals accused of causing harm. It is suggested that, for the following reasons, the time has come to not only scrutinize, but also change, our current policies toward animals alleged to have injured or killed human beings.

(1) Executing an animal “offender” is fundamentally unfair to the animal. Whenever an animal is killed (whether summarily or not), it is always the animal – and not necessarily the guardian of the animal – who is being punished. This is the case whether we are talking about the hasty backyard executions or the government-mandated killing of errant animals.

(2) The execution of an animal defendant provides little, if any, punishment of the human offender. Primary responsibility more properly lies with the animal’s human guardian who, ultimately, is responsible for the problems caused by the animal in his or her care.

(3) Executing animals does little to deter future attacks. Laws that provide for the execution of an offending animal, yet require only minimal fines for their human guardians. The execution of an animal offender prevents that particular animal from causing harm again. However it does very little by way of affecting future human conduct. Irresponsible guardians can easily replace executed animals with new ones.

(4) Executing animals without providing them at least minimal due process provides little incentive to extend minimal protections to other neglected members of society. The special needs of children, the mentally ill, the mentally disabled, and the indigent have each, at times, been ignored by our criminal justice system. In theory, at least, a judicial process that protects the rights of animals – arguably the weakest members of society – will also protect the rights of members of these other marginalized groups. By providing a voice to the most voiceless group of society, we just might amplify the voices of these other groups.

(5) When we tolerate “backyard executions,” we tolerate animal cruelty and violence in general. If we are serious about ending violence, we cannot tolerate violence in any form or at any level. If we are truly dedicated to ending violence, then animal cruelty must be moved from the regrettable to the intolerable.

86 Of course, none of the above is intended to suggest that we do nothing with animals who harm human beings. Society certainly does have a need to protect itself against dangerous threats, whether they are human or nonhuman in form.

In short, more attention must be given to both the needs of the animals and the culpability of the human actors. Prosecutors and judges must lift responsibility from the shoulders of the animals, and place it where it more properly belongs – with the human guardians of the offending animals. Notions of humanity, justice, and equity require that we revisit the idea of giving animals some measure of due process before taking their lives. Perhaps it is time for a return of some form of the animal trials of years past.

Chapter 4 The Survivor

IN 1492, Columbus Day Poem

In fourteen hundred ninety-two Columbus sailed the ocean blue. He had three ships and left from Spain; He sailed through sunshine, wind and rain. He sailed by night; he sailed by day; He used the stars to find his way. A compass also helped him know How to find the way to go. Ninety sailors were on board; Some men worked while others snored. Then the workers went to sleep; And others watched the ocean deep. Day after day they looked for land; They dreamed of trees and rocks and sand. October 12 their dream came true, You never saw a happier crew! "Indians! Indians!" Columbus cried; His heart was filled with joyful pride. But "India" the land was not; It was the Bahamas, and it was hot. The Arakawa natives were very nice; They gave the sailors food and spice. Columbus sailed on to find some gold To bring back home, as he'd been told. He made the trip again and again, Trading gold to bring to Spain. The first American? No, not quite. But Columbus was brave, and he was bright.

87 Columbus Poem Rewritten by Dana W. Hall

https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/fourteen-hundred-ninety-two- the-columbus-poem-rewritten/

The following poem, a new version of a rhyme all of us are all-too-familiar with, was submitted by reader Dana W. Hall, and on the 520th anniversary of its title we’re inclined to share it:

In Fourteen Hundred and Ninety Two, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. But everything else in the childhood rhyme, Ignores the historic details and genocide. The overland route between Asia and Spain, Was closed making trade very hard to maintain. But Oriental goods were in high demand, A new route would allow this exchange to expand. Aristotle had proved that the world was round, You could reach eastern Asia by sailing westbound. The Ancient Greeks calculated the length of the trip, Far exceeding the range of the most modern ship. Columbus made absurd and outrageous guarantees, About his nautical calculations and skills at Sea. But despite reservations expressed by the King, He was given three ships outfitted by the Queen. He set sail in August of 1492, his Log Book describes what he planned to do. To take wealth and riches wherever they were found, His thievery would become historically profound. Columbus reached Islands in the Caribbean Sea, Not even close to where he thought he should be. He said there was gold and made other false claims, To gain the support for more voyages from Spain. Columbus described the Natives as being, Generous, hospitable, and very agreeing. Not quarrelsome, excitable – devoid of hate, He exclaimed they’d be easy to dominate. He made several voyages to the Caribbean Sea, Visited the mainland where he thought Asia should be.

88 He colonized the region and controlled everything, Destroying the culture and lives of every human being. He appointed himself Governor; no one disagreed, Extermination of the Natives could then proceed. Their homes and lands were taken by force, Those not killed were enslaved without remorse. He created a “tribute system” very tragic to behold, Intended to fulfill Spain’s unending lust for gold. Requiring a quota from every Native over fourteen, Or their hands were cut off, death became quite routine. Natives were raped at will and many used as slaves, The rest were exterminated, in a variety of ways. By burning, hanging, cut in pieces or in half, Babies swung by the feet and their skulls were smashed. He initiated the conquest and genocide, During his expeditions, 9 million people died. Following the “Civilization” of the Western Hemisphere, 100 million vanished as a result of European profiteers. Columbus didn’t keep the promises made to the Crown, And a sea route to Asia, he never found. He could not deliver on his guarantees of Gold, But colonization of the Americas began to unfold

Chernobyl Disaster https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/link-suggestion/wpcd_2008- 09_augmented/wp/c/Chernobyl_disaster.htm

The "Chernobyl disaster", reactor accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, or simply "Chernobyl" was the worst nuclear power plant accident in history and the only instance so far of level 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale, resulting in a severe nuclear meltdown. On 26 April 1986 at 01:23:40 a.m. (UTC+3) reactor number four at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant located in the Soviet Union near Pripyat in Ukraine exploded. Further explosions and the resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive fallout into the atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area.

The plume drifted over parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Northern Europe, and eastern North America. Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were badly contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of over 336,000 people. According to official post-Soviet data, about 60% of the radioactive fallout landed in Belarus.

89 The accident raised concerns about the safety of the Soviet nuclear power industry, slowing its expansion for a number of years, while forcing the Soviet government to become less secretive. The now-independent countries of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus have been burdened with the continuing and substantial decontamination and health care costs of the Chernobyl accident. It is difficult to tally accurately the number of deaths caused by the events at Chernobyl, as the Soviet-era cover-up made it difficult to track down victims. Lists were incomplete, and Soviet authorities later forbade doctors to cite "radiation" on death certificates.

The 2005 report prepared by the Chernobyl Forum, led by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and World Health Organization (WHO), attributed 56 direct deaths (47 accident workers, and nine children with thyroid cancer), and estimated that there may be 4,000 extra deaths due to cancer among the approximately 600,000 most highly exposed and 5,000 among the 6 million living nearby.

Although the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone and certain limited areas will remain off limits, the majority of affected areas are now considered safe for settlement and economic activity.

Авария на Чернобыльской АЭС и ее последствия РИА Новости https://ria.ru/spravka/20130426/934551998.html 27 лет назад, 26 апреля 1986 года, на четвертом энергоблоке Чернобыльской атомной электростанции (ЧАЭС) произошла крупнейшая в истории мировой атомной энергетики авария. В ночь на 26 апреля 1986 года на четвертом энергоблоке Чернобыльской атомной электростанции (ЧАЭС), расположенной на территории Украины (в то время Украинской ССР) на правом берегу реки Припяти в 12 километрах от города Чернобыля Киевской области, произошла крупнейшая в истории мировой атомной энергетики авария.

Четвертый энергоблок ЧАЭС был запущен в промышленную эксплуатацию в декабре 1983 года.

На 25 апреля 1986 года на ЧАЭС было намечено проведение проектных испытаний одной из систем обеспечения безопасности на четвертом энергоблоке, после чего реактор планировалось остановить для проведения плановых ремонтных работ. В ходе испытаний предполагалось обесточить оборудование АЭС и использовать механическую энергию вращения останавливающихся турбогенераторов (так называемого выбега) для обеспечения работоспособности систем безопасности энергоблока. Из-за диспетчерских ограничений остановка реактора несколько раз

90 откладывалась, что вызвало определенные трудности с управлением мощностью реактора.

26 апреля в 01 час 24 минуты произошел неконтролируемый рост мощности, который привел к взрывам и разрушению значительной части реакторной установки. Из-за взрыва реактора и последовавшего пожара на энергоблоке в окружающую среду было выброшено значительное количество радиоактивных веществ.

Принятые в последующие дни меры по засыпке реактора инертными материалами привели сначала к уменьшению мощности радиоактивного выброса, но затем рост температуры внутри разрушенной шахты реактора привел к повышению количества выбрасываемых в атмосферу радиоактивных веществ. Выбросы радионуклидов существенно снизились только к концу первой декады мая 1986 года.

На заседании 16 мая правительственная комиссия приняла решение о долговременной консервации разрушенного энергоблока. 20 мая был издан приказ Министерства среднего машиностроения «Об организации управления строительства на Чернобыльской АЭС», в соответствии с которым начались работы по созданию сооружения «Укрытие». Возведение этого объекта с привлечением около 90 тысяч строителей продолжалось 206 дней – с июня по ноябрь 1986 года. 30 ноября 1986 года решением государственной комиссии законсервированный четвертый энергоблок Чернобыльской АЭС был принят на техническое обслуживание.

Выброшенные из разрушенного реактора в атмосферу продукты деления ядерного топлива были разнесены воздушными потоками на значительные территории, обусловив их радиоактивное загрязнение не только вблизи АЭС в границах Украины, России и Белоруссии, но и за сотни и даже тысячи километров от места аварии. Радиоактивному загрязнению подверглись территории многих стран.

Наиболее обширные территории были загрязнены в Украине (41,75 тысяч квадратных километров), Белоруссии (46,6 тысяч квадратных километров), европейской части России (57,1 тысяч квадратных километров).

После аварии было выделено две формы чернобыльских выпадений – топливные частицы и газоконденсатные выпадения, включающие мелкие аэрозоли. Радиоактивные аэрозоли выпадали в основном с дождями на большой территории в границах Украины, Белоруссии и центральных областей европейской части России. Выпадение топливных частиц произошло в основном в ближней 30-километровой зоне ЧАЭС, вследствие чего радионуклиды плутония, имеющие большой период полураспада, оказались сосредоточены преимущественно в ближней зоне и не сыграли важной радиологической роли для населения за ее пределами. Основная

91 часть выпадений со значимым вкладом изотопов стронция также была сосредоточена вблизи ЧАЭС.

В долгосрочном плане основным дозообразующим радионуклидом на большей части чернобыльского следа, в том числе и в России, явился цезий-137 (период полураспада 30 лет). Общий выброс цезия-137 оценивается на уровне 85 ПБк (петабеккерель), в том числе около 19 ПБк (22%) выпало на территории России.

В результате аварии радиоактивному загрязнению цезием-137 с уровнями выше 1 Ки/км2 (37 кБк/м2) подверглись территории 17 стран Европы общей площадью 207,5 тысяч квадратных километров. Существенно загрязненными цезием-137 оказались территории Украины (37,63 тысяч квадратных километров), Белоруссии (43,5 тысяч квадратных километров), европейской части России (59,3 тысяч квадратных километров).

В России радиационному загрязнению цезием-137 подверглись 19 субъектов. Наиболее загрязненными областями являются Брянская (11,8 тысяч квадратных километров загрязненных территорий), Калужская (4,9 тысяч квадратных километров), Тульская (11,6 тысяч квадратных километров) и Орловская (8,9 тысяч квадратных километров).

Около 60 тысяч квадратных километров территорий, загрязненных цезием-137 с уровнями выше 1 Ки/км2, находятся за пределами бывшего СССР. Загрязнению подверглись территории Австрии, Германии, Италии, Великобритании, Швеции, Финляндии, Норвегии и ряда других стран Западной Европы.

Значительная часть территории России, Украины и Белоруссии оказалась загрязненной на уровне, превышающем 5 Ки/км2 (185 кБк/м2). Сельскохозяйственные угодья площадью почти 52 тысячи квадратных километров пострадали от цезия-137 и стронция-90 с периодом полураспада в 30 и 28 лет соответственно.

Сразу же после катастрофы погиб 31 человек, а 600 тысяч ликвидаторов, принимавших участие в тушении пожаров и расчистке, получили высокие дозы радиации. Радиоактивному облучению подверглись почти 8,4 миллиона жителей Белоруссии, Украины и России, из них было переселено почти 404 тысячи человек.

Из-за очень высокого радиоактивного фона после аварии работа атомной станции была остановлена. После проведения работ по дезактивации зараженной территории и сооружения объекта «Укрытие» 1 октября 1986 года был запущен первый энергоблок ЧАЭС, 5 ноября – второй, а 4 декабря 1987 года в работу был включен и третий энергоблок станции.

92 В соответствии с Меморандумом, подписанным в 1995 году между Украиной, государствами большой семерки и Комиссией Европейского Союза, 30 ноября 1996 года было принято решение об окончательной остановке первого энергоблока, а 15 марта 1999 года – второго энергоблока.

11 декабря 1998 года был принят закон Украины «Об общих принципах последующей эксплуатации и снятия с эксплуатации Чернобыльской АЭС и преобразования разрушенного четвертого энергоблока этой АЭС в экологически безопасную систему».

ЧАЭС перестала вырабатывать электроэнергию 15 декабря 2000 года, когда был навсегда остановлен третий энергоблок.

25 апреля 2001 года станция была реорганизована в Государственное специальное предприятие «Чернобыльская АЭС».

С этого дня предприятие работает над снятием энергоблоков с эксплуатации, утилизацией радиоактивных отходов и строительством над четвертым энергоблоком нового безопасного конфайнмента (защитное сооружение), призванного заменить объект «Укрытие».

Новый безопасный конфайнмент (НБК) – это многофункциональный комплекс для преобразования объекта «Укрытие» в экологически безопасную систему. Согласно проекту основное сооружение, входящее в состав НБК, будет иметь форму арки высотой 108 метров длиной 150 метров и шириной 257 метров. После возведения оно будет «надвинуто» на четвертый энергоблок ЧАЭС.

После этого внутри конструкции начнутся работы по извлечению и захоронению радиационных материалов.

Чернобыльская АЭС будет полностью снята с эксплуатации к 2065 году.

В декабре 2003 года Генеральная ассамблея ООН поддержала решение Совета глав государств СНГ о провозглашении 26 апреля Международным днем памяти жертв радиационных аварий и катастроф, а также призвала все государства – члены ООН отмечать этот Международный день и проводить в его рамках соответствующие мероприятия.

93 Fukushima Accident(Updated April 2017) World Nuclear Association

http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and- security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-accident.aspx

o Following a major earthquake, a 15-metre tsunami disabled the power supply and cooling of three Fukushima Daiichi reactors, causing a nuclear accident on 11 March 2011. All three cores largely melted in the first three days. o The accident was rated 7 on the INES scale, due to high radioactive releases over days 4 to 6, eventually a total of some 940 PBq (I-131 eq). o Four reactors were written off due to damage in the accident – 2719 MWe net. o After two weeks, the three reactors (units 1–3) were stable with water addition and by July they were being cooled with recycled water from the new treatment plant. Official 'cold shutdown condition' was announced in mid-December. o Apart from cooling, the basic ongoing task was to prevent release of radioactive materials, particularly in contaminated water leaked from the three units. This task became newsworthy in August 2013. o There have been no deaths or cases of radiation sickness from the nuclear accident, but over 100,000 people were evacuated from their homes to ensure this. Government nervousness delays the return of many. o Official figures show that there have been well over 1000 deaths from maintaining the evacuation, in contrast to little risk from radiation if early return had been allowed.

