A Linguistic Analysis of the Era of Violence in African American Spirituals, Jazz, & Blues 179

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Hirona Matayoshi：Sociolinguistics: A Linguistic Analysis of the Era of Violence in African American Spirituals, Jazz, & Blues 179

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Sociolinguistics: A Linguistic Analysis of the Era of Violence in African American Spirituals, Jazz, & Blues - Civil Action and Effective Citizenship

Education through the Language War

1 Matayoshi, Hirona （又吉弘那）

This paper is a linguistic critical analysis by reflecting upon Robin Tolmach Lakoff’s sociolinguistic analysis

within her brilliant understanding of linguistics in her book, “The Language War”. She portrays her understanding of

linguistics though current events in time. She discusses about how politics and the people are entwined within the

“Language War”. Although her book was written in the year 2000, we are continuing her theory. We will add new

current event issues to her theory while reflecting along with her book. According to Professor Lakoff, the purpose

of linguistics is to translate and interpret the meanings of events for the next generation. Therefore, the writer of this

article will follow Professor Lakoff’s strategies while explaining past issues toward recent issues that are occurring in

the news so we can understand the meaning of the “Language War”. We must first look at the “Language War” in

the testimony of violence within African American Blues, Jazz, and Spirituals. African American Blues, Jazz, and

Spirituals are historical voices, resources, databases of witnesses, and victims of the past. These voices screamed out

the inequality of generations. In a way, they are still surviving a "Language War" even today. They screamed for

help in protest and yet due to those who perpetuated the violence of segregation, intimidation, and discrimination that

took place, “no one” could help them but continued to avoid the problem. It was as if they were absent apathetic by-

standers in denial and neglect. The reason is because prejudice and bigotry became the thorn of evil stuck in between

the heart of empathy to produce apathy. Those who perpetuated violence under the power of mass persuasion acted

in collective behavior. To understand the meanings and the backgrounds of many of these exquisitely deep profound

lyrics or language of Blues, Jazz, and Spirituals, we must also understand the history of what happened to the African

Americans. The United States is often viewed as a melting pot due to the history of the settlers who were faced with

the difficulties in assimilating into the European society. However, these same apathetic amnesiac settlers then colo-

nized the American Indians and their land to build what they thought was a paradise with slavery. Professor Robin

Tolmach Lakoff, coined the process of what America was caught up in as the “Language War”. In this “Language War”, no one understood the cycle of harassment which just continued like a domestic violence. According to Profes-

sor Lakoff, the “Language War” triggered the importance of the civil rights movement in the late 60s. Out of the

blues came forth a muse. Her name was Billie Holiday. This report is also to acknowledge the 100th year com-

memoration of the memory of Billie Holiday for the power of her voice gave birth to civil action that fought that Lan-

guage War.

………………………………………………………… Keywords ……………………………………………………… Sociolinguistic, Civil Action, Effective Citizenship Education, Linguistic Analysis, Language War

2015 年 9 月 15 日受理社会言語学: アフリカンアメリカンスピリチャル、ジャズとブルースの中での、暴力時代の言語分析－言語戦争を通してのシビル・アクションと効果的なエフェクティブ市民と公民教育 *1 又吉弘那開智国際大学リベラルアーツ学部

