Energy Security, Poverty and Sovereignty in Mountain Communities of Tajikistan
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ENERGY SECURITY, POVERTY AND SOVEREIGNTY IN MOUNTAIN COMMUNITIES OF TAJIKISTAN A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Murodbek Laldjebaev January 2017 © 2017 Murodbek Laldjebaev ENERGY SECURITY, POVERTY AND SOVEREIGNTY IN MOUNTAIN COMMUNITIES OF TAJIKISTAN Murodbek Laldjebaev, Ph. D. Cornell University 2017 ABSTRACT This dissertation research examines the vulnerabilities of energy systems in Tajikistan at the national scale, assesses the energy needs and resources of rural mountain communities at the local scale, and recommends energy solutions to improve the security of energy systems and livelihood opportunities of local communities. It advances the concepts of energy security, energy poverty and energy sovereignty from national and community perspectives. Using mixed-method research design and employing survey research, and in-depth interviews, in addition to literature review and secondary data analysis, this research identifies the energy needs at the household level, and sheds light onto national energy system vulnerabilities. Based on the analysis of available data, this research highlights key vulnerabilities of the energy system including insufficient energy production capacity, unreliable and expensive energy imports, dwindling power infrastructure causing technical and economic losses, inadequate transparency in the power sector, lack of regional cooperation in energy and water resource sharing, and inadequate financial resources to address all of the above. This research finds that energy poverty reflects the current condition of access to energy services at the level of the community and household in rural villages of the southeastern part of Khatlon region, Tajikistan. Rural communities continue to rely on solid biomass (wood, straw, animal dung) to meet their thermal energy needs, and many households are not connected to the electrical grid. For those connected to the grid, access to electricity is neither reliable nor affordable. This research recommends a potential intermediate solution to local energy access that entails proliferation of small-scale technologies such as solar home systems, micro-hydro units, biogas digesters, improved cookstoves, residential wind turbines and thermal insulation of homes. These technologies may be optimal to rural areas as they are smartly deployed, easily maintained and configurable to needs, plus cost-effective and environmentally sustainable in the long-term. Businesses, together with governments and civil society organizations can take advantage of technologies to lead the transition from energy poverty to security. Ultimately, the policymakers, energy planners and providers should prioritize the role of households and their communities in addressing their energy challenges. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Murodbek Laldjebaev was born in Kazideh village of Ishkashim District, Gorno- Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast, Tajikistan. After completion of his primary and secondary education in School #26 in his home village, he studied at Khorog State University and obtained a Bachelor’s degree in English Language in 2003. He then worked for the Institute for Professional Development of teachers in Khorog until 2008, after which he traveled to Singapore for further studies. In 2010 he obtained a Master’s in Public Policy degree from the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore. Then he worked as a senior specialist for a year for the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade in Dushanbe, Tajikistan. In 2011 he embarked on his doctoral studies at the Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, and graduated in 2017. In addition to his degrees, Murodbek has also completed non-degree courses on education at the University of Saint Thomas, Harvard Graduate School of Education, and Upper Canada College, and consulted the World Bank on pre-service education. v In loving memory of my grandparents Laljeba and Sadafmo, my brother Rauf, and my dearest friend Maruf. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would not have been where I am today had it not been for the interest that the late Dr. Mark Bain took in my research proposal when I applied for Ph.D. studies through the Open Society Foundations (OSF). Therefore, I am indebted to Dr. Bain for supporting my candidacy to pursue my studies at the Department of Natural Resources (DNR), Cornell University. I was fortunate to work with him for over a semester in the early stages, and I wish we could continue to work together. However, it was not meant to be. May his soul rest in eternal peace! My deepest gratitude goes to my major advisor, Dr. Karim-Aly Kassam, whose guidance and support on both professional and personal levels has been instrumental to my development as an aspiring scholar. I have been very fortunate to have known Dr. Kassam a few years before applying for OSF scholarship. Our