The Great East Japan Earthquake of magnitude 9.0 at 2.46 pm on Friday 11 March 2011 did considerable damage in the region, and the large tsunami it created caused very much more.<…>

Events at Fukushima Daiichi 1–3 & 4

It appears that no serious damage was done to the reactors by the earthquake, and the operating units 1–3 were automatically shut down in response to it, as designed. At the same time all six external power supply sources were lost due to earthquake damage, so the emergency diesel generators located in the basements of the turbine buildings started up. Initially cooling would have been maintained through the main steam circuit bypassing the turbine and going through the condensers.

Then 41 minutes later, at 3:42 pm, the first tsunami wave hit, followed by a second 8 minutes later. These submerged and damaged the seawater pumps for both the main condenser circuits and the auxiliary cooling circuits, notably the Residual Heat Removal (RHR) cooling system. They also drowned the diesel generators and inundated the

94 electrical switchgear and batteries, all located in the basements of the turbine buildings (the one surviving air-cooled generator was serving units 5 & 6). So there was a station blackout, and the reactors were isolated from their ultimate heat sink. The tsunamis also damaged and obstructed roads, making outside access difficult.

All this put those reactors 1–3 in a dire situation and led the authorities to order, and subsequently extend, an evacuation while engineers worked to restore power and cooling. The 125-volt DC back-up batteries for units 1 & 2 were flooded and failed, leaving them without instrumentation, control or lighting. Unit 3 had battery power for about 30 hours.

At 7.03 pm Friday 11 March a Nuclear Emergency was declared, and at 8.50pm the Fukushima Prefecture issued an evacuation order for people within 2 km of the plant. At 9.23 pm the Prime Minister extended this to 3 km, and at 5.44 am on 12th he extended it to 10 km. He visited the plant soon after. On Saturday 12th he extended the evacuation zone to 20 km.<…>

Radiation exposure on the plant site

By the end of 2011, Tepco had checked the radiation exposure of 19,594 people who had worked on the site since 11 March. For many of these both external dose and internal doses (measured with whole-body counters) were considered. It reported that 167 workers had received doses over 100 mSv. Of these 135 had received 100 to 150 mSv, 23 150–200 mSv, three more 200–250 mSv, and six had received over 250 mSv (309 to 678 mSv) apparently due to inhaling iodine-131 fume early on. The latter included the two unit 3–4 control room operators in the first two days who had not been wearing breathing apparatus. There were up to 200 workers on site each day. Recovery workers are wearing personal monitors, with breathing apparatus and protective clothing which protect against alpha and beta radiation. So far over 3500 of some 3700 workers at the damaged Daiichi plant have received internal check-ups for radiation exposure, giving whole body count estimates. The level of 250 mSv was the allowable maximum short-term dose for Fukushima accident clean-up workers through to December 2011, 500 mSv is the international allowable short-term dose "for emergency workers taking life-saving actions". Since January 2012 the allowable maximum has reverted to 50 mSv/yr.<…>

Radiation exposure and fallout beyond the plant site

<…>There have been no harmful effects from radiation on local people, nor any doses approaching harmful levels. However, some 160,000 people were evacuated from their homes and only from 2012 were allowed limited return. In October 2013, 81,000 evacuees remained displaced due to government concern about radiological effects from the accident.

95 Public health and return of evacuees

<…>Many evacuated people remain unable to fully return home due to government- mandated restrictions based on conservative radiation exposure criteria. However, over 1000 premature deaths have been caused by maintaining the evacuation beyond a prudent week or so. Decontamination work is proceeding while radiation levels decline naturally. The October 2013 IAEA report makes it clear that many evacuees should be allowed to return home.

Managing contaminated water

<…>A large amount of contaminated water has accumulated on site and has been treated to remove all but traces of tritium, which limits the potential to release treated water to the sea. Some radioactivity has been released to the sea, but this has mostly been low- level and it has not had any significant impact beyond the immediate plant structures. Concentrations outside these structures have been below regulatory levels since April 2011. <…>

International Nuclear Event Scale assessment

Japan's Nuclear & Industrial Safety Agency originally declared the Fukushima Daiichi 1–3 accident as Level 5 on the International Nuclear Events Scale (INES) – an accident with wider consequences, the same level as Three Mile Island in 1979. The sequence of events relating to the fuel pond at unit 4 was rated INES Level 3 – a serious incident.

However, a month after the tsunami the NSC raised the rating to 7 for units 1–3 together, 'a major accident', saying that a re-evaluation of early radioactive releases suggested that some 630 PBq of I-131 equivalent had been discharged, mostly in the first week. This then matched the criterion for level 7. In early June NISA increased its estimate of releases to 770 PBq, from about half that, though in August the NSC lowered this estimate to 570 PBqFor Fukushima Daini, NISA declared INES Level 3 for units 1, 2, 4 – each a serious incident. <…>

Inquiries and reports: radiation effects

A preliminary report from the World Health Organisation (WHO) in May 2012 estimated the radiation doses that residents of Japan outside the evacuated areas received in the year following the accident. The report's headline conclusion is that most people in Fukushima prefecture would have received a radiation dose of between 1 and 10 mSv during the first year after the accident. This compares with levels of about 2.4 mSv they would have received from unavoidable natural sources. In two places the doses were higher – between 10 and 50 mSv, still below any harmful level. Almost all were “below the

96 internationally-agreed reference level for the public exposure due to radon in dwellings” (about 10 mSv/yr).

The UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) in May 2012 reported that despite skin contamination of several workers, no clinically-observable effects have been reported and there is no evidence of acute radiation injury in any of the 20,115 workers who participated in Tepco’s efforts to mitigate the accident at the plant. Eighteen UNSCEAR member states provided 72 experts for the assessment. UNSCEAR also surveyed Fukushima prefecture tol compare its data with Japanese measurements of exposures of some 2 million people living there at the time of the accident.

The results of UNSCEAR’s 12-month study on the magnitude of radioactive releases to the atmosphere and ocean, and the range of radiation doses received by the public and workers were announced in May 2013 are reported above in the subsection on Radiation Exposure.

UNSCEAR’s final report of radiation effects was released in April 2014. This concluded that the rates of cancer or hereditary diseases were unlikely to show any discernible rise in affected areas because the radiation doses people received were too low. People were promptly evacuated from the vicinity of the nuclear power plant, and later from a neighbouring area where radionuclides had accumulated. This action reduced their radiation exposure by a factor of ten, to levels that were "low or very low." Overall, people in Fukushima are expected on average to receive less than 10 mSv due to the accident over their whole lifetime, compared with the 170 mSv lifetime dose from natural background radiation that people in Japan typically receive. "The most important health effect is on mental and social well-being, related to the enormous impact of the earthquake, tsunami and nuclear accident, and the fear and stigma related to the perceived risk of exposure to radiation." UNSCEAR’s follow-up white paper in October 2015 said that none of the new information appraised after the 2013 report “materially affected the main findings in, or challenged the major assumptions of, the 2013 Fukushima report."

In October 2013 a 16-member IAEA mission visited at government request and reported on remediation and decontamination in particular. Its preliminary report said that decontamination efforts were commendable but driven by unrealistic targets.

97 Chapter 5 The Shipwreck

Romantic visual arts https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism#Romantic_visual_arts

In the visual arts, Romanticism first showed itself in landscape painting, where from as early as the 1760s British artists began to turn to wilder landscapes and storms, and Gothic architecture, even if they had to make do with Wales as a setting. Caspar David Friedrich and J. M. W. Turner were born less than a year apart in 1774 and 1775 respectively and were to take German and English landscape painting to their extremes of Romanticism, but both their artistic sensibilities were formed when forms of Romanticism was already strongly present in art. John Constable, born in 1776, stayed closer to the English landscape tradition, but in his largest "six-footers" insisted on the heroic status of a patch of the working countryside where he had grown up – challenging the traditional hierarchy of genres, which relegated landscape painting to a low status. Turner also painted very large landscapes, and above all, seascapes. Some of these large paintings had contemporary settings and staffage, but others had small figures that turned the work into history painting in the manner of Claude Lorrain, like Salvator Rosa a late Baroque artist whose landscapes had elements that Romantic painters repeatedly turned to. Friedrich often used single figures, or features like crosses, set alone amidst a huge landscape, "making them images of the transitoriness of human life and the premonition of death."

Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on the mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and proportions. These included William Blake and Samuel Palmer and the other members of the Ancients in England, and in Germany Philipp Otto Runge. Like Friedrich, none of these artists had significant influence after their deaths for the rest of the 19th century, and were 20th century rediscoveries from obscurity, though Blake was always known as a poet, and Norway's leading painter Johan Christian Dahl was heavily influenced by Friedrich. The Rome-based Nazarene movement of German artists, active from 1810, took a very different path, concentrating on medievalizing history paintings with religious and nationalist themes.

The arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed by the strong hold of Neoclassicism on the academies, but from the Napoleonic period it became increasingly popular, initially in the form of history paintings propagandising for the new regime, of which Girodet's Ossian receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes, for Napoleon's Château de Malmaison, was one of the earliest. Girodet's old teacher David was puzzled and disappointed by his pupil's direction, saying: "Either Girodet is mad or I no longer know anything of the art of painting". A new generation of the French school,[80] developed personal Romantic styles, though still concentrating on history painting with a political message. Théodore Géricault (1791–1824) had his first success with The Charging Chasseur, a heroic military figure

98 derived from Rubens, at the Paris Salon of 1812 in the years of the Empire, but his next major completed work, The Raft of the Medusa of 1821, remains the greatest achievement of the Romantic history painting, which in its day had a powerful anti-government message.

Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) made his first Salon hits with The Barque of Dante (1822), The Massacre at Chios (1824) and Death of Sardanapalus (1827). The second was a scene from the Greek War of Independence, completed the year Byron died there, and the last was a scene from one of Byron's plays. With Shakespeare, Byron was to provide the subject matter for many other works of Delacroix, who also spent long periods in North Africa, painting colourful scenes of mounted Arab warriors. His Liberty Leading the People (1830) remains, with the Medusa, one of the best-known works of French Romantic painting. Both reflected current events, and increasingly "history painting", literally "story painting", a phrase dating back to the Italian Renaissance meaning the painting of subjects with groups of figures, long considered the highest and most difficult form of art, did indeed become the painting of historical scenes, rather than those from religion or mythology.

Francisco Goya was called "the last great painter in whose art thought and observation were balanced and combined to form a faultless unity". But the extent to which he was a Romantic is a complex question. In Spain, there was still a struggle to introduce the values of the Enlightenment, in which Goya saw himself as a participant. The demonic and anti- rational monsters thrown up by his imagination are only superficially similar to those of the Gothic fantasies of northern Europe, and in many ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism of his training, as well as looking forward to the Realism of the later 19th century.[83] But he, more than any other artist of the period, exemplified the Romantic values of the expression of the artist's feelings and his personal imaginative world.[84] He also shared with many of the Romantic painters a more free handling of paint, emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and impasto, which tended to be repressed in neoclassicism under a self-effacing finish.

Sculpture remained largely impervious to Romanticism, probably partly for technical reasons, as the most prestigious material of the day, marble, does not lend itself to expansive gestures. The leading sculptors in Europe, Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen, were both based in Rome and firm Neoclassicists, not at all tempted to allow influence from medieval sculpture, which would have been one possible approach to Romantic sculpture. When it did develop, true Romantic sculpture – with the exception of a few artists such as Rudolf Maison – [85] rather oddly was missing in Germany, and mainly found in France, with François Rude, best known from his group of the 1830s from the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, David d'Angers, and Auguste Préault. Préault's plaster relief entitled Slaughter, which represented the horrors of wars with exacerbated passion, caused so

99 much scandal at the 1834 Salon that Préault was banned from this official annual exhibition for nearly twenty years.[86] In Italy, the most important Romantic sculptor was Lorenzo Bartolini.

In France, historical painting on idealized medieval and Renaissance themes is known as the style Troubadour, a term with no equivalent for other countries, though the same trends occurred there. Delacroix, Ingres and Richard Parkes Bonington all worked in this style, as did lesser specialists such as Pierre-Henri Révoil (1776–1842) and Fleury-François Richard (1777–1852). Their pictures are often small, and feature intimate private and anecdotal moments, as well as those of high drama. The lives of great artists such as Raphael were commemorated on equal terms with those of rulers, and fictional characters were also depicted. Fleury-Richard's Valentine of Milan weeping for the death of her husband, shown in the Paris Salon of 1802, marked the arrival of the style, which lasted until the mid-century, before being subsumed into the increasingly academic history painting of artists like Paul Delaroche.

Another trend was for very large apocalyptic history paintings, often combining extreme natural events, or divine wrath, with human disaster, attempting to outdo The Raft of the Medusa, and now often drawing comparisons with effects from Hollywood. The leading English artist in the style was John Martin, whose tiny figures were dwarfed by enormous earthquakes and storms, and worked his way through the biblical disasters, and those to come in the final days. Other works such as Delacroix's Death of Sardanapalus included larger figures, and these often drew heavily on earlier artists, especially Poussin and Rubens, with extra emotionalism and special effects.

Elsewhere in Europe, leading artists adopted Romantic styles: in Russia there were the portraitists Orest Kiprensky and Vasily Tropinin, with Ivan Aivazovsky specializing in marine painting, and in Norway Hans Gude painted scenes of fjords. In Italy Francesco Hayez (1791–1882) was the leading artist of Romanticism in mid-19th-century Milan. His long, prolific and extremely successful career saw him begin as a Neoclassical painter, pass right through the Romantic period, and emerge at the other end as a sentimental painter of young women. His Romantic period included many historical pieces of "Troubadour" tendencies, but on a very large scale, that are heavily influenced by Gian Battista Tiepolo and other late Baroque Italian masters.

Literary Romanticism had its counterpart in the American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of an untamed American landscape found in the paintings of the Hudson River School. Painters like Thomas Cole, Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church and others often expressed Romantic themes in their paintings. They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world, such as in Fredric Edwin Church’s piece Sunrise in Syria. These works reflected the Gothic feelings of death and decay. They also show the Romantic ideal that

100 Nature is powerful and will eventually overcome the transient creations of men. More often, they worked to distinguish themselves from their European counterparts by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea of an American identity in the art world is reflected in W. C. Bryant’s poem, To Cole, the Painter, Departing for Europe, where Bryant encourages Cole to remember the powerful scenes that can only be found in America.

Some American paintings (such as Albert Bierstadt’s The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak) promote the literary idea of the “noble savage” by portraying idealized Native Americans living in harmony with the natural world. Thomas Cole's paintings tend towards allegory, explicit in The Voyage of Life series painted in the early 1840s, showing the stages of life set amidst an awesome and immense nature.

The Raft of the Medusa by Théodore Géricault. Influences https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Raft_of_the_Medusa#Influences

The Raft of the Medusa fuses many influences from the Old Masters, from the Last Judgment and Sistine Chapel ceiling of Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Raphael's Transfiguration,[40] to the monumental approach of Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825) and Antoine-Jean Gros (1771–1835), to contemporary events. By the 18th century, shipwrecks had become a recognised feature of marine art, as well as an increasingly common occurrence as more journeys were made by sea. Claude Joseph Vernet (1714–1789) created many such images,[41] achieving naturalistic colour through direct observation – unlike other artists at that time – and was said to have tied himself to the mast of a ship in order to witness a storm.

Although the men depicted on the raft had spent 13 days adrift and suffered hunger, disease and cannibalism, Géricault pays tribute to the traditions of heroic painting and presents his figures as muscular and healthy. According to the art historian Richard Muther, there is still a strong debt to Classicism in the work. The fact that the majority of the figures are almost naked, he wrote, arose from a desire to avoid "unpictorial" costumes. Muther observes that there is "still something academic in the figures, which do not seem to be sufficiently weakened by privation, disease, and the struggle with death".

The influence of Jacques-Louis David can be seen in the painting's scale, in the sculptural tautness of the figures and in the heightened manner in which a particularly significant "fruitful moment" – the first awareness of the approaching ship – is described. In 1793, David also painted an important current event with The Death of Marat. His painting had an enormous political impact during the time of the revolution in France, and it served as an important precedent for Géricault's decision to also paint a current event. David's pupil, Antoine-Jean Gros, had, like David, represented "the grandiosities of a school irredeemably associated with a lost cause", but in some major works, he had given equal prominence to

101 Napoleon and anonymous dead or dying figures. Géricault had been particularly impressed by the 1804 painting Bonaparte Visiting the Plague-Victims of Jaffa, by Gros.