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Introduction same time they also sacrificed the indigenous An original definition of a "Language people's human rights for their own freedom. War" is the conflict of political communication The European explorers destroyed the indigenous in other words excuses for hate crimes. It is a people through using biological warfare such as conflict of those who “belong” and those who are small pox infested blankets (“The Story Of … labeled “foreign”. This labeling of "foreign- Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs”, ness" or "differences" is a form of shaping public 2005). They may have been ignorant of the attitudes like a form of propaganda to concept of “disease or epidemics” but then when acknowledge an excuse for mass mob violence they found the power as a source for “alienation”, and abuse. It is more psychologically violent they used the epidemic in the form of “deceased than any other biological war for it is an overall blankets” to destroy a civilization. They did it abuse that lasts for generations damaging the to gain the dream of political power to control. foundations of humanity’s existence not just Language Wars are not just blows to your face as physically but mentally. (2) a violent reaction but it is a loss of communica- The “Language Wars” destroy cultures in tion in historical amnesia. This amnesia shines order to build their culture upon another by ne- a morbid glow of inequality which has been a glecting another. In a way it is also a linguistic constant issue that has never been solved since colonialization. This sacrifice is always used as the beginning of time. (4) an excuse or a form of amnesia. It is very similar to how people claim to be a certain religion The fruit of the knowledge of good and like calling themselves "Christians". However, evil in the same breathe, instead of following the “If there’s any interaction between genes and philosophy of turning the other cheek, they fall languages, it is often Languages that influence into a convenient amnesia and forget all their genes, since linguistic differences between popu- philosophies with the doctrines like the Crusades. lations lessen the chance of genetic exchange In result, they murdered under a fake new phi- between them.” losophy by using their own god's name as an excuse. This is what a Language War is all about. – Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza. (5) They labeled and killed under the excuse by us- (Sforza, Goodreads, 2015) ing God's name in vain. They completely went through a convenient amnesia and forgot the Ten According to the geneticist, Luigi Luca Commandments of "Though shall not kill" Cavalli-Sforza, humanity started in Africa with a (“Catechism of the Catholic Church”, Exodus 20 single woman who had a gene called “mitochon- 2-17). (3) dria”. She was named “Mitochondrial Eve”. World history is still based upon that vi- Her daughters bore more children, in repetition, olence. The dreams and expectations to find a generations of the descendants of Eve then made paradise of freedom and equality as if a religion civilization as we know now. Even now her or as the engine that moved the pioneers to es- blood line still continues to flourish. Her blood cape, to find other green pastures, and yet at the line traveled and passed down to every woman

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Hirona Matayoshi：Sociolinguistics: A Linguistic Analysis of the Era of Violence in African American Spirituals, Jazz, & Blues 181

on earth. She became the great ancestor of all women. The Mitochondria DNA is only passed Professor Lakoff discusses about how the through women and not through men. Thus, the Language War began though mythology. The so called "Adam" line has been broken (Lewin, biblical story of "The Tower of Babel" written in pp.54-55). the “Old Testament”, best represents the begin- Referring back to the Luigi Luca Caval- ning of the Language Wars. According to the li-Sforza’s quote, we are related to the almighty story, humanity all spoke the same language. “Grandma Eve”, in our blood, we carry the mi- Unfortunately, humanity had the bad idea to try tochondria of centuries which means, we are a to communicate with the big man upstairs, data base or a USB memory stick of Eve's history “God”. Well, humanity continuing its bad idea, or “her-story”. Those genes are codes or lan- started building this huge communication tower guages. When you think about it, she was a until one day, God looked over his shoulder most great woman, in a way, for she may have been likely in retaliation remarking, "No way". God the holy womb and “holy grail” that passed down destroyed the tower and dispersed those who the beauty and symmetry of the double helix of built the thing in the first place (Knight, Genesis genetics. Our body cells remember her for she 11:9). When he did this the Language War be- is still in our genetic building blocks. Our ge- gan. Instead of one language he brought forth netics or tree of life is like a ladder that was made the complete linguistic chaos on earth. In other for us to be established in her form like a copied words, all hell broke loose. Again, this is the manuscript. Of course she is the only specimen Christian God of turning the other cheek while at that genetics have found and that there were the same time not acknowledging his own chil- probably others or copied manuscripts just like dren as his own by labeling them “different”, her. Unfortunately, humanity has a brain that “strange”, or “foreign”. has a tendency to forget very quickly by labeling According to Dante's "Divine Comedy", and classifying differences even though we are he uses Pope Gregory the Great’s sixth century basically from one big family. Human's strug- definition of the Seven Deadly Sins to express gle with this racial amnesia somehow, led us to the concept of hell (“The Seven Deadly Sins”, forget our origin in Africa. It is like how Pro- 2001) . The legend about the Tower of Babel de- fessor Lakoff mentioned about the lineage of po- scribes a God who was portrayed as “the dude” litical correctness leading us to the civil rights who contradicted himself. This is the God who movement through a war of words that has been committed several of the seven deadly sins such imbedded into our DNA for us to interpret and as "greed" to keep power, control when he read between the lines. looked over his shoulder, "jealous" was when God found the people built the tower, "pride" the The Origin of The Language Wars (6) sarcasm of God thinking “No way”, and God “Those who can make you believe absurdities, himself expressed his "wrath" by destroying the can make you commit atrocities.” tower to disperse humanity in revenge in retalia- -Voltaire tion. In a way, this story represents how perse- (Voltaire, Goodreads, 2015) cution began by the dividing of languages and