acquaintance, and his close familiarity with Tajikistan, where he has been conducting field research since 2006, served as a solid foundation to our working relationship and my subsequent progress towards my degree. Through his guidance and mentorship I underwent a complete transformation in my worldview. He showed me the way back to my roots through a renewed appreciation of local and indigenous ways of knowing. Given our shared interest in research in the Central Asian region it is my hope that we will continue to collaborate well beyond my doctorate studies. Dr. Kassam has also been a tremendous source of support for my family, especially during the difficult times when my wife fell ill. We are thankful for all his help. vii I am thankful to my three committee members – Dr. Stephen Morreale, Dr. Shorna Allred and Dr. Benjamin Sovacool – for their thoughtful guidance and critical and constructive feedback throughout my research work at Cornell. It has always been a pleasure to work with Steve. His door is always open and I would stop by his office with a quick question and just like that he would generously spend the next hour or two helping me think through not only that question but also engage in deep discussion of what my research entailed for the rural households in Tajikistan. I am delighted that Shorna agreed to serve on my committee at a later stage when I was desperately looking for an expert to guide me on survey research. She provided valuable guidance on the methodology and more specifically on the draft of my questionnaire that had hundreds of questions to begin with! The only aspect that I had challenge with at Cornell University was lack of coursework on social science perspective on energy systems. Fortunately, I was able to fill this gap by working with Benjamin who I met during my master’s studies at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy in Singapore. We worked remotely and I truly appreciate his prompt response to my emails and multiple requests, even when he was traveling. His contribution to our co-authored book chapter with Dr. Kassam laid a solid foundation to my scholarly writing. The members of Kassam Research Group – Morgan Ruelle, Michelle Baumflek, Chuan Liao, Nicole Wilson, Rajeev Goyal, Michael Dunaway, and Michael Lieberman – have been a source of inspiration and support at different stages of my studies. From meticulous edits to multiple drafts of my writing to rehearsing my presentations to long conversations outside the meetings, they helped me polish my viii work and enrich my thinking. I spent many hours with Morgan in our shared office, over “mandatory” lunches, walks through the Plantations, and many other occasions outside Ithaca, including a trip to New York City and visiting with his family in Vermont. I learned a lot from him and I cherish his friendship. I am thankful to DNR faculty, staff and fellow students who have all been very supportive in helping me progress towards obtaining my degree. My special thanks go to Dr. Patrick Sullivan for his guidance on matters of statistics, and to Dr. Steven Wolf and Dr. Joseph Yavitt for granting me opportunities to assist with teaching sections in their courses. I thank Ms. Christie Sayre for helping me navigate the system to get my paperwork in order. I learned many things about ecology, conservation, and natural resources from my fellow graduate students through their talks at the DNR seminars, the GSA symposium and during informal conversations, and I thank them all for sharing their knowledge. During our Klinik meetings with Jeffrey Wall, Darragh Hare, and Ritwick Gosh, I received constructive feedback on my writing and later on, job applications and talks, which helped me prepare for the next step. I am immensely grateful for the contribution of these fellow students. Countless hours spent in the company of Jeff and Darragh in our shared office and elsewhere helped nurture a strong friendship bond that I will cherish for years to come. They were equally supportive of me and my family outside work that I deeply appreciate as well. I would also like to acknowledge the support of fellow graduate students Manuel Berrio, Jaime Ortiz, Bob Beazley, Annise Dobson and Samar Deen. The early ix Sunday mornings with Manuel, as he was teaching me how to drive, were also occasions for great conversations about current affairs. Jaime gave us rides when we needed one. With his wealth of experience, Bob was always great to talk to just about anything. I enjoyed sharing an office with Annise and having conversations about ecology, deer and earthworms, and other interesting topics. Samar is a good friend and a caring neighbor who is always there when we need help – be it looking after our daughter or talking through the challenges of life. Throughout my time at Cornell, I lived with my family at the Hasbrouck Apartments among a community of international students and scholars and their families and children. I am thankful of the support that this community had provided over the years that made our stay there safe and enjoyable.