The young Géricault had painted copies of work by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon (1758–1823), whose "thunderously tragic pictures" include his masterpiece, Justice and Divine Vengeance Pursuing Crime, where oppressive darkness and the compositional base of a naked, sprawled corpse obviously influenced Géricault's painting.[38]

The foreground figure of the older man may be a reference to Ugolino from Dante's Inferno – a subject that Géricault had contemplated painting – and seems to borrow from a painting of Ugolini by Henry Fuseli (1741–1825) that Géricault may have known from prints. In Dante, Ugolino is guilty of cannibalism, which was one of the most sensational aspects of the days on the raft. Géricault seems to allude to this through the borrowing from Fuseli. An early study for The Raft of the Medusa in watercolour, now in the Louvre, is much more explicit, depicting a figure gnawing on the arm of a headless corpse.

Several English and American paintings including The Death of Major Pierson by John Singleton Copley (1738–1815) – also painted within two years of the event – had established a precedent for a contemporary subject. Copley had also painted several large and heroic depictions of disasters at sea which Géricault may have known from prints: Watson and the Shark (1778), in which a black man is central to the action, and which, like The Raft of the Medusa, concentrated on the actors of the drama rather than the seascape; The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 1782 (1791), which was an influence on both the style and subject matter of Géricault's work; and Scene of a Shipwreck (1790s), which has a strikingly similar composition. A further important precedent for the political component was the works of Francisco Goya, particularly his The Disasters of War series of 1810–12, and his 1814 masterpiece The Third of May 1808. Goya also produced a painting of a disaster at sea, called simply Shipwreck (date unknown), but although the sentiment is similar, the composition and style have nothing in common with The Raft of the Medusa. It is unlikely that Géricault had seen the picture.

102 NARRATIVE OF A VOYAGE TO SENEGAL IN 1816 By J.B. Henry Savigny, and Alexander Corréard.

http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/11772/pg11772-images.html

UNDERTAKEN BY ORDER OF THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT, COMPRISING AN ACCOUNT OF THE Shipwreck of the Medusa, THE SUFFERINGS OF THE CREW, AND THE VARIOUS OCCURRENCES ON BOARD THE RAFT, IN THE DESERT OF ZAARA, AT ST. LOUIS, AND AT THE CAMP OF DACCARD.

TO WHICH ARE SUBJOINED OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING THE AGRICULTURE OF THE WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA, FROM CAPE BLANCO TO THE MOUTH OF THE GAMBIA.

PREFACE.

The annals of the marine, record no example of a shipwreck so terrible as that of the Medusa frigate. Two of the unfortunate crew, who have miraculously escaped from the catastrophe, impose upon themselves the painful and delicate task, of describing all the circumstances which attended it.

It was in the midst of the most cruel sufferings that we took the solemn resolution, to make known, to the civilized world, all the details of our unhappy adventure, if heaven permitted us again to see our dear country. We should believe that we failed in our duty to ourselves, and to our fellow citizens, if we left buried in oblivion facts which the public must be desirous to know. All the details of the events at which we were not present, have been communicated to us by respectable persons, who have warranted their authenticity. We shall, besides, advance nothing which cannot be proved.

Here, we hear some voices ask, what right we have to make known to the government, men who are, perhaps, guilty, but whom their places, and their rank, entitle to more respect. They are ready to make it a crime in us, that we have dared to say, that officers of the marine had abandoned us. But what interest, we ask, in our turn, should cause a fatal indulgence to be claimed for those, who have failed in their duties; while the destruction of a hundred and fifty wretches, left to the most cruel fate, scarcely excited a murmur of disapprobation? Are we still in those times, when men and things were sacrificed to the caprices of favour? Are the resources and the dignities of the State, still the exclusive patrimony of a privileged class? and are there other titles to places and honours, besides merit and talents?

Let us venture to advance another truth, a truth useful to the Minister himself. There exists among the officers of the Marine, an intractable esprit de corps, a pretended point of honour, equally false and arrogant, which leads them to consider as an insult to the whole

103 navy, the discovery of one guilty individual. This inadmissible principle, which is useful only to insignificance, to intrigue, to people the least worthy to call on the name of honour, has the most ruinous consequences for the State, and the public service. By this, incapacity and baseness are always covered with a guilty veil, which they dare to attempt to render sacred; by this, the favours of government are bestowed at random, upon persons, who impose upon it the strange obligation of being perpetually in the dark respecting them. Under the protection of this obligation of officious silence, hitherto seconded by the slavery of the press, men without talents survive every revolution, exhibit in every antichamber their privileged incapacity, and braving public opinion, even that of their comrades, who are the first victims of a foolish and arrogant prejudice, which deceives them, shew themselves more eager to monopolise favours and honours, in proportion as they are less able to render themselves worthy of them.

We shall believe that we have deserved well of our government, if our faithful narrative can make it sensible how much its confidence is abused. Just, besides, and not animated by passion, it is with real pleasure that we shall make those known, who, by their conduct in our shipwreck, have acquired a right to general esteem. Others will doubtless complain of the severity of our accusing language; but honest men will grant us their approbation. If we hear it said, that our frankness may have been useful to our country, this success will be, at once, our justification and our recompence.

We have questioned, concerning the nautical details, several gentlemen of the navy who were on board; we confess, however, that on comparing their accounts, we have observed that they did not always entirely agree; but we have taken those facts which had the most witnesses in their favour. We shall be sometimes obliged to record cruel truths; they will, however, be directed only to those, whose unskilfulness, or pusillanimity have caused these dreadful events. We venture to affirm, that the numerous observations, which we have collected, will give to our work all the accuracy rigorously required in so interesting a narrative.

We must observe to our readers that it has been impossible for us to avoid the use of naval terms, which will, perhaps, give a great degree of roughness to our narrative, but we hope that the public who are always indulgent, will be so on this occasion, to two unfortunate men, who pretend only to make them acquainted with the truth, and not to give them a superior work. Besides, as we in a manner, submit these events, to the judgment of the gentlemen of the French Navy, it was necessary to make use of the technical terms, that they might be able to understand us.

This second edition is enriched with notes, which will give the reader interesting details on many points, which in the former we could only slightly touch upon. He will have nothing

104 more to desire, particularly respecting the march in the desert after the stranding of the long-boat.

These notes begin with the moment that the frigate stranded, and terminate with the arrival at St. Louis.

They were communicated to us by Mr. Landry, an officer of the Royal University, Professor Emeritus of the Academy of Paris, and at present at the head of a school or Academy, in the Rue Cerisaye, No. 2, quarter of the Arsenal, at Paris. He has had the kindness to extract them for us from a narrative, written by his nephew, Mr. Bredif, Engineer of Mines, belonging to the expedition to Senegal.

The Narrator sent this account to his family above a year ago, addressing it to his sister. The reader will, therefore, not be surprised at the tone of simplicity which prevails in this recital. Mr. Landry would not take away any part for fear of injuring the truth of the circumstances, by meddling with it. If Mr. Bredif, is always placed in the fore-ground, that is not surprising; in a sister, a brother is the principal object which she cannot lose sight of for a moment.

He who loves to observe men, in all the circumstances, in which they may be placed, will easily judge, after what Mr. Bredif did or felt, what may have been done or felt by the sharers in the same misfortunes, who are, besides, never forgotten.

Mr. Bredif is now in the interior of Africa, employed upon the Mission which the government has entrusted to him; the last accounts from him are of the 14th of October, 1817. The manner in which he knows how to give an account of the facts which he has observed, and still more the courage, the prudence, and humanity, which he displayed in the disaster of the Medusa, and in all that followed it, give reason to hope, and this hope cannot be deceived, that be will duly execute his Mission, and render himself worthy of his Majesty's favours.

Выживание в открытом море Материалы общественно-политического портала «Историк»

http://www.historicus.ru/1301/

Как выживали потерпевшие кораблекрушение моряки с «Невы» в 1813 г.

В 1813 г. фрегат Нева, принадлежащий Российско-американской компании, потерпел крушение недалеко от острова Крузов (Аляска). Оставшиеся в живых сумели добраться до берега и прожить там почти месяц, несмотря на суровые погодные условия и отсутствие съестных припасов.

105 Благодаря раскопкам, проводимым на месте стоянки моряков, ученые смогли ответить на вопрос, как спасшиеся от кораблекрушения смогли дождаться прибытия помощи. Было установлено, что огонь они добывали с помощью ружейного кремня, а для изготовления простейших инструментов использовали железные и деревянные обломки собственного судна, выброшенные на берег.

По словам Дэйва Макмэхэна, археолога, члена Исторического общества г. Ситка, объекты, оставленные русскими моряками, позволили сделать своего рода моментальный снимок исторических реалий января 1813 г., а также проясняют то, какие именно меры и методы позволили им выжить в суровой незнакомой обстановке.

Торговый фрегат Нева с экипажем из 75 человек вышел из Охотска в августе 1812 г. с грузом пушнины и мехов, чтобы направиться в г. Ситку на Аляске. По данным Национального научного фонда, который финансирует раскопки, в продолжении всего путешествия судно попадало в нескончаемые бури, моряки терпели болезни и нехватку пресной воды, пока наконец не достигли пролива Принца Вильгельма в Аляскинском заливе. Оснастка корабля была повреждена трехмесячным плаваньем, но люди были рады, что путешествие подходило к концу, когда в нескольких милях от пункта назначения, близ острова Крузова, фрегат налетел на риф и пошел ко дну. Двадцать восемь членов экипажа (пятнадцать других умерли во время путешествия) сумели добраться до берега. Из этих оставшихся только двое погибли до прибытия спасателей месяц спустя.

Поскольку точное место стоянки спасшихся моряков не было известно, Макмэхэн с коллегами вынуждены были ориентироваться на устный фольклор коренного населения тлинкитов и, таким образом, определить точное местонахождение лагеря. Здесь археологи обнаружили кострища, вокруг которых располагалось множество артефактов – медные предметы, пули и даже топор. Перед исследователями предстала картина тяжелых будней русских моряков, которые всеми силами старались добыть или изготовить предметы и орудия, которые помогли бы им выжить. Например, мушкетные пули были обтесаны, чтобы поместиться в ствол оружия, меньшего по размеру, рыболовный крючок был буквально вылеплен из остатков медной проволоки.

Могилы двух умерших моряков найдены не были. Археологи не станут продолжать их поиски, поскольку уважают обычаи коренного населения тлинкитов, запрещающие тревожить мертвых.

Фрегат Нева до того, как потерпел кораблекрушение в водах Аляски, был военным кораблем и входил в русскую флотилию, которая подавила восстание тлинкитов в

106 1804 г., которое они подняли против русских колонистов. Русские же и построили город Ситку.

По словам археологов, раскопки продлятся еще год. Таким образом, исследование стоянки моряков с Невы в общей сложности составит три года.

Макмэхэн поделился также желанием провести подводные изыскания, чтобы по возможности найти место кораблекрушения, однако все предыдущие попытки спуститься на дно провалились: толстый слой водорослей близ берега не позволяет исследовать дно даже радаром.

Материалы портала «Работник моря. The professional Seafarer»

http://seafarers.com.ua/people-that-survived-in-ocean-part-one/5697/

Очевидное невероятное: истории людей, чудом выживших в море

Каковы шансы выжить, оказавшись беспомощным в открытом море? Сколько человек может продержаться после кораблекрушения в надежде, что его спасут? Это от многого зависит. Иногда спасти жизнь может гвоздь или моток верёвки, вовремя оказавшийся под рукой. В основном же на одиночек посреди моря распространяется «правило трёх». Человек остаётся в живых три часа без опоры, три дня без воды и три недели без пищи. Есть люди, которые испытали действие этого правила на себе.

Брэд Кавана и Дебора Кили

Поздней осенью 1982 года пятеро молодых людей решили отправиться из штата Мэн в штат Флорида на 18-метровой прогулочной яхте. Это были штурман Джон Липпот, его девушка Мег Муни, а также Марк Адамс, Брэд Кавана и Дебора Кили. Все они, за исключением Мег, имели опыт морских путешествий, некоторые были опытными любителями. Однако солнечная погода и тихое море располагали к отдыху, поэтому вино на яхте лилось рекой.

На вторые сутки плавания погода ухудшилась. Во время вахты Деборы и Брэда начался шторм. Скорость ветра достигала 60 узлов, высота волн была больше пяти метров. Вахтенным пришлось выдержать 11-часовое дежурство, пока остальные путешественники сначала пили, а потом трезвели в каютах. Наконец, Джон и Марк смогли сменить товарищей. Полумёртвые от усталости, Дебора и Бред уснули.

Они проснулись среди ночи и обнаружили, что судно дало сильную течь, а их попутчики легли спать, привязав штурвал канатом, чтобы не крутился. Судно было близко к гибели, пришлось спустить на воду надувную шлюпку, которая перевернулась вверх дном. До опрокинутой шлюпки добрались все пятеро, но неопытная Мег в процессе сильно поранилась. Из-за сильного ветра перевернуть

107 лодку обратно не получилось, и следующие 18 часов вся компания просто держалась за её борт, по очереди помогая обессиленной Мег.

На следующий день шторм стих. Путешественники сумели вернуть шлюпку в нормальное положение и забраться на борт. Очень вовремя: море вокруг уже кишело акулами, которые сопровождали лодку все последующие дни. Мег лежала без сознания с заражением крови. Остальных мучила жажда. На третий день после крушения Марк и Джон начали пить морскую воду. Вскоре у них начались галлюцинации. Первым не выдержал Джон: сказал, что выйдет «в магазин за сигаретами», соскользнул за борт и поплыл. Далеко он не уплыл – на лодке услышали крики, и Джон скрылся под водой.

Следующим был Марк – заявил, что хочет «освежиться» и нырнул за борт. На этот раз криков не было, но что-то глухо ударило в днище, и вода окрасилась в красный цвет. Бред и Дебора были в отчаянии – рыдали, проклинали судьбу. Наконец, оба уснули, а проснувшись, обнаружили, что Мег умерла. Окоченевшее тело пришлось сбросить за борт. Через несколько часов выжившие увидели спасательное судно, которое приняло их, полуживых и полубезумных, на борт.

Аманда Торнс и Деннис Уайт

В ноябре 2010 года двадцатипятилетняя Аманде Торнс вышла в море со своим отцом Уильямом Торнсом и крёстным Деннисом Уайтом, которым тогда было по 64 года. Их четырнадцатиметровый кеч*, построенный крёстным Деннисом, отбыл из штата Массачусетс и направился к Бермудским островам, управляемый твёрдой рукой капитана Торнса. Аманда не впервые выходила с отцом в море, маршрут был знаком до мелочей, погода не предвещала беды. У Денниса Уайта за плечами был опыт кругосветного плавания на яхте.

Вскоре начался шторм – настолько сильный, что все трое были вынуждены закрыться в каюте. Но потом капитану Торнсу пришлось подняться на палубу, чтобы принять управление судном. Волны к тому времени достигали десяти метров в высоту, дочь и лучший друг пытались хоть немного поспать в каюте. Посреди ночи гигантская волна опрокинула судно на бок. Корпус выровнялся, но капитан оказался за бортом, запутавшись в клубке из снастей. Проснувшись и выбравшись из каюты, Аманда и Деннис сделали всё, чтобы втащить его обратно на борт. У них не вышло, и вскоре капитана унесло волной вместе с частью такелажа.

Следующие три дня Аманда и Деннис горевали об Уильяме, стоя по колено в воде, вычерпывая её за борт и стараясь не замёрзнуть насмерть. Шторм продолжался, средства связи не работали. Волны швыряли судно, как скорлупку. Сломанная носовая мачта, свисавшая набок, и отдавшийся сам по себе якорь угрожали

108 окончательно потопить кеч. Двигатель не работал, генератор смыло за борт. Путешественники пытались подать сигнал проходящим судам с помощью парашютных ракет, но не были замечены.