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the division of ethnic groups. Ironically, perse- ground, and to overcome their mental trauma. cution, segregation, and apartheid originated in In the end, they were able to heal their physical the bible or the “Old Testament”. and psychological wounds through their souls According to this myth or mythology, and blues. This is how the music of spirituals, our languages separated and provided us with a blues, and jazz began. It all began through sor- wall between our own family members in segre- row and civil duty to make others aware that they gation. Wars and conflicts under the concept of were not alone. In a way, it was a form of Citi- greed brought forth and dug a gigantic chasm zenship Education. According to Professor between humanity to build battlements within Lakoff, language is more than words for these civilization to exclude another from another. In words are worth fighting for and that is what civil a way, the Language Wars became an excuse action is all about. under a self-made amnesia to protect the uniqueness from the so called label of "evil foreign- The Power of Civil Action (7) ness". This concept was also mentioned in What did Professor Lakoff mean? The Professor Lakoff’s book about dismissing or the best quote that provides the reader a preview of alienation of the female gender. the "Harlem Renaissance" and an insight into the Before 1865 the so called "privileged" or problems with “racial amnesia”, would be the the slave owners kidnapped the ancestors of to- magnificent African American activist and poet day's African Americans and enslaved them un- Langston Hughes (Earle, pp. 118-123). The der this concept of the “protecting of uniqueness” following is his quote: began with prejudice and segregation (Earle, pp. 66). Some of the slaves were "allowed" to go to I swear to the Lord I still can't see church. The reason why quotations are used is Why democracy means Everybody but me. for us to see the inequality that took place at the -Langston Hughes time where human rights were ignored and peo- (Hughes, 2015) ple were "allowed" to have a spiritual moment in their lives. They were also “allowed” to sing His quote triggered the idea of question- but not in their traditional African beat, rhythm, ing the civic system of the society of that time. and song. They were allowed into the church to This later led to civil action to promote and pro- learn the "white man's" way of life and so they tect the civil rights movement for not just all would “conform” to their “owners”. In other Americans but for all citizens of the world. words, they were educated to submit under cap- Students were given the equal opportunity to tivity. To override this difficult situation, the study in an equal atmosphere to pursue their hap- African Americans quickly learned to use the piness under the Constitution of the United States church meetings to their advantage. They be- of America. African American students were gan singing about their daily life to send out bused into Caucasian schools for the opportunity messages and inspire empathy with others. In of equality under democracy. the process they could escape from their hard- The Civil Rights Act for African Ameri- ships, establish a group or collective therapeutic cans in the United States was enacted in 1964.

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The act banned segregation in education (Earle, that we refer to as the “linguistic markedness”. pp. 112). Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. in- Billie Holiday sang about that reality. She sang fluenced President Lyndon Johnson to act quick- of resistance and resilience. Her most famous ly to support and the African Americans fought song was "Strange Fruit". She wasn't just sing- for their right to vote with the Voting Rights Act ing about the hardships of being African descent in 1965 (Earle, pp. 113). This is what Professor and slavery but she sang about the outcome of Lakoff meant. Eve's children. She sang it in didactic agitation. She was literally and poetically opening “Pan- The Voice of Civil Action: dora's Box” with her vocal crowbar. She wanted The 100 Year Commemoration of The to let all the evils out including everything be- Memory of Billie Holiday (8) cause she was yearning for that last moment of If humanity's Grandma Eve (used as a “hope”. metaphor) were here today, we can wonder and ponder for an answer or may be an apology for "One day a whole damn song fell into place in we can be sure she would have tears in her eyes my head." to see what we have become. Her grandchil- -Billie Holiday dren are struggling today. She passed her mi- (Holiday, “Brainy Quote”, 2015) tochondria to her following generations with all the expectations of survival, dreams for the hope The following lyrics are from a famous of green pastures, and yet her grandchildren historical reality of violence toward minorities or haven't quite got her message. It is a form of indigenous people. The genre of this song is amnesia. Have we answered her dreams? Not Blues. The song was written by Abel Meeropol yet, but we are still trying to pass down her mes- also known by his pen name Lewis Allan and sage or “her-story”. Billie Holiday had Moth- sung by Billie Holiday (Holiday, Billie. “Billie er's Eve's (referring to Adam and Eve) blues and Holiday” CD lyric card). she was good at spreading the word throughout the world. She took her civil duty quite seri- The Blues (9) ously and she learned about the power of the mu- "Strange Fruit" sic media and like what Professor Lakoff discusses about within the Languages Wars that it is Southern trees bear a strange fruit, necessary to maintain the equality within the sta- Blood on the leaves and blood on the root, tus quo. Billie Holiday was not just maintaining Black bodies swinging in the southern breeze, the status quo but she was a “Joan of Arc” in re- Strange fruit hanging from the popular trees. taliation to awaken the minds of the following generations. Pastoral scene of the gallant south, In a way, using Lakoff’s interpretation The bulging eyes and twisted mouth, of the times, Billie Holiday was one of the muses Scent of sweat magnolias, sweet and fresh, for the Harlem Renaissance (Earle, pp. 120). Then the sudden smell of burning flesh. According to Professor Lakoff, there is a reality