Наконец, шторм стих. На десятый день после гибели товарища Деннис сумел обрубить якорь, а также остатки мачты и снастей за бортом. Потом он взял трехметровую мачту от спасательной шлюпки и прикрепил к основанию сломанной мачты кеча. Приладив парус к этой импровизированной опоре, Аманда и Уайт в первый же день прошли 50 миль. На следующий день они снова выпустили сигнальную ракету, которая была замечена с проходившего мимо танкера. Экипаж танкера подобрал путешественников – через пятнадцать дней после начала рокового шторма. «Я хочу обратно мою старую жизнь», – вот всё, что смогла сказать осиротевшая Аманда.

Саму Перес, Фило Фило и Эдвард Нассау

В начале октября 2010 года Саму Перес, Фило Фило и Эдвард Нассау отплыли на маленькой алюминиевой лодке от атолла Атафу, одного из островов Такелау, принадлежащих Новой Зеландии. Из трёх путешественников Эдвард оказался самым старшим – ему было шестнадцать, а Саму и Фило только по пятнадцать лет. Сильное течение отнесло лодку в сторону от запланированного маршрута. Когда мальчики не объявились дома в оговоренный срок, в океане была начата поисковая операция. Не найдя лодки на территории в тысячу квадратных километров, спасательные службы объявили всех троих погибшими. Убитые горем семьи отслужили поминальную службу.

Каково же было изумление родных и близких, когда через 50 дней «погибшие» вернулись к ним целыми и невредимыми. Мальчики объяснили, как смогли продержаться столько времени. Каждое утро они пили росу, выпавшую на кусок брезента, расстеленный посреди лодки – она заменяла им минимум пресной воды. Очень выручали частые дожди. Едой служили зазевавшиеся чайки, севшие на лодку, и сырая рыба, проплывавшая мимо. Впрочем, поесть удавалось нечасто, поскольку ловить еду было нечем, кроме рубашек и голых рук.

В конце ноября на мальчишек наткнулось рыболовное судно, вышедшее на промысел у островов Фиджи. По свидетельству рыбаков, подростки сохраняли присутствие духа, хотя без посторонней помощи не могли даже стоять. Они преодолели более тысячи миль – таково расстояние от Атафу до Фиджи. В больнице всех троих пришлось лечить от истощения, обезвоживания и сильнейших солнечных ожогов. Надо сказать, помощь подоспела вовремя: всю последнюю неделю не было дождей, и мальчики начали пить морскую воду, что убило бы их через несколько дней.

109 Ричард ван Фам

Ричарду ван Фаму, выходцу из Вьетнама, проживавшему в Калифорнии, было 64 года, когда он отправился из Лонг Бич на остров Каталина. Путешествие, предпринятое в мае 2002 года, должно было продлиться три-четыре часа. Восьмиметровая лодка Sea Breeze не отличалась новизной и надёжностью, но обращался с ней Ричард умело – вообще-то, она служила вьетнамскому эмигранту домом. Через час после отплытия этот дом оказался в эпицентре внезапного шторма, после которого остался без мачты, средств связи и со сломанным мотором. Единственный член экипажа понятия не имел, где он оказался, и куда его несёт.

Затерянный в океане Ричард быстро понял, что очень хочет жить. Он понимал, что искать не будут: у Фама не было родных в США, никто вообще не знал, куда он отправился. В первые же дни ему посчастливилось поймать черепаху, которую он частично съел, частично пустил на приманку для птиц. Привлечённые кусочками вяленого мяса чайки садились на палубу и получали дубинкой по голове. Из подручных средств Ричард соорудил испаритель для морской воды. Это решило сразу две проблемы: появилась пресная вода из конденсата и морская соль, помогавшая сохранить дичь. Когда солонина надоедала, Ричард выламывал доску из обшивки лодки, разводил огонь и устраивал барбекю. Фам не скучал во время путешествия: у него в лодке был телевизор на солнечных аккумуляторах, так что можно было смотреть передачи.

Горизонт, в который вглядывался Ричард, оставался чистым три с половиной месяца. Наконец, над ним пролетел какой-то самолёт, которому Фам долго махал руками. То был военный самолёт, высматривавший признаки морской контрабанды наркотиков. Увидев Ричарда, пилот связался с ближайшим фрегатом, и тот пришёл на помощь потерпевшему. Спасение состоялось в двух с половиной тысячах миль от исходного пункта плавания.

Не все поверили Фаму, клявшемуся, что не наткнулся ни на одно судно за всё время дрейфа. Всё-таки калифорнийские воды известны оживлённым трафиком. Взамен Sea Breeze, потопленной фрегатом, энтузиасты пожертвовали Ричарду новую лодку, напичканную средствами связи и навигационным оборудованием. На этой лодке через каких-нибудь два года Фам вновь потерялся в океане – правда, был спасён через пару суток. На лодке не было и следа дорогих приборов. Вторая история закончилась куда прозаичнее: Ричарда оштрафовали за ненадлежащее техническое состояние судна.

110 Линь Пэн Линь Пэн – всемирно известный рекордсмен по одиночному выживанию в открытом море. Он провёл 133 дня – всю зиму 1942–43 года и даже больше – на спасательном плоту в водах Атлантики. На плот Линь Пэн попал после гибели британского парохода Ben Lomond, на котором работал стюардом. В ноябре 1942 года тихоходный и плохо вооружённый Ben Lomond, отбывший из Кейптауна и шедший в Голландскую Гвиану, стал лёгкой добычей для немецкой субмарины. После того как в корпус попала торпеда и судно стало тонуть, Линь Пэн надел спасательный жилет и прыгнул за борт. Очень вовремя: на судне вскоре взорвались котлы, и Ben Lomond пошёл ко дну. Линь Пэн плохо плавал, но каким-то чудом продержался на воде два часа, пока не наткнулся на стандартный спасательный плот шириной в 2,5 м. На плоту обнаружились сокровища – сигнальные шашки, печенье, шоколад и аж сорок литров питьевой воды. Линь Пэн не стал набрасываться на припасы: он определил себе крошечную ежедневную порцию для поддержания жизни и начал завязывать узелки на бечёвке, отсчитывая дни. Но дни шли и шли – вскоре Линь Пэн перестал вязать узелки, начав отсчитывать месяцы по полнолуниям. Вояж затягивался, но не потому, что мимо не проходили суда. Напротив, Линь Пэн насчитал несколько потенциальных спасителей в первый же месяц путешествия. Но экипажи встречных судов не спешили оказать ему помощь: у военных кораблей были свои дела, а гражданским судам мешали то шторм, то азиатская внешность потерпевшего. Линь Пэн понял, что спасётся, только достигнув берега. В довершение всех бед на плот обрушился шторм, лишивший его остатков провизии и воды. Он выжил, голыми руками поймав птицу, свернув ей шею и напившись крови. После этого Линь Пэн взялся за дело. Проволока из фонарика и кусок мяса дали возможность поймать первую рыбину. С жаждой помогла справиться дождевая вода и кровь акулы, которую он поймал, используя в качестве наживки собственную руку, обмотанную тряпкой. Добивать хищницу пришлось уже на плоту с помощью доски. Деликатесных акульих плавников Линь Пэн наелся на всю жизнь. Сообразив, что страдает от атрофии, он стал улучшать навыки плавания, нарезая круги вокруг плота как минимум дважды в день. Благодаря режиму, Линь Пэн потерял всего девять килограммов и даже мог сам ходить, когда его путешествие подошло к концу. Однажды он вдруг заметил, что птиц стало больше, а вода вокруг превратилась из прозрачной в мутную. Океан заканчивался – рядом было устье Амазонки. Пару дней спустя Линь Пэн увидел рыболовное судно. Три бразильских рыбака охотно приняли его на борт. Несколько недель в больнице поставили путешественника на ноги, а нашумевшая история спасения помогла впоследствии перебраться из Китая в США. Узнав, что он установил рекорд, Линь Пэн искренне сказал: «Я надеюсь, его никто никогда не побьёт». * Кеч, кэч (англ. ketch) – двухмачтовое парусное судно с небольшой кормовой мачтой, расположенной впереди оси руля.

111 Chapter 6 The Mountain

Noah's Ark Found in Turkey? By Ker Than, for National Geographic News

PUBLISHED APRIL 30, 2010

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/04/100428-noahs-ark- found-in-turkey-science-religion-culture/

A team of evangelical Christian explorers claim they've found the remains of Noah's ark beneath snow and volcanic debris on Turkey's Mount Ararat (map).

But some archaeologists and historians are taking the latest claim that Noah's ark has been found about as seriously as they have past ones – which is to say not very.

(See "Noah's Ark Discovered in Iran?" and "Noah's Ark Quest Dead in Water – Was It a Stunt?")

"I don't know of any expedition that ever went looking for the ark and didn't find it," said Paul Zimansky, an archaeologist specializing in the Middle East at Stony Brook University in New York State.

Turkish and Chinese explorers from a group called Noah's Ark Ministries International made the latest discovery claim Monday in Hong Kong, where the group is based.

"It's not 100 percent that it is Noah's ark, but we think it is 99.9 percent that this is it," Yeung Wing-cheung, a filmmaker accompanying the explorers, told The Daily Mail.

Noah's Ark Location in Turkey a Secret

The team claims to have found in 2007 and 2008 seven large wooden compartments buried at 13,000 feet (4,000 meters) above sea level, near the peak of Mount Ararat. They returned to the site with a film crew in October 2009.

Many Christians believe the mountain in Turkey is the final resting place of Noah's ark, which the Bible says protected Noah, his family, and pairs of every animal species on Earth during a divine deluge that wiped out most of humanity.

"The structure is partitioned into different spaces," said Noah's Ark Ministries International team member Man-fai Yuen in a statement. "We believe that the wooden structure we entered is the same structure recorded in historical accounts. ... "

The team says radiocarbon-dated wood taken from the discovery site – whose location they're keeping secret for now – shows the purported ark is about 4,800 years old, which coincides roughly with the time of Noah's flood implied by the Bible.

112 "Noah's Ark" Wood "Way, Way, Way Too Young"

Skepticism of the new Noah's ark claim extends to at least one scholar who interprets the Bible literally.

Biologist Todd Wood is director of the Center for Origins Research at Bryan College in Tennessee, which pursues biology in a creationist framework.

As a creationist, Wood believes God created Earth and its various life-forms out of nothing roughly 6,000 years ago.

"If you accept a young chronology for the Earth ... then radiocarbon dating has to be reinterpreted," because the method often yields dates much older than 6,000 years, Wood said.

Radiocarbon dating estimates the ages of organic objects by measuring the radioisotope carbon 14, which is known to decay at a set rate over time. The method is generally thought to reach its limit with objects about 60,000 years old. Earth is generally thought to be about four and a half billion years old.

Across the board, radiocarbon dates need to be recalibrated, Wood believes, to reflect shorter time frames.

Given this perceived overestimation in radiocarbon dating, the wood the Noah's Ark Ministries International team found should have a "traditional" radiocarbon date of several tens of thousands of years if the wood is truly 4,800 years old, Wood said.

"I'm really, really skeptical that this could possibly be Noah's Ark," he added. The wood date is "way, way, way too young."

Wood thinks Noah's ark will never be found, because "it would have been prime timber after the flood," he said.

"If you just got off the ark, and there's no trees, what are you going to build your house out of? You've got a huge boat made of wood, so let's use that," he said. "So I think it got torn apart and scavenged for building material basically."

113 "Noah's Ark" Found in Right Country, on Wrong Mountain? Another reason scholars are skeptical of the latest Noah's ark discovery claim is that Genesis – the first book of the Bible – never specifies which peak the vessel supposedly landed on in Turkey. "The whole notion is odd, because the Bible tells you the ark landed somewhere in Urartu," – an ancient kingdom in eastern Turkey – "but it's only later that people identified Mount Ararat with Urartu," said Jack Sasson, a professor of Jewish and biblical studies at Vanderbilt University in Tennessee. Stony Brook's Zimansky agreed. "Nobody associated that mountain with the ark" until the tenth century B.C., he said, adding that there's no geologic evidence for a mass flood in Turkey around 4,000 years ago. (See "'Noah's Flood' Not Rooted in Reality, After All?") The Noah's Ark Ministries International explorers are "playing in a very different ballpark than the rest of us," Zimansky said. "They're playing without any concern for" the archaeological, historical, and geological records. Better Explanations for "Noah's Ark" Structure? Even if the Noah's Ark Ministries International team did find a wooden structure or even a boat on Mount Ararat, there are other explanations for what the structure might be. For example, it could be a shrine constructed by early Christians to commemorate the site where they believed Noah's Ark should be, Zimansky said. Even in that speculative case, it wouldn't be 4,000 years old. "The Bible hadn't even been written yet," he said. Bible scholar Sasson said he thinks biblical writers intended the story of Noah's ark to be allegorical, not a true recounting of historical events. By presenting a scenario in which humanity is punished for its wickedness, "they were trying to draw us to the notion of a God who asks us to be acceptable," Sasson said. (Related: "Bible-Era Mystery Vessel Found – Code Stumps Experts.") But the agency hasn't received any official requests from Turkey for "the inscription of 'Noah's ark'" into the list, UNESCO spokesperson Roni Amelan said in an email. Such a move would take time, Amelan added. "This cannot be done overnight."

UN to Consider "Noah's Ark"? On its Web site, Noah's Ark Ministries International says the Turkish government plans to apply to the United Nations to put the Noah's ark discovery site on the UNESCO World Heritage list, a designation given to places of special cultural or physical significance.

114 «Ответ редакции: в какой стране находится Арарат» Материалы газеты «Аргументы и факты»

https://aif.ru/dontknows/eternal/v_kakoy_strane_nahoditsya_ararat

В какой стране находится Арарат?

Горный массив Арарат (турецкое название – Агры-Даг, персидское – Кох-и-нух) находится на востоке Турции, в 32 км к югу от Армении. Массив состоит из двух слившихся основаниями конусов вулканов – Большого Арарата высотой в 5165 м и Малого Арарата, высота которого 3925 м.

Почему один из главных символов Армении находится в Турции?

Арарат, который изображён на гербе Армении, исторически находился на территории этой страны. Однако в 1923 году, согласно Карсскому договору*, заключённому между Москвой и Анкарой, горный массив перешёл в состав Турции. Вторая республика Армения, возникшая после распада СССР в 1991 году, до сих пор этот договор не признала.

В 20-х годах прошлого века Турция неоднократно выражала протест по поводу того, почему советская Армения поместила на свой герб гору, которая ей не принадлежит. В ответ на это нарком иностранных дел СССР Георгий Чичерин заявил: «А почему на флаге Турции помещён полумесяц? Луна ведь ей тоже не принадлежит».

______

*Карсский договор при участии РСФСР был подписан 13 октября 1921 года в городе Карс между Армянской, Азербайджанской и Грузинской ССР с одной стороны и Турцией – с другой. Документ вступил в силу 11 сентября 1922 года. Согласно нему, Турции переходила территория общей площадью примерно в 30 тысяч квадратных километров.

Почему гора носит название Арарат?

Существует несколько версий происхождения названия горы:

– Библейская. Согласно Ветхому Завету, во время Всемирного потопа Ноев ковчег остановился «в седьмом месяце, в семнадцатый день месяца, на горах Араратских» (Бытие, глава 8). В библейском варианте используется название Араратское царство (Урарту), а гора Ноева ковчега называется Араратские горы.

– Ассирийская. По другой версии название «Арарат» происходит от ассирийского названия государства Урарту, существовавшего у подножия горы в VI–IX до н. э.

115 – Вавилонская. Существует легенда, согласно которой армянский царь Ара Прекрасный отверг любовь вавилонской царицы Семирамиды. После чего царица впала в ярость и послала против него своё войско. В одной из битв Ару смертельно ранили. Тогда Семирамида велела доставить ей умирающего царя, и правитель скончался прямо у неё в шатре. Убитая горем царица повелела положить тело Ары у подножия горы, где его ранили, поэтому живописный массив стали называть Араратом.

Стоит ли ожидать извержения Арарата?

Нет, не стоит. Арарат является потухшим вулканом, последнее его извержение было зафиксировано в 1840 году.

Chapter 7 “Three Simple Stories”

Escape the Titanic – Devious Escape Puzzler Puzzle & trivia

https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/p/escape-the-titanic-devious-escape- puzzler/9nblggh5984c?activetab=pivot:overviewtab

Escape the Titanic – Devious Escape Puzzler

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116 Need a little assistance, but not the solution? Don’t worry; unlocking the game includes all Hints that offer clues through the game. If you’re stumped, there are additional Solutions too.

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Reviewed By Kaden: titanic sank on my birthday so I love this game

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Реальная история Титаника Материалы новостного портала «КП»

https://kp.ua/incidents/573037-kak-zatonul-tytanyk-ystoryia-hybely- znamenytoho-lainera

В ночь с 14 на 15 апреля в северной Атлантике во время первого рейса потерпел крушение самый известный лайнер планеты.

15 апреля 1912 года «непотопляемый корабль», «самый огромный и роскошный океанский лайнер» на первом же своем рейсе врезался в айсберг и унес с собой на дно океана более полутора тысяч пассажиров.

Два правительственных расследования, которые провели по следам катастрофы, постановили что именно айсберг, а не дефекты корабля, стали причиной гибели лайнера. Обе следственные комиссии заключили, что затонул «Титаник» не частями, а целиком – крупных разломов не было.

Вину за эту трагедию полностью переложили на плечи капитана корабля – Эдварда Смита, который погиб вместе со своей командой и пассажирами атлантического лайнера. Эксперты упрекали Смита в том, что корабль шел со скоростью 22 узлов (41 км) по опасному ледяному полю – в темных водах, недалеко от берегов Ньюфаундленда.

В 1985 году океанографу Роберту Балларду после длительных безуспешных поисков все-таки удалось отыскать останки корабля на глубине около четырех километров на

117 дне океана. Тогда же он открыл, что на самом деле «Титаник» раскололся пополам до потопления.

Спустя пару лет обломки корабля впервые подняли на поверхность, и тут же появилась новая гипотеза: для строительства «непотопляемого корабля» использовали низкопробную сталь. Однако, по мнению экспертов, низкопробной оказалась вовсе не сталь, а заклепки – важнейшие металлические штифты, связывающие вместе стальные пластины корпуса лайнера. А найденные обломки «Титаника» и вовсе свидетельствуют, что корма корабля не вздымалась высоко в воздух, как считали многие. Считается, что «Титаник» разделился на части, находясь сравнительно ровно на поверхности океана – это явный знак просчетов конструкции корабля, которые утаили после катастрофы.

«Титаник» построили в сжатые сроки – в ответ на производство конкурентами нового поколения скоростных лайнеров.

В ночь с 14 на 15 апреля 1912 года всего за несколько дней дебютного рейса лайнера вскрылась его ахиллесова пята. Корабль из-за своих габаритов не был достаточно поворотлив, чтобы суметь избежать столкновения с айсбергом, о котором кричали дозорные последнюю минуту. «Титаник» не столкнулся с роковым айсбергом лоб в лоб, а проехал по нему правым боком – лед пробил дыры в стальных пластинах, затопив шесть «водонепроницаемых» отсеков. И уже через пару часов корабль полностью заполнился водой и пошел ко дну.

Из-за того, что корабль накренился совсем немного, у пассажиров и команды было ложное чувство безопасности – многие из них не понимали серьезности ситуации. Когда вода достаточно затопила носовую часть корпуса, корабль, оставаясь на плаву, раскололся надвое и затонул в минуты.

Компания «Blue Star Line» объявила о строительстве «Титаника-2». По словам конструкторов, судно станет точной копией знаменитого лайнера, затонувшего в 1912 году. Однако лайнер оснастят современными средствами безопасности. Финансировать проект взялся австралийский горный магнат Клайв Палмер.

Exodus 1947 Материалы официального сайта Мемориального музея Холокоста (США)

https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/exodus-1947

The Exodus 1947 was a worn-out US-owned coastal freight passenger ship launched in 1928. Originally called the SS President Warfield, it sailed the Chesa-peake Bay between Baltimore, Maryland, and Norfolk, Virginia, for over a decade. Transferred to the British under the Lend-Lease agreement as part of a group of shallow-draft ships, the President

118 Warfield was later deployed in the Normandy invasion (June 1944). After World War II it returned to US waters.

Yet the ship was to take part in one more event which ensured its place in history, symbolizing the struggle for unrestricted immigration into Palestine.

Initially sold as scrap for slightly more than $8,000, the ship was acquired by the Hagana (an underground Jewish military organization). Hagana personnel arranged to dock the ship in Europe in order to transport Jews who sought to illegally immigrate into Palestine. The plight of the ship's passengers would capture the world's attention.

In July 1947, the President Warfield left Sète, France, for Palestine. It carried over 4,500 Jewish men, women, and children, all displaced persons (DPs) or survivors of the Holocaust. Even before the ship (by then renamed the Exodus 1947) reached Palestine's territorial waters, British destroyers surrounded it. On July 18 a struggle ensued between British naval forces and passengers on the ship. A Jewish crew member and two passengers were killed. Dozens suffered bullet wounds and other injuries.

In July 1947 in France, 4,500 Jewish refugees from displaced persons camps in Germany boarded the "Exodus 1947" and attempted to sail (without permission to land) to Palestine, which was under British mandate. The British intercepted the ship off the coast and forced it to anchor in Haifa, where British soldiers removed the Jewish refugees. After British authorities failed to force France to accept the refugees, the refugees were returned to DP camps in Germany. The plight of the "Exodus" passengers became a symbol of the struggle for open immigration into Palestine.

Attempting to make an example of the Exodus 1947, the British towed the ship to Haifa and transferred the passengers onto three navy transports which returned to Europe. The ships first landed at Port-de-Bouc, France, where the passengers were ordered to disembark. When the French authorities refused to forcibly remove the refugees, British authorities, fearing adverse public opinion, sought to wait until the passengers disembarked of their own accord. The passengers, including many orphaned children, forced the issue by declaring a hunger strike which lasted 24 days. Mounting pressure from international media coverage pressed British authorities to find a solution.

The ships sat for three weeks in the sweltering summer heat, but the passengers refused to voluntarily disembark and the French authorities were unwilling to force them to leave. The British government then transported the passengers to Hamburg, where they were interned in camps in the British zone of occupation in Germany.

Displaced persons in camps all over Europe protested vociferously and staged hunger strikes when they heard the news. Large protests erupted on both sides of the Atlantic. The ensuing public embarrassment for Britain played a significant role in the diplomatic swing of sympathy toward the Jews and the eventual recognition of a Jewish state in 1948.

119 Еврейские беженцы от нацизма Материалы открытой энциклопедии «Википедия»

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Еврейские беженцы от нацизма – евреи, которые были вынуждены покинуть место жительства в связи с преследованиями нацистов в период с 1933 по 1945 годы.

Во время Второй мировой войны миллионы евреев были вынуждены эвакуироваться из районов оккупации немецкой армии и их союзников, а большинство оставшихся были насильственно перемещены в гетто и затем либо убиты на месте, либо депортированы в лагеря уничтожения.

Многие страны, опасаясь наплыва беженцев, чинили препятствия и не давали им разрешений на въезд. Даже известия о массовых убийствах евреев нацистами не стали основанием для пересмотра такой политики. После окончания войны рост антисемитизма в Европе и стремление уцелевших жертв геноцида в Палестину вызвали конфликт с антииммиграционной политикой британских властей.

Идея изгнания евреев из Германии была одним из важнейших программных пунктов национал-социалистов. В момент прихода нацистов к власти в Германии жило 523 тысячи евреев, они составляли менее 1 % населения. Вытеснение евреев сопровождалось их почти тотальным ограблением при эмиграции.

Начало массовым преследованиям евреев в Германии было положено 1 апреля 1933 года. Основным инструментом антиеврейской политики в 1933–1935 годы стало антиеврейское законодательство. Результатом этой политики стало бегство из Германии в 1933–1934 годах 60 тысяч евреев, из которых 53 тысячи оказались во Франции, Бельгии и Голландии.

Вершиной антиеврейского законодательства стали принятые 15 сентября 1935 года так называемые Нюрнбергские расовые законы. Евреи были лишены немецкого гражданства, смешанные браки были запрещены. С 1933 по 1937 годы из Германии эмигрировало 130 тысяч евреев.

Однако еврейским беженцам не были рады ни в Европе, ни в Новом Свете. По известному высказыванию Хаима Вейцмана (впоследствии – первого президента Израиля), «мир разделился на два лагеря – страны, не желающие иметь у себя евреев, и страны, не желающие впускать их в свою страну».

Палестина была одной из тех стран, которая приняла один из самых больших потоков еврейских беженцев. В результате Первой мировой войны мандат на управление территорией Палестины имела Великобритания, именно она чинила препятствия беженцам по возвращению на историческую родину. После окончания войны

120 большое число беженцев продолжали стремиться в Палестину. Этот наплыв закончился Арабским восстанием 1936–1939 годов и изданием Британией документа, под названием «Белая книга», который фактически сводил на нет иммиграцию евреев в Палестину.

За период 1945–1948 годов в Палестину прибыло 66 судов с 70 000 нелегальных репатриантов. Из них 64 судна были отправлены из Европы и два – из Северной Африки. Однако Великобритания продолжала проводить жёсткую политику ограничения иммиграции на территорию Палестины. Пассажиры судов, перевозивших нелегальных репатриантов, нередко оказывали англичанам ожесточённое сопротивление при депортации, что иногда приводило к жертвам среди беженцев, например, трое убитых и 28 раненых при захвате британскими моряками корабля «Исход-1947». Насилие над беженцами и возмущение мировой общественности этими фактами сыграли существенную роль при обсуждении решения о разделе Палестины и создании Государства Израиль.

После создания Израиля в мае 1948 года его правительство объявило репатриацию неотъемлемым правом любого еврея. В отчёте специальной подкомиссии по перемещённым лицам юридической комиссии палаты представителей конгресса США от 20 января 1950 года было указано, что Израиль впускает в страну всех евреев вне зависимости от любых критериев, невзирая на возраст, профессию, социальный статус и так далее.

Chapter 8 “Upstream”

The seven stages of film production Материалы образовательного портала FutureLearn

https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/film-production/0/steps/12304

1. Development

The start of a project varies, but generally will begin with development of a script, be that an existing script, a book, a brief story outline. Development may also start with a Director and/or Writer pitching an idea to a Producer.

2. Pre-Production

This is the phase where you would narrow down the options of the production. It is where all the planning takes place before the camera rolls and sets the overall vision of the project. Pre-production also includes working out the shoot location and casting. The Producer will now hire a Line Manager or Production Manager to create the schedule and budget for the film.

121 3. Production

During this phase it is key to keep planning ahead of the daily shoot. The primary aim is to stick to the budget and schedule, this requires constant vigilance. Communication is key between location, set, office, production company, distributors – in short, all parties involved

4. Principal Photography

This is when the camera rolls. It is nearly always the most expensive phase of film production, due to actor, director, and set crew salaries, as well as the costs of certain shots, props, and on-set special effects. Everything that has happened up to this point is to make principal photography go as smoothly and efficiently as possible. Communication between all parties is crucial during the shoot and the pro-duction must maintain a full set of records and strive to remain on time and on budget.

5. Wrap

The period immediately after shooting ends. It is when we strike (dismantle) the set and clear the location. Everything must be returned in good order to suppliers and there must be a full set of records of the shoot.

6. Post-Production

This stage starts when principal photography ends, but they may overlap. The bulk of post- production consists of reviewing the footage and assembling the movie-editing. There will be contributions as required from Visual Effects (VFX), Music and Sound Design. The picture will now be locked and delivery elements will be created. Further information on Post Production can be found later on in Week 1 of the course.

7. Distribution

Once the film is completed, it must be distributed. This is how producers make their money back and a considerable amount of time and energy will be invested to secure the right distribution deals for their projects. The film will go into the cinema and/or be distributed via various platforms such as Amazon Prime, Netflix, and HBO etc.

122 Неземной язык индейцев пираха Материалы интернет-портала газеты «Правда»

https://www.pravda.ru/science/1115100-piraha/

Племя индейцев пираха уже не раз ставило ученых в тупик. Язык этого племени, единственный живой из семьи муранских языков, опровергает многие теории современной лингвистики. Не имея понятий родства, представления о «вчера» и «завтра», не пользуясь счетом и каждые десять лет меняя имена, пираха живут и чувствуют себя совершенно счастливым народом.

Мало того, что наречие этого племени индейцев опровергает все выводы изобретателя теории универсальной грамматики Ноама Хомского – о том, что строение всех земных языков строго задано структурой нашего мозга. Язык пираха не похож ни на один из существующих языков. Причем до такой степени, что переводить даже самые простые тексты и бытовые диалоги с этого языка и на него представляется крайне затруднительным.

Более того, образ жизни и язык пираха приводят в замешательство и других лингвистов. Они справедливо считают, что язык – инструмент коммуникации и должен отражать хотя бы базовые явления человеческой культуры. Но пираха не имеют многих, как кажется европейцам, основополагающих понятий – ни в языке, ни в культуре.

Как признаются сами ученые, в этом языке «отсутствуют элементы, без которых эффективная коммуникация кажется невозможной». И все-таки пираха успешно общаются между собой и чувствуют себя более чем счастливым народом. Об этом европейскому миру рассказал христианский миссионер Дэниэл Эверетт. Тридцать лет назад лингвист, антрополог и проповедник Слова Божьего Дэниэл Эверетт отправился в долину реки Маиси в Бразилии, чтобы нести христианскую веру местному племени под названием пираха.

Религиозная миссия Эверетта с треском провалилась. Перевод Евангелия от Марка совершенно не впечатлил аборигенов. Но в процессе общения и жизни с ними Эверетт узнал столько нового и совершенно для него невообразимого, что, во- первых, стал агностиком, а, во-вторых, усомнился в современных языковедческих теориях. Что же это за племя из бразильских джунглей, чей уклад жизни способен миссионера сделать неверующим, а лингвистов – пересмотреть базовые теории своей науки?

Трудности Эверетта с толкованием Священного Писания начались сразу же, как только он начал рассказывать аборигенам о деяниях Иисуса. Дикари осыпали его вопросами – но не о божественной доброте и мудрости, а о деталях куда более

123 практичных. Их интересовало, например, какого роста был Спаситель, какой цвет имела его кожа, а самое главное – где же Эверетт с ним познакомился? После смущенного признания Эверетта в том, что он лично не встречался с господом, аборигены казались крайне разочарованными. «Ты никогда его не видел, так зачем ты нам это рассказываешь?» – сказал один из его слушателей.

Как оказалось, пираха не имели привычки рассказывать о том, чего не видели сами. (Эверетт позже назвал их «экстремальными эмпириками», то есть людьми, опирающимися исключительно на свой опыт). Это было непосредственно отражено и в их языке: пираха изъяснялись исключительно простыми предложениями, говоря от первого лица. В их языке отсутствовали грамматические конструкции, необходимые для формирования косвенной речи.

Позже этот вывод Эверетта попытался оспорить другой ученый, Ули Зауэрланд из берлинского Центра общего языкознания. В ходе одного из экспериментов Зауэрланд разыграл перед аборигенами сценку: один из актеров брал предмет, спрятанный другим актером (например, папайю или орех), и перепрятывал его. Второй актер стоял с завязанным глазами и не видел этого действия. Зрителей из племени пираха просили поделиться впечатлениями о том, что произошло. По мнению Зауэрланда, их высказывания можно было перевести примерно так: «Оопе думает, что орех под банановым листом. На самом деле он под корзиной». Или так: «Оопе не знает, где орех».