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Here is fruit for the crows to pluck, who were murdered. It is an epigram which For the rain to gather, for the wind to suck, deals with satire. We can see as if watching it For the sun to rot, for the trees to drop, on the news or on film. Here is a strange and bitter crop. Each poetic device is within this one single song. It is a master piece of poetic antholo- (Holiday, Billie. “Billie Holiday” CD lyric gy. Let's look at the lyrics, again. We will card). first count the Rhyme by using the alphabet then we will dissect each poetic literary art that was These were people with names and fami- used to produce such profound excellence of the lies who were forced to their deaths by the ugly Harlem Renaissance. reality of prejudice, racism, fear politics, wrong education (propaganda), and the government at "Strange Fruit" the time was responsible for these wrongful deaths. The duty of the government, according Southern trees bear a strange fruit, (a) to the Constitution of life, liberty, and the pursuit Blood on the leaves and blood on the root, (a) of happiness, was to provide the people with an Black bodies swinging in the southern breeze, (b) equal environment of happiness but failed to do Strange fruit hanging from the popular trees. (b) so. The voice of this song is so beautiful and yet so eerie. The song is a haunting image that Pastoral scene of the gallant south, (c) gradually dawns upon you to become a surreal The bulging eyes and twisted mouth, (c) vision representing the meaning of the "Blues". Scent of sweat magnolias, sweet and fresh, (d) As you may see the power of the voice, Then the sudden smell of burning flesh. (d) in the words, are beyond the sound. Without even knowing the song just by reading it or de- Here is fruit for the crows to pluck, (e) coding the emotions within the words we can get For the rain to gather, for the wind to suck, (e) a clear picture of what was going on. For the sun to rot, for the trees to drop, (f) "Strange Fruit" was an allegory of life Here is a strange and bitter crop. (f) of the oppressed and the sins of the oppressors. It is a clear lesson of horror. It is the horror of The Rhyme count is aabb, ccdd, eeff. the outcome of Eve's grandchildren. The genre Therefore, it is neither an “Italian sonnet” nor a was "Blues" but it was sung as ballad or a story. “Shakespearean sonnet” but an original ac- In a way, it is an autobiography or a biography of ceptance of both which conveys the didactic the author and many others who have been vic- message to the reader and listener. It represents timized. The song contains an eerie sense of an understanding of humanity as one. It was resilient anger with a pursuit for justice. Each written so that anyone could remember the words word has a connotation connected to it which and easily to reproduce the song, in repetition, to reflects negative vibrations to the soul of blues. spread the word. It was very much like a hymn, Each word was clearly chosen to represent that chant, or prayer from a psalm. anger in denotation. It is also an elegy for those