Однако Эверетт, который в настоящий момент работает в Университете Бентли (США), в корне не согласен с трактовкой коллеги. Он считает, что высказывания аборигенов следует перевести так: «Орех под банановым листом. Оопе думает так». Или: «Где орех? Оопе не знает».

Трудность заключается в том, что Эверетт и его супруга – фактически единственные люди, которые провели бок о бок с пираха длительный срок (миссионер с женой семь лет прожили в племени). «Мы опираемся на выводы одного-единственного человека», – признаются другие исследователи. Ули Зауэрланд, который взялся исследовать культуру пираха, назвал их крайне примитивным народом.

Хотя это как посмотреть. Некоторые последователи духовных практик, стремящиеся быть «здесь и сейчас», могли бы поучиться у этих туземцев, живущих в хижинах и не знающих ни грамоты, ни счета. Уклад пираха напоминает быт подростков, которые предоставлены сами себе на летних каникулах. Например, спят они совсем немного, и не по ночам, а как попало. «Все селение погрузилось в сон», – такая поэтическая фраза к племени пираха неприменима. Туземцы дремлют урывками, по 20–30 минут, прислоняясь к стене пальмовой хижины или прикорнув под деревом. Если сон сморит неодолимо, могут прилечь на час-другой – прямо тогда, когда захотелось.

124 Проснувшись, они отправляются поохотиться или предаются нехитрым развлечениям: болтают, смеются, мастерят что-нибудь, танцуют у костров и играют с детьми и собаками.

«Здравствуйте», «спасибо», «до свидания», «извините» – подобные выражения вежливости в языке пираха отсутствуют. Люди большого мира используют эти слова в диалоге со знакомыми людьми, чтобы отличить их от всех прочих, подчеркнуть хорошее отношение и внимание к ним. В племени, которое насчитывает 300 человек, все и так знакомы друг с другом и совершенно не сомневаются в обоюдной любви и принятии. Вежливость – побочное дитя взаимного недоверия, говорит Эверетт, а пираха этого чувства лишены.

Эти люди практически не имеют понятий родства. Они воспринимают его только через рождение ребенка. Отсюда – всего три соответствующих слова: «родитель» (неважно, мама или папа), «ребенок» и еще одно слово для обозначения брата или сестры, опять же независимо от пола (дети одних и тех же родителей). Все остальные – просто члены их племени. Более того, пираха не раз и не два за жизнь меняют имена. Они считают, что младенец, ребенок, подросток, взрослый и старик, в теле которого они были или еще побывают, – это все разные люди. В среднем пираха меняют имя раз в шесть-семь лет, причем для каждого возраста у них есть свои подходящие имена. Так что по имени члена племени всегда можно сказать, о человеке какого возраста идет речь.

Охотой и собирательством члены племени занимаются ровно настолько, чтобы обеспечить пропитание на сегодняшний день. Запасов не делают. Добытое делится на всех – понятие частной собственности здесь отсутствует, ведь это просто неудобно. Разделили – съели. Возможно, поэтому пираха не имеют слов для счета. Это не единственные аборигены, которые не умеют считать.

Однако жителям племени пираха сама концепция счета оказалась чужда. В их языке нет даже четкого различия между единственным и множественным числом. Пираха употребляют всего два слова, одно из которых можно приблизительно перевести как «несколько» (количество предметов от одного до четырех) и «много» (более пяти предметов).

Более того, научить местных молодых людей счету оказалось невозможно. В течение восьми месяцев племя исправно присылало к «белым людям» своих детей, однако результаты оказались неутешительны. К концу обучения никто из индейцев не мог сосчитать до десяти, не говоря уже о такой мудреной операции, как сложение. Обучающиеся даже не видели разницы между кучками, в которых было соответственно четыре и пять предметов – для них они выглядели одинаковыми.

125 Различия между целостностью и частностью тоже отсутствуют. В языке пираха нет слов «весь», «все», «часть», «некоторые». Если все члены племени побежали на речку купаться, то рассказ пираха будет звучать так: «А. пошел купаться, Б. пошел, В. пошел, большой (много) пираха пошел (пошли) купаться».

Нет в языке и слов для обозначения оттенков цвета. Строго говоря, есть только два слова – «светлый» и «темный». По-видимому, более конкретные суждения об оттенке предметов туземцы оставляют на суд непосредственного зрителя. «Пересказывать» какой-то цвет они просто не видят смысла.

Нет у пираха и чувства пропорции, соразмерности. Белые торговцы, ведущие с ними меновую торговлю с конца XVIII века, изумлялись: пираха мог принести пару перьев попугая и потребовать взамен весь груз с парохода, а мог притащить что-то огромное и дорогое и потребовать за это глоток водки. Этот феномен Эверетт объясняет тем, что пираха живут «здесь и сейчас». Их мышление и ощущения ориентированы на непосредственные переживания. То, чего они не видят сами или не слышат от очевидцев, для них не существует.

Прошлое для них также не имеет практически никакого значения. У пираха, кстати, очень мало мифов и совершенно отсутствует понятие об истории рода: родители не рассказывают детям о дедах и прадедах. Поведение и язык туземцев полностью подтверждают выводы Эверетта. Но вот оценка уклада жизни пираха у антропологов разнится.

Зауэрланд, как говорилось выше, считает культуру индейского племени примитивной. Считать, не говоря уже о письме и чтении, эти дикари не умеют, изъясняются примитивно, о будущем не думают, к обучению не способны. А вот Дэниэл Эверетт свое отношение к культуре племени выразил в заголовке своей книги «Самый счастливый народ мира: семь лет в Амазонии у индейцев пираха».

Он считает, что жизнь пираха гармонично подстроена под их нужды. Туземцам не нужно делать запасы на будущее: в их климате не бывает холодной зимы. Разделять материальные предметы на «мое» и «чужое» тоже нет никакой нужды. По мнению Эверетта, пираха не знакомы многие страхи и заботы, терзающие современных людей из «большого мира». И проникаться ими пираха не хотят.

126 Chapter 9 “Project Ararat”

Moonstruck Sean O’Hagan for the Guardian Weekend Magazine

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2000/feb/05/spaceexploration.weeke ndmagazine

Today, Nasa is ridiculed for its multiple failures, and the astronauts who carved its reputation 30 years ago have faded from popular memory. But, for the photographer Steve Pyke, those once great space missions have become ever more intriguing. Report by Sean O'Hagan

Space exploration: special report

On July 20, 1969, the collective imagination of the planet was captured by the grainy black- and-white images of Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walking on the moon. On a family holiday in Bettystown, County Louth, my childish thoughts were focused not on the two indistinct figures beamed back from the planet's surface, but on the other guy; the one left behind in the spaceship circling above them, waiting in limbo for what must have seemed like an eternity for the safe return of his comrades.

Michael Collins, the astronaut in question, occupied a special place in my adolescent imagination because he had the same name as the charismatic Irish civil-war hero, later immortalised on celluloid in Neil Jordan's film. The other Michael Collins, though, missed out on the great symbolic moment, yet his role in the unfolding drama seemed to me the most heroic, certainly the most lonely, of all. "Collins moved through a continual succession of sun-drenched lunar day, soft earthlight, and unyielding blackness," writes Andrew Chaikin, in his extraordinarily detailed and evocative book about the Apollo missions, Man On The Moon. "For 48 minutes out of each orbit, from Loss of Signal to Acquisition of Signal, he knew a solitude unprecedented in human history."

Collins was alone in the Columbia spacecraft for 22 hours. In the event, he did not even get to hear the most famous words uttered in the 20th century. As Neil Armstrong stepped on to the lunar surface – "That's one small step for man..." then, that Shakespearian pause, "...one giant leap for mankind" – the Columbia had just slipped behind the far side of the moon and he had lost the moon-earth-moon link-up engineered by mission control for his benefit. By the time he reappeared, Armstrong and Aldrin were planting the American flag on the Sea of Tranquillity, but a technical fault kept him cut off. While an estimated 600 million people on planet earth watched and listened, transfixed, the man closest to those momentous events could, literally and symbolically, only imagine them.

127 Reading Chaikin's book brought home to me the full responsibility and risk of the Apollo adventures: Apollo 1 caught fire and its crew – Grissom, White and Chaffee – had perished barely two years before the successful moon landing. It was a tragedy that had been all but expunged from America's collective memory, but one that must have haunted the astronauts who followed in their footsteps. If disaster had struck Apollo 11 – say, if the Eagle, the landing craft, had malfunctioned during its take-off from the moon, or if it had later failed to dock with the Columbia craft – Collins would have had to do the unthinkable: leave his partners behind and journey back to earth alone. For the rest of his life, he would have had to carry an impossibly heavy burden: the loss of his friends and fellow adventurers, and the death of the greatest of all American dreams. It would have been a disaster with implications we can barely imagine.

Did he allow the unthinkable to cross his mind as he floated silently in space some 60 miles above the surface of the moon? Apparently not. Soon after the event, Collins published his diary of that time in limbo, fragments of which read like a work of almost metaphysical intensity, yet contain no traces of uncertainty regarding the precariousness of his mission: "I am alone, now, truly alone, and absolutely isolated from any known life," he wrote. "I am it. If a count were taken, the score would be three billion plus two over on the other side of the moon, and one plus God knows what on this side. I feel this powerfully – not as fear or loneliness – but as awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation. I like."

That, in essence, was what Tom Wolfe would later call the Right Stuff: self-belief, certitude and – "I am it" – pure ego.

The photographer Steve Pyke grew up, like me, transfixed by America's great adventure in space. As the years passed and appreciation of that great adventure seemed to diminish in the collective consciousness, his curiosity about it – and the men who undertook it – grew. "It has," he says, "taken me 30 years to absorb what they did and to make sense of it, not just as a scientific achievement but as the last truly heroic human adventure. It was a singular moment when a few individuals carried the whole world's hopes and aspirations. I just wanted to meet these guys, as much as anything, because they were myth-makers, adventurers, pioneers. I think you can feel that off them, their sense of destiny, the sense that they were, and remain, part of an elect. It's a palpable energy – an aura, almost. They come into a room and the atmosphere changes. But there's also something else, something more elusive and almost sad. What they achieved was truly awe-inspiring, and, in a way, they have had to live in the shadow of that moment ever since. That's a heavy weight to carry."

Pyke never got to meet Collins, who declined to be photographed for personal reasons – he had just lost his son – nor Armstrong, who now fiercely protects his privacy and has

128 retreated to a remote home in native rural Ohio, but he did photograph and talk to the other Apollo 11 astronaut, Aldrin, as well as 10 other men who had been in outer space. He asked each of them what space meant to them and, unsurprisingly, garnered some interesting answers.

"I was ordered to Washington DC in 1959 to listen to overtures about going into space in a capsule on top of a rocket," replied Wally Schirra, whose career spanned both the Gemini and Apollo missions. "I was not interested, and I lost interest completely when it was added that they would launch monkeys and chimpanzees first. Later, I realised that, as a fighter pilot, if I wanted to go higher, faster and farther, this was the way. I left earth three times and found no other place to go. Please take care of Spaceship Earth."

To Pyke's surprise, he found that many of the space pioneers had, like Yuri Gagarin before them, been treated shabbily by the government that was, simultaneously, holding them up as the ultimate exemplars of the American dream. "Armstrong was sent out on extraordinary meet-and-greet itineraries, doing maybe 15 interviews a day as well as speeches, but nobody really looked after him. He was booked into scuzzy hotels, often he didn't have time to eat all day."

If Armstrong took his destiny in hand and retreated voluntarily from the glare of celebrity, Buzz Aldrin had an altogether more difficult time: he struggled with both manic depression and alcoholism before finding a new role as, according to Chaikin, "a one-man think tank, designing everything from new launch vehicles to scenarios for returning to the moon". Charlie Duke, the tenth man to walk on the moon, went the other way and set up his own church in Texas. In all there have been six successful missions to the moon, and 12 men have walked on it.

"They all have extraordinary egos," says Pyke, "but that goes with the turf, I guess. Whatever, to me they are heroic men in the real sense of the word. They took extraordinary risks and what they did was, literally and metaphorically, out of this world. I've photographed enough celebrities to see first-hand how devalued and diminished the notion of heroism has become, but these guys were the real thing and they made me feel like a star-struck kid."

Pyke also photographed the Nasa back-up teams and, in the process, uncovered a plethora of old technical instruments – some were gathering dust in cupboards, but all have acquired an almost talismanic quality not because of their often extraordinary functions but because of where they have been. There is the Apollo 11 sample box, for transporting moon rock, the hammer that astronaut Al Bean used to chip those samples from lunar craters and ridges, and a strange, vice-like tool that turned out to be Tom Stafford's water dispenser.

129 Pyke also discovered that each astronaut was allowed to take into space a PPK – Personal Preference Kit – in which he could carry objects of his choice up to a certain weight. "Many of them brought cheap rings and medals, rolls of dimes, books of stamps, things they could give away to their friends and family when they returned: small things invested with huge meaning because they'd been to the moon and back."

Rusty Schweickart, known to his compatriots as "the hippy astronaut" because he preferred to listen to the Grateful Dead in space rather than the regulation country-and- western recordings, brought a collection of quotations by John and Robert Kennedy, the Dalai Lama, Walt Whitman and Elizabeth Barrett Browning. He secretly attached them to the inside of his spacesuit, and they were there with him when he walked out of Apollo 9 into space.

Schweickart also experienced something that no other astronaut, before or since, has: because of a technical hitch that occurred just as he stepped outside the craft, he had to wait for five minutes while it was corrected. Instead of working at his tasks quickly and intensely, as he had been trained to, he suddenly had breathing space, time to try and take in where he was, what he was doing. He held on to the rail of Apollo 9 and – for five long minutes – glided through the vastness and silence of space. Below him he could see America drift by, and even, after a while, make out southern California, where he lived. It was a life-changing moment, and, like the rest of them, Schweickart has, to some degree, lived in the shadow of that moment ever since.

In a whole other way, so have we. What strikes me, in retrospect, about the great lunar adventure is how quickly we – the human race – processed it and, more troublingly, lost interest in it. "The whole Apollo mission was born of a time of great idealism and optimism," says Pyke, "even though it was located within the political drama of the cold war. The country had a charismatic president, John F Kennedy, who voiced the dream, and also used it to bolster his own self image. But they went ahead and did it. That's the essential thing which maybe we have lost. By the time it came to pass, that reservoir of idealism had been used up, by the war in Vietnam, by the turmoil at home. By the time of Apollo 13, there were no more live broadcasts, unless there was trouble or impending tragedy. People were saying, 'We've been to the moon – so what?' The stuff that was happening on earth had diminished our sense of wonder to that degree."

Now, with the 20th century over, perhaps we can look back and sense how much history was being made back in the 60s, that most criticised decade. Some people still maintain that the Apollo adventure was simply a collective American ego trip in the context of the cold war; that it was an empty gesture, which, ultimately, did not benefit mankind in any real way. But for me and, I suspect, Steve Pyke, not to mention nearly everyone else who

130 came of age at the time, that black-and-white view is both reductive and cynical when set against the lingering sense of wonder that neither time nor experience has diminished.

The last word goes to Frank Borman, who journeyed into space on Apollo 8: "My experience on Apollo 8 helped me to see how isolated and fragile our earth really is. It was also beautiful. It was the only object in the entire universe that was neither black nor white."

Отрывки из книги Оливера Сакса «Галлюцинации» Материалы портала «Psychologies»,

http://www.psychologies.ru/self-knowledge/individuality/stoit-li-boyatsya- sluhovyih-gallyutsinatsiy/

Стоит ли бояться слуховых галлюцинаций?

Их принято считать признаком сумасшествия, тяжелой болезни или последствием приема наркотиков. Так ли это на самом деле? Известный британский невролог Оливер Сакс посвятил галлюцинациям целую книгу. Фрагменты.

В 1973 году в журнале «Science» была опубликована статья, которая произвела настоящий фурор. Она называлась «Как чувствует себя здоровый человек в психиатрической лечебнице». В ней описывалось, как здоровые во всех отношениях люди, не имевшие в анамнезе никаких психических расстройств, ради эксперимента обратились к врачам с жалобами на то, что им слышатся голоса. Они рассказывали, что по большей части не могут разобрать, что говорят эти голоса, но иногда различают такие слова, как «пустота», «пустотелый» или «стук». Если не считать этой жалобы, люди вели себя абсолютно адекватно, могли вспомнить произошедшие в их жизни реальные события. Тем не менее всем им был поставлен диагноз «шизофрения» (за исключением одного «пациента», который отделался маниакально-депрессивным психозом). Все эти «больные» были госпитализированы на срок до двух месяцев. Всем были назначены лекарства (правда, они их не глотали).

Результат этого эксперимента, спланированного стэнфордским психологом Дэвидом Розенханом (который и сам был одним из псевдобольных), показывает, среди прочего, что единственный симптом – «голоса» – может оказаться достаточным для безапелляционного установления диагноза «шизофрения» даже при отсутствии других симптомов и отклонений в поведении. Психиатры, как и все общество, оказались подвержены всеобщему заблуждению относительно того, что «голоса» – это всегда признак безумия, что они появляются только в контексте тяжелых психических расстройств. И это большая ошибка, ибо большинство людей, слышащих «голоса», не страдают шизофренией.

131 Все человеческое бытие пронизано разговорами человека с самим собой; великий русский психолог Лев Выготский полагал, что «внутренняя речь» является непременной предпосылкой любой осознанной деятельности. «Например, я большую часть дня разговариваю сам с собой: ругаю («Идиот, куда ты на этот раз дел очки?»), поощряю («Ты можешь это сделать!»), жалуюсь («Почему чужая машина стоит на моем месте?») и, реже, поздравляю себя с успехом («Ты сумел это сделать!»). Эти голоса звучат не извне. Я никогда не спутаю их с голосом, например, Бога.

Но когда я однажды оказался в большой опасности, пытаясь спуститься с горы с сильно травмированной ногой, я услышал внутренний голос, не похожий на мое обычное внутреннее бормотание. Тогда мне стоило неимоверных усилий переправиться через широкий ручей с туго перевязанным вывихнутым коленом. Я нерешительно остановился перед препятствием, просто оцепенел, понял, что не смогу преодолеть эту водную преграду. Я испытал странную слабость, мне явилась соблазнительная мысль: а что, если отдохнуть? Поспать немного, набраться сил. Но тут у меня в ушах прозвучал властный, командный, не допускающий возражений голос: «“Ты не имеешь права останавливаться – ни здесь, ни в другом месте! Ты должен идти. Встань, подбери подходящий темп и иди”. Этот добрый голос, голос Жизни, укрепил мою решимость, придал мне сил. Я перестал дрожать и не колеблясь продолжил путь».

Джо Симпсон, совершавший восхождение в Андах, сорвался с обледеневшего выступа и упал в расщелину, сломав при этом ногу. Он начал бороться за жизнь, именно услышанный голос помог ему тогда преодолеть все трудности и выбраться из бедственного положения. Об этом он написал в книге «Касаясь пустоты».

Такие голоса люди слышат довольно часто, когда оказываются в ситуации, угрожающей смертельной опасностью. Фрейд в своей книге «Об афазии» пишет о двух случаях, когда он слышал голоса: «За всю мою жизнь я дважды оказывался в положениях, угрожавших моей жизни, причем оба раз осознание опасности наступало внезапно, словно какое-то озарение. Оба раза я чувствовал, что это конец. Внутренний голос лепетал что-то бессвязное, а я шевелил губами, издавая нечленораздельные звуки. Но ввиду крайней опасности я оба раза слышал голос извне, который громко выкрикивал мне в ухо отчетливые команды. Я не только слышал эти слова, я видел их написанными на листке бумаги, который висел передо мной в воздухе».

Угроза жизни может исходить и изнутри, и, хотя мы не знаем, насколько часто голоса предотвращали попытки самоубийства, мне думается, что это происходило и происходит не так уж и редко. Одна моя знакомая по имени Лиз после неудачного

132 любовного романа чувствовала себя полностью раздавленной и угнетенной. Она была уже готова проглотить горсть снотворного и запить стаканом виски, когда вдруг услышала, как чей-то голос строго сказал ей: «”Нет, ты не должна этого делать”, – а потом добавил: “Помни, пройдет совсем немного времени, и ты уже не будешь чувствовать себя такой несчастной, как сейчас”». Мужской голос прозвучал извне, и Лиз не знала, кому он принадлежит. Она тихо спросила: «Кто это сказал?». Ответа на было, но на стуле, стоящем перед ней, вдруг появилась «зернистая» фигура молодого человека, одетого в костюм XVIII века. Светящаяся фигура несколько секунд просидела на стуле, а потом исчезла, растворившись в воздухе. Лиз испытала чувство невероятного облегчения, ее охватила волна тихой радости. Она понимала, что голос, скорее всего, исходит из какой-то части ее собственного мозга, но тем не менее до сих пор игриво рассказывает о том молодом человеке как о своем ангеле-хранителе.

Слуховые галлюцинации могут быть обусловлены аномальной активацией первичной слуховой коры; это нарушение требует исследования не только у больных с психозами, но и среди психически здоровых людей. До сих пор большинство исследований в этой области проводилось именно на больных шизофренией.

Некоторые ученые предполагают, что слуховые галлюцинации возникают в результате утраты способности распознавать внутреннюю речевую продукцию как свою собственную. (Другой вариант: на фоне генерирования внутренней речи одновременно происходит активация областей слуховой коры, и то, что мы в норме воспринимаем как внутренний монолог, обретает «реальный» голос).

Вероятно, этот вопрос можно переформулировать и спросить так: почему большинство из нас не слышат никаких голосов? Ясно одно, «слышать голоса» и «слуховые галлюцинации» – это термины, за которыми скрываются разные по своему происхождению феномены.

Слуховые галлюцинации во многих случаях бывают содержательными – человек слышит голос, который говорит что-то осмысленное, пусть даже подчас тривиальное и напыщенное, однако в подавляющем большинстве случаев содержанием слуховых галлюцинаций оказываются странные нечленораздельные звуки. Вероятно, самой частой слуховой галлюцинацией является феномен, который практически всегда диагностируется как «шум в ушах». Этот практически непрекращающийся звук – жужжание или звон – возникает при потере слуха и подчас становится просто невыносимым для больного.

Одновременно с голосами и другими воображаемыми шумами люди часто слышат музыкальные фрагменты или даже целые песни. Музыкальные галлюцинации могут возникать после инсультов, при опухолях мозга, аневризмах, а также при тяжелых инфекционных заболеваниях. Они проходят обычно после улучшения общего состояния больного.

133 Chapter 10 “The Dream” Consumerism and its discontents

Materialistic values may stem from early insecurities and are linked to lower life satisfaction, psychologists find. Accruing more wealth may provide only a partial fix. By TORI DeANGELIS

June 2004, Vol 35, No. 6

Материалы сайта American Psychological Assoiciation

https://www.apa.org/monitor/jun04/discontents

Compared with Americans in 1957, today we own twice as many cars per person, eat out twice as often and enjoy endless other commodities that weren't around then – big-screen TVs, microwave ovens, SUVs and handheld wireless devices, to name a few. But are we any happier? Certainly, happiness is difficult to pin down, let alone measure. But a recent literature review suggests we're no more contented than we were then – in fact, maybe less so. "Compared with their grandparents, today's young adults have grown up with much more affluence, slightly less happiness and much greater risk of depression and assorted social pathology," notes Hope College psychologist David G. Myers, PhD, author of the article, which appeared in the American Psychologist (Vol. 55, No. 1). "Our becoming much better off over the last four decades has not been accompanied by one iota of increased subjective well-being." These findings emerge at a time when the consumer culture has reached a fever pitch, comments Myers, also the author of "The American Paradox: Spiritual Hunger in an Age of Plenty" (Yale University Press, 2000). So what does psychologists' research say about possible effects of this consumer culture on people's mental well-being? Based on the literature to date, it would be too simplistic to say that desire for material wealth unequivocally means discontent. Although the least materialistic people report the most life satisfaction, some studies indicate that materialists can be almost as contented if they've got the money and their acquisitive lifestyle doesn't conflict with more soul-satisfying pursuits. But for materialists with less money and other conflicting desires – a more common situation – unhappiness emerges, researchers are finding. "There's a narrowing of the gap between materialists and nonmaterialists in life satisfaction as materialists' income rises," notes Edward Diener, PhD, a well-known researcher of subjective well-being and materialism at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign. "So if you're poor, it's very bad to be a materialist; and if you're rich, it doesn't make you happier than nonmaterialists, but you almost catch up."

134 Why are materialists unhappy?

As with all things psychological, the relationship between mental state and materialism is complex: Indeed, researchers are still trying to ascertain whether materialism stokes unhappiness, unhappiness fuels materialism, or both. Diener suggests that several factors may help explain the apparent toll of pursuit of wealth. In simple terms, a strong consumerist bent – what William Wordsworth in 1807 called "getting and spending" – can promote unhappiness because it takes time away from the things that can nurture happiness, including relationships with family and friends, research shows. "It's not absolutely necessary that chasing after material wealth will interfere with your social life," Diener says. "But it can, and if it does, it probably has a net negative payoff in terms of life satisfaction and well-being." People with strong materialistic values appear to have goal orientations that may lead to poorer well-being, adds Knox College psychologist Tim Kasser, PhD, who with Berkeley, Calif., psychotherapist Allen Kanner, PhD, co-edited a new APA book, "Psychology and Consumer Culture" (APA, 2004), featuring experts' research and views on the links between consumerism, well-being and environmental and social factors. In Kasser's own book, "The High Price of Materialism" (MIT Press, 2002), Kasser describes his and others' research showing that when people organize their lives around extrinsic goals such as product acquisition, they report greater unhappiness in relationships, poorer moods and more psychological problems. Kasser distinguishes extrinsic goals – which tend to focus on possessions, image, status and receiving rewards and praise – from intrinsic ones, which aim at outcomes like personal growth and community connection and are satisfying in and of themselves. Relatedly, a not-yet-published study by University of Missouri social psychologist Marsha Richins, PhD, finds that materialists place unrealistically high expectations on what consumer goods can do for them in terms of relationships, autonomy and happiness. "They think that having these things is going to change their lives in every possible way you can think of," she says. One man in Richins's study, for example, said he desperately wanted a swimming pool so he could improve his relationship with his moody 13-year-old daughter.

The roots of materialism

Given that we all experience the same consumeristic culture, why do some of us develop strongly materialistic values and others don't? A line of research suggests that insecurity – both financial and emotional – lies at the heart of consumeristic cravings. Indeed, it's not money per se, but the striving for it, that's linked to unhappiness, find Diener and others. "Research suggests that when people grow up in unfortunate social situations – where they're not treated very nicely by their parents or when they experience poverty or even the threat of death," says Kasser, "they become more materialistic as a way to adapt." A 1995 paper in Developmental Psychology (Vol. 31, No. 6) by Kasser and colleagues was the first to demonstrate this. Teens who reported having higher materialistic attitudes tended to be poorer and to have less nurturing mothers than those with lower materialism scores, the team found. Similarly, a 1997 study in the Journal of Consumer Research (Vol.

135 23, No. 4) headed up by Aric Rindfleisch, PhD, then a doctoral student at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and now an associate professor of marketing there, found that young people whose parents were undergoing or had undergone divorce or separation were more prone to developing materialistic values later in life than those from intact homes. And in the first direct experimental test of the point, Kasser and University of Missouri social psychologist Kenneth Sheldon, PhD, reported in a 2000 article in Psychological Science (Vol. 11, No. 4), that when provoked with thoughts of the most extreme uncertainty of them all – death – people reported more materialistic leanings.

More money=greater happiness?

The ill effects of materialism appear subject to modification, other research finds. In a longitudinal study reported in the November 2003 issue of Psychological Science (Vol. 14, No. 6), psychologists Carol Nickerson, PhD, of the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, Norbert Schwarz, PhD, of the University of Michigan, Diener, and Daniel Kahnemann, PhD, of Princeton University, examined two linked data sets collected 19 years apart on 12,000 people who had attended elite colleges and universities in the 1970s – one drawn in 1976 when they were freshmen, the other in 1995. On average, those who had initially expressed stronger financial aspirations reported lower life satisfaction two decades later than those expressing lower monetary desires. But as the income of the higher-aspiration participants rose, so did their reported life satisfaction, the team found. James E. Burroughs, PhD, assistant professor of commerce at the University of Virginia's McIntire School of Commerce, and the University of Wisconsin's Rindfleisch conclude that the unhappiest materialists are those whose materialistic and higher-order values are most conflicted. In a 2002 paper in the Journal of Consumer Research (Vol. 29, No. 3), the team first gauged people's levels of stress, materialistic values and prosocial values in the domains of family, religion and community – in keeping with the theory of psychologist Shalom Schwartz, PhD, that some values unavoidably conflict with one another. Then in an experimental study, they ascertained the degree of conflict people felt when making a decision between the two value domains. The unhappiest people were those with the most conflict – those who reported high prosocial and high materialistic values, says Burroughs. The other three groups – those low in materialism and high in prosocial values, those low in prosocial values and high in materialism, and those lukewarm in both arenas – reported similar, but lower levels of life stress. His findings square with those of others: that the differences in life satisfaction between more and less materialistic people are relatively small, says Burroughs. And most researchers in the area agree that these values lie along a continuum, he adds. "Material things are neither bad nor good," Burroughs comments. "It is the role and status they are accorded in one's life that can be problematic. The key is to find a balance: to appreciate what you have, but not at the expense of the things that really matter – your family, community and spirituality."

136 The bigger picture

Even if some materialists swim through life with little distress, however, consumerism carries larger costs that are worth worrying about, others say. "There are consequences of materialism that can affect the quality of other people's and other species' lives," says Kasser. To that end, he and others are beginning to study links between materialistic values and attitudes toward the environment, and to write about the way consumerism has come to affect our collective psyche. Psychotherapist Kanner, who co-edited "Psychology and Consumer Culture" with Kasser, cites examples as minor as parents who "outsource" parental activities like driving their children to school and those as big as international corporations leading people in poor countries to crave products they can ill afford. Indeed, consumerism is an example of an area where psychology needs to stretch from its focus on the individual and examine the wider impact of the phenomenon, Kanner believes. "Corporate-driven consumerism is having massive psychological effects, not just on people, but on our planet as well," he says. "Too often, psychology over-individualizes social problems. In so doing, we end up blaming the victim, in this instance by locating materialism primarily in the person while ignoring the huge corporate culture that's invading so much of our lives." Tori DeAngelis is a writer in Syracuse, N.Y. Как устроен ад: Краткий путеводитель Материалы интернет-портала «Популярная механика»

https://www.popmech.ru/history/6564-kak-ustroen-ad-kratkiy-putevoditel/

Христианский ад

Образы христианского ада во многом вдохновлены древними греками. Именно у христиан география ада изучена наиболее детально. Добраться туда несколько сложнее. Уже в апокрифических книгах – тех, что не вошли в Священное Писание или были исключены из него позднее, – высказывались различные мнения о местоположении ада. Так, самого дьявола «Книга Еноха» помещает в восточной безжизненной пустыне, где Рафаил «делает отверстие», в которое опускает его, связанного по рукам и ногам, и приваливает сверху камнем. Однако согласно тому же апокрифу, душа направится в противоположную сторону, на запад, где будет «стенать» в углублениях высокого горного хребта. В конце VI века папа Григорий Великий, различая два ада – верхний и нижний, помещал один на земле, второй под нею.