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Unfortunately, it is still not clear whether Thus, in terms who wrote the song or is not really Abel Meeropol, actually wrote the lyrics alone an issue. However, it would be a justice to say since there have been other sources who claim a both of them wrote it and "God bless their souls". different story. However, in a way, due to the Let’s dissect the song to see the Blues. historical language war in the United States, Meeropol needed to be the writer. He was an We can also see the Assonance in the lyrics: English teacher and songwriter. If it wasn’t then Billie Holiday would be in danger. More- "Strange Fruit" over, we also have to understand that Meeropol was of Jewish background. Therefore, he un- "Southern trees bear a strange fruit," derstood discrimination and he also must have been as frustrated with the inequalities through The constant sound of "s" is like the his own experience in life and in history (Moore, hushing sound of “sh” like the snake in Eden 2010). protecting the fruit of good and evil. The sound Nonetheless, Abel Meeropol used the "s" is the sound of the snake communicating a pen name, "Lewis Allen", to distance and protect secret. The secret holds the truth. In this case, himself, so he wouldn't be seen as an “outsider” the truth is the witnessing of an evil of murder. and a “foreigner”. Therefore, we can see how The song begins with a faraway vision of some- dangerous it was for both of them. In a way, we thing harmless but something to fear for the fruit can presume that Meeropol was not just protect- is not normal but "strange". ing himself but he, also willingly, protected Billie Holiday. Just the thought of that would bring "Blood on the leaves and blood on the root," tears to anyone's eyes. He was a true "man". He was one of the many sons of Grandma Eve. He The constant sound of "bl" and "oo" ap- was also a great linguist who not just taught Eng- pears to represent the sadness in the movement of lish and wrote songs but he fought for civil the mouth when these words are pronounced. It rights. He fought for Billie Holiday which is also very difficult to pronounce like an intimi- means he fought for everybody (Moore, 2010). dation for trees do not have blood and yet the Billie Holiday gave the song life. She root is personified to have blood like it was a provide the song with even more passion of re- living human being. The word "leaves" repre- sistance and resilience, in protest, for "Strange sents the leaves on the tree but also represents the Fruit" was definitely an ultimate weapon as a criminals “leaving”. Theoretically, we can im- Linguistic Resistance to not just to support the agine the criminals were covered with the antag- African Americans but to support all who have onist's blood when they were leaving and the been victims of the Language War even today. blood was smeared on the “leaves of the trees” On the other hand, it was essential at the time, to including the “blood pool” that was left on the share the burden for that sharing of empathy for a roots. The word "roots" has two meanings. cause made sure we can listen and read the ex- One meaning is “the roots” of a tree or a plant cellence of the singer Billie Holiday, today. but also “the roots” of humanity or DNA. Just

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by reading this phrase we have become witnesses glect, ostracized, foreignness, scapegoated, and to a crime. labeled with stereotypical prejudice for the fruit was a human being. This evil came from the "Black bodies swinging in the southern breeze," concept of “white supremacy” that took place at the time. White supremacy was the political This phrase is a clear descriptive state- agenda that was led by propaganda by those who ment representing the African Americans who claim to be Christian like the Crusade. The were hung by the neck in the deep southern part mental bite that the reader takes from the fruit of the United States. The Deep South still has leaves us with the bitter taste of evil and the dou- racial problems or amnesia. The historical ble standard of the so called church goers of that remnants of the 1862 Confederate army that later time in the United States. evolved into the Klu Klux Klan could be defined The people who killed the African as a terroristic organization that still causes Americans, like a “witch hunt”, claimed to be in problems today (Earle, 2000). They are still search of salvation. They had families and yet very powerful in these areas. The old Confed- due to prejudice, bigotry, and predetermined erate states are still considered the “deep south” mentality of evil they murdered by their own ge- and they are still notoriously prejudice areas of netic brothers according to the geneticist, Luigi the United States. As you can see again, the "s" Luca Cavalli-Sforza. When we look at genetics it appears to represent the snake that protected the is really sad since originally we were born from fruit knowledge of good and evil. The imagery the same mother who passed down her mito- is very vivid with the southern cruel fragrance of chondria to all women on earth. All of us death, and murder can be smelled throughout this women are copies of Mitochondrial Eve. one line. The words "southern breeze" is satirical, sarcastic, and yet represents the melancholy "Pastoral scene of the gallant south," and mourning of how life can be taken away by a breeze. In other words, the horror of public The word "Pastoral" fits in quite ironi- mob mood swings could make anyone a victim. cally with excellent satirical poise. The word, “Pastoral” provides the reader with a serene pu- "Strange fruit hanging from the popular trees." rity of a rural country side on one side which blinds the reader and listener to neglect what is The personified satire is used by repre- really happening in the “not so pure” reality of senting the bodies as fruit. The “Strange Fruit” horror. The term "gallant" is supposed to rep- could be considered as representing the bible resent the good and the brave but in fact the so story of Adam and Eve taking the bite out of the called good and brave Christians, at the time, fruit of the knowledge of good and evil. The were the murderers. They lynched and mur- “Fruit” itself is not evil but the fact that the per- dered innocent African Americans for selfish sonification of the fruit being hanged by another political reasons as a language war. It is the person as a “strange fruit” is the evil. The imagery of good that is depicted and portrayed “strange” is the representation of alienation, ne-