В своей книге о природе ада, вышедшей в 1714 году, английский оккультист Тобиас Суинден поместил ад на солнце. Свое предположение он мотивировал одновременно существовавшими тогда представлениями о нашем светиле как об огненном шаре и цитатой из Апокалипсиса («Четвертый Ангел вылил чашу свою на 137 Солнце: и дано было ему жечь людей огнем»). А его современник и последователь Уильям Уистон объявлял адом все небесные кометы: попадая в околосолнечные раскаленные области, они поджаривают души, а отдаляясь – замораживают. Впрочем, вряд ли вам стоит надеяться попасть на комету. Самое широкое признание получило представление о том, что ад расположен в центре Земли и имеет как минимум один выход на поверхность. Скорее всего, этот выход расположен на севере, хотя встречаются и другие мнения. Так, старинная поэма о странствиях ирландского святого Брендана повествует о его путешествии на крайний запад, где он и находит не только райские кущи, но и места мучений грешников.

И на небе, и под землей, и на самой земле помещен ад в апокрифическом «Хождении Богородицы по мукам». Книга эта изобилует подробнейшими описаниями наказаний. Попросив Бога разогнать полный мрак, окутывающий страдающих на западе, Мария видит, как раскаленная смола изливается на неверующих. Здесь же в облаке огня мучаются те, кто «на рассвете в воскресенье спят как мертвые», а на раскаленных скамьях сидят те, кто при жизни не стоял в церкви. На юге в огненную реку погружены другие грешники: проклятые родителями – по пояс, блудники – по грудь, и по горло – «те, кто ел мясо человеческое», то есть изменники, бросившие детей на съедение зверям или предавшие братьев перед царем. Но глубже всех, до темени, погружены клятвопреступники. Богоматерь видит здесь и другие наказания, причитающиеся любителям наживы (подвешиваются за ноги), сеятелям вражды и христианским отступникам (подвешиваются за уши). В «левой части рая», в бушующих волнах кипящей смолы, терпят муки распявшие Христа иудеи.

В области предвечного хаоса располагает ад Джон Мильтон, автор поэмы «Потерянный рай». Согласно его концепции, Сатана был низвергнут еще до сотворения земли и неба, а значит, и ад находится вне этих областей. Сам дьявол восседает в Пандемониуме, «блистательной столице», где принимает виднейших демонов и бесов. Пандемониум – огромный замок с залами и портиками, выстроенный тем же зодчим, что и чертог Царя Небесного. Ангел-архитектор, примкнувший к воинству Сатаны, был изгнан с небес вместе с ним. Мириады духов мечутся по коридорам дворца, кишат в земле и воздухе. Их так много, что разместиться им позволяет только сатанинское колдовство.

Еще больше способен запутать средневековый христианский теолог Эмануэль Сведенборг. Он различал три разных ада, соответствующих трем уровням небес. И поскольку Бог владычествует надо всем, все три ада управляются им через специально делегированных ангелов. По его мнению, вообще не существует Сатаны как владыки царства зла. Дьявол в понимании Сведенборга – собирательное именование наиболее опасных «злых гениев»; Вельзевул объединяет духов,

138 стремящихся к господству даже на небесах; Сатана же означает духов «не столь злых». Все эти духи ужасны на вид и, подобно трупам, лишены жизни. Лица некоторых черны, у других огненны, у третьих «безобразны от прыщей, нарывов и язв; у весьма многих лица не видно, у других торчат только одни зубы». Сведенборг сформулировал мысль, что как небеса отображают одного человека, так и ад в совокупности – лишь отражение одного дьявола и может быть представлен именно в таком виде. Дьявольская пасть, ведущая в зловонную преисподнюю, – именно такой путь ждет грешников.

Не стоит чересчур доверяться мнению некоторых авторов, которые утверждают, будто вход в ад может быть и заперт. Христос в «Апокалипсисе» произносит: «Имею ключи ада и смерти». Но Мильтон утверждает, что ключи от Геенны (видимо, по поручению Иисуса) хранит страшная полуженщина-полузмея. На поверхности земли ворота могут выглядеть вполне безобидно, как яма или пещера, или же как жерло вулкана. Согласно Данте Алигьери, автору «Божественной комедии», написанной в начале XIV века, души могут попадать в ад, пройдя через густой и сумрачный лес.

Поэма эта – самый авторитетный источник об адском устройстве (подробнее см. в конце статьи). Структура преисподней описана во всей ее сложности. Ад «Божественной комедии» – это туловище Люцифера, внутри он имеет воронкообразную структуру. Начав путешествие по аду, Данте и его проводник Вергилий спускаются все глубже и глубже, никуда не сворачивая, и в итоге оказываются в том же месте, откуда вступили в него. Странность этой адской геометрии заметил еще знаменитый русский математик, философ и теолог Павел Флоренский. Он весьма аргументировано доказал, что ад Данте основан на неевклидовой геометрии. Как и вся Вселенная в представлениях современной физики, ад в поэме имеет конечный объем, но не имеет границ, что теоретически было доказано швейцарцем Вейлем.

Reviews on the novel

A book review by Steven Wu http://www.scwu.com/bookreviews/

July 18, 2003

Julian Barnes's A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters isn't really a history of the world. And the half chapter is just as long as any of the others. But he calls the half chapter a "Parenthesis," and he starts with the Great Flood and ends with a view of heaven (or is it just a dream?) so I suppose the title is at least colorably justified.

A History is an uneven collection of eleven diverse vignettes, alternately witty, hilarious, disturbing, or incomprehensible. The book starts with a clever and subversive retelling of

139 Noah's Ark, a great opener. "I don't know how best to break this to you," says the anonymous and irreverent deconstructionist telling the tale, "but Noah was not a nice man. I realize this idea is embarrassing, since you are all descended from him; still, there it is. He was a monster, a puffed-up patriarch who spent half his day grovelling to his God and the other half taking it out on us. He had a gopher-wood stave with which . . . well, some of the animals carry the stripes to this day." And have you ever wondered what Noah and his family ate on the Ark? As the narrator wryly reminds us, they weren't vegetarians. (And that's why we don't have unicorns.)

The story of the Ark is followed by a jump of several millenia, to a modern cruise ship that is boarded by terrorists. Barnes spins a slyly understated but ultimately chilling tale of an indulgent academic's fall from entertainment to complicity. Third on the list is a hilarious transcript of fifteenth century trial proceedings against woodworms whose consumption of a ceremonial chair left it so weak that it collapsed under a visiting bishop who was therefore "hurled against his will into a state of imbecility." Barnes's fictional (but historically based) renditions of the speeches on both sides are masterpieces of legal verbosity, filled with formalistic analogies, elegantly tortured sentences, and speciously logical arguments about an inherently irrational trial. Perhaps because I'm a law student, I found this chapter to be the highlight of the book.

From there, however, the stories degenerate. The worst is the chapter-long "half chapter," a self-indulgent soliloquy on love. Almost as bad are interlocking stories of two religious fanatics, separated by a century, who go to Mount Ararat in search of the mythical final resting place of Noah's Ark. At least the book ends on a relatively high note: "The Dream" is an amusing version of Heaven, disguised as the best dream in the world.

Although A History seems like a collection of short stories, Barnes has claimed that the book was conceived of and executed as a novel – and, indeed, various motifs run throughout the book, including the woodworm, Noah's Ark, and the nature of love and faith. At least from my initial reading, however, the connections were merely tenuous and incidental, though other people clearly disagree. (For instance, the linked article claims that the novel "celebrates the textuality of history, the narrativity of historical narration." Whoa, man.)

Nevertheless, Barnes writes in a charming and engaging style, hardly lyrical and yet strangely enthralling. Even in the worst chapters, his effortless prose scans easily. And some of the individual components of A History are true gems. It's too bad that the novel as a whole falters after a stellar start, and stumbles all the way to the end.

140 But Noah Was Not a Nice Man By JOYCE CAROL OATES

October 1, 1989

Post-modernist in conception but accessibly straightforward in execution, Julian Barnes's fifth book is neither the novel it is presented as being nor the breezy pop-history of the world its title suggests. Influenced to varying degrees by such 20th-century presences as the inevitable Borges, Calvino and Nabokov, as well as by Roland Barthes and perhaps Michel Tournier among others, ''A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters'' is most usefully described as a gathering of prose pieces, some fiction, others rather like essays. Mr. Barnes's concerns throughout are abstract and philosophical, though his tone is unpretentious; his foreground subjects – Noah's Ark, the hijacking of a Mediterranean cruise ship by Arab terrorists, the wreck of the French ship Medusa, Jonah in the whale's belly, a sleeping woman, a film maker's accident in Venezuela, an American astronaut transformed by a conversion experience, a situation-comedy vision of heaven – are but starting points for speculation. Very like Borges, Julian Barnes has a predilection for tracing leitmotifs through a variety of metamorphoses. Marx's famous elaboration upon an idea of Hegel – ''History repeats itself, the first time as tragedy, the second time as farce'' – quoted by Mr. Barnes, is one of the principles of organization in ''A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters.'' Another might be the bemused query: ''Does the world progress? Or does it merely shuttle back and forth like a ferry?'' posed by the narrator of Mr. Barnes's earlier work, ''Flaubert's Parrot.'' Given the principle of repetition, of permutations and combinations, it is inevitable that some of Mr. Barnes's prose pieces are more successful than others. I will confess that my heart sank a bit when I discovered that the first chapter was a chatty mock-history of Noah's Ark as recounted by one of seven stowaway parasites of the Anobium domesticum species (woodworm or termite), complete with fantasy animals – the behemoth, the salamander (the real salamander, that lived in fire), the basilisk, the griffon, the hippogriff, the unicorn, et al. – and a revisionist interpretation of Noah: ''I don't know how best to break this to you, but Noah was not a nice man. I realize this idea is embarrassing, since you are all descended from him; still, there it is. He was a monster, a puffed-up patriarch who spent half his day grovelling to his God and the other half taking it out on us.'' Nor does the affable prose of the second piece, ''The Visitors,'' about the hijacking of a Mediterranean cruise ship by Arab terrorists, inspire confidence; the episode is wholly unbelievable, and the head terrorist speaks a stagey, mock-Hollywood lingo: ''The world is not a cheerful place. I would have thought your investigations into the ancient civilizations would have taught you that. But . . . we shall explain to the passengers what is happening. How they are mixed up in history. What that history is.'' But as ''A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters'' progresses and leitmotifs recur, often in comically ingenious combinations, the book becomes increasingly engaging and entertaining; and, allowing for the distortions of art, informative. As the more polished voice of the essayist dominates over the less certain voice of the fiction writer – ''When I say 'I' you will want to know

141 within a paragraph or two whether I mean Julian Barnes or someone invented'' – the book attains that genial mastery of tone that characterized ''Flaubert's Parrot.'' One of the more effective chapters is ''Shipwreck,'' which consists of a factual account of the wreck of the French ship Medusa in 1816, and a close analysis of Gericault's great painting, ''Scene of Shipwreck'' (popularly known as ''The Raft of the Medusa''), completed in 1819. ''How do you turn catastrophe into art?'' Mr. Barnes inquires; he then proceeds most convincingly to answer his question. Perhaps his discussion of the painting would not strike art historians as original, but to the layman, especially to the layman with literary interests, it has the ring of truth. Mr. Barnes traces Gericault's steps in painting the canvas, seeing how, like most imaginative artists, he worked through discarded ideas (''excitements''), falsifying details when necessary, supplanting ''truth to life'' with ''truth to art.'' Reality becomes myth as, in other instances, myth becomes reality: ''Time dissolves the story into form, colour, emotion.'' It is only by slipping history's ''anchor'' that the painting now known to us as ''The Raft of the Medusa'' emerges as transcendent allegory: ''The picture's secret lies in the pattern of its energy. Look at it one more time: at the violent waterspout building up through those muscular backs as they reach for the speck of the rescuing vessel. All that straining – to what end? There is no formal response to the painting's main surge, just as there is no response to most human feelings. Not merely hope, but any burdensome yearning: ambition, hatred, love (especially love) – how rarely do our emotions meet the object they seem to deserve?'' Catastrophe becomes art: perhaps that is its purpose. Though Mr. Barnes remarks in passing that ''Irony may be defined as what people miss,'' it is the undercurrent of a gentle, humane, self-reflective irony that gives to ''A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters'' its dominant tone. And its humor: an analysis of the story of Jonah and its iconographic rendering in art includes an aside on the Old Testament God that pits present-day common sense against mythical logic: ''It's not much of a story, is it? As in most of the Old Testament, there's a crippling lack of free will around – or even the illusion of free will. God holds all the cards and wins all the tricks. The only uncertainty is how the Lord is going to play it this time: start with the two of trumps and lead up to the ace, start with the ace and run down to the two, or mix them around. And since you never can tell with paranoid schizophrenics, this element does gives the narrative some drive.'' In ''Parenthesis,'' the narrator is an insomniac musing upon love as he lies beside his sleeping wife. He realizes that he scarcely understands what love is just as he is impatient too with the ''obliquities of fiction.'' The monologue is rambling, inconclusive, unadorned by artistic flourishes, frank: ''I don't know if prudent or reckless love is the better, monied or penniless love the surer, heterosexual or homosexual love the sexier, married or unmarried love the stronger. I may be tempted towards didacticism, but this isn't an advice column.'' In fact it is a bit of an advice column: ''We must believe in [ love ] , or we're lost. We may not obtain it, or we may obtain it and find it renders us unhappy; we must still believe in it. If we don't, then we merely surrender to the history of the world and to someone else's truth.''

142 Though somewhat hampered by its epistolary format, ''Upstream!'' is a suspenseful account of an accident that befalls an American film crew in the Venezuelan jungle. It too becomes a meditation upon ''reality.'' Are the Indians employed by the film crew primitive, or more sophisticated in ways than the white men who take their own superiority for granted? Are they re-enacting, in an act of violence, a legendary aspect of their own history, or rebelling against it? Are they who have seemed so trustworthy really treacherous opportunists, not only causing the death of one of the stars (a missionary Jesuit in the film) but running off with the camp equipment? The surviving co-star becomes unstrung trying to sort out the answers. ''Everything is connected, even the parts we don't like,'' a female persona thinks, ''especially the parts we don't like.'' This young woman's particular concern is with survival in a polluted, war-threatened world, but the motif of connectedness persists through each of the chapters, confronting us repeatedly with a fixed set of images, ideas, phrases, ironies – like one of those comically intricate drawings for children in which human or animal figures can be detected in the innocent lineaments of foliage, clouds, landscapes. One does begin to flinch a bit as, one by one, there come wormwood, Noah's Ark, the Flood, survival – or death – by sea, a raft, the division of beings into ''the clean and the unclean.'' Were it not for Mr. Barnes's unemphatic tone one might suspect him of a parody of structuralist thinking; but the overall aim seems rather more comedy, comedy-of-ideas, ''fabulation.'' (Fabulation: ''You keep a few true facts and spin a new story around them.'') A vision of heaven so familiar as to consist of endless fulfillment of material wishes, with the inevitable consequence of ennui and a desire to die, is perhaps a weak ending to a provocative book, but the final paragraph is ideal: ''I dreamt that I woke up. It's the oldest dream of all, and I've just had it.'' ''A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters'' demystifies its subjects and renders them almost ordinary: ''Myth will become reality, however sceptical we might be.'' In so doing it deconstructs, perhaps even mocks, its own ambition. If the reader does not come to the book with certain of the expectations of prose fiction – that ideas will be dramatized with such narrative momentum that one forgets they are ''ideas,'' and that complete worlds will be evoked by way of prose, not merely discussed – this is a playful, witty and entertaining gathering of conjectures by a man to whom ideas are quite clearly crucial: a quintessential humanist, it would seem, of the pre-post-modernist species. Joyce Carol Oates is the Roger S. Berlind Distinguished Professor in the Humanities at Princeton University. Her most recent novel, ''American Appetites,'' was published this year.

143 Учебное издание

Меньшакова Надежда Николаевна Петкова Екатерина Николовна

Практический курс первого и второго иностранного языка (английский): English through reading Modern literature

Part I

Учебное пособие

Редактор М. А. Шемякина Корректор Н. А. Антонова Компьютерная вёрстка: Н. Н. Меньшакова

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