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yet we know that this view is a form of amnesia word “scent” but changed the word to “smell” being forced upon you. which the reader can imagine the smell by their own personal experience. The author has "The bulging eyes and twisted mouth," awakened our sense of smell for it is the smell of “trouble”. It is like an SOS that represents, The descriptions of the dead bodies pro- “Save Our Souls”. vides the reader with the horror of the reality of the twisted mentality of those who murdered and "Here is fruit for the crows to pluck," terrorized. The reader can see a forbidden scene that no news program would ever dare show the Meanwhile, at the crime scene the crows viewers. It is the view of the guilt, in hell, and or police officers or maybe the criminal them- yet it is covered with the amnesiac pastoral sce- selves are mutilating the bodies. This phrase ne. represents the tar and feathering torture that was a notorious way that the Klu Klux Klan often "Scent of sweat magnolias, sweet and fresh." performed upon their victims (Jeffries, 2007).

The scent or fragrance of magnolias are "For the rain to gather, for the wind to suck," not fresh nor are they sweet but very distinctively strong. The scent is more like a punch in the face. The victims were left without proper The concept of this strong scent of magnolias burial. This represents the sadness of the vic- represents the cover-up of crime or the negli- tims who were used and abused. gence that took place. It also represents how people can always neglect a crime without con- "For the sun to rot, for the trees to drop," cern the following day. Bystanders quickly forget like experiencing amnesia. Their silent witnesses who didn't inter- vene were the sun and the trees who continued to "Then the sudden smell of burning flesh." perpetuate the abuse with nature erasing the reality of the violence. However, the sadness is that The lynching that took place, at the time, nature's child was being victimized and Mother were beyond comprehension. It was a mob Earth couldn't protect her offspring. The word harassment of torture and violence. Tarring and "drop" can be interpreted as dropping the bodies feathering were used as a public humiliation but it can also be seen as another personification spectacle by using heated tar or asphalt which is as the trees or nature dropping their heads in similar to petroleum or gasoline poured upon the apology and devastation for nature couldn’t do victim. The feathers were used like a wick of a anything. Mitochondrial Eve or Mother Nature candle that would ignite. The victims were lit- was watching her own children in sadness. erally burned alive in the sun and the breeze that would add oxygen into the flame. As you can "Here is a strange and bitter crop." see the in the previous line, the author used the

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The last phrase represents how prejudice To understand how Billie Holiday was and bigotry can mistreat another by not evening made to sing this song is to understand her ge- admitting to their own humanity by referring to netics. She was brought up by singing Spiritu- them as a “strange fruit” which is like a labeling als in church. another person as “foreign” or even a “crop”. Spirituals are songs that originated in In a way, the “strange fruit” is the representation Africa. Africa is where Apartheid or segrega- of an “outcast”. The word "bitter" means the tion all began. People were classified under bitter reality where the “strange crop” is not nec- labels of "foreignness" so that the so called essarily the dead but also those perpetrators who Christians could enslave, use, and abuse Africans are the “real strange and bitter crop” for they as slaves before 1865 (“African American Spir- murdered in cold blood because of hate. This ituals, 2001). Apartheid continued until 1994 provides the reader with the bitter reality that evil (“The End of Apartheid”, 2009). Professor does not come from an external source but from Lakoff viewed this cry of soul as a linguistic hu- the cruel and negligence of humanity. Human- man rights movement. ity can easily look away or avoid when they are faced with seeing horror as if experiencing some Personal Reflections of History in the 90s. sort of amnesia but if this was you, would you still look away? “You better watch out, there’s a stranger in The violence, at the time, came from hate town.” crimes and these hate crimes were not dealt with By The band TOTO (Retrieved, 2015). but pushed and covered under a thin carpet of apathetic neglect to refrain from realizing that no To provide the reader with a deeper un- one is better than the other. Humanity came derstanding of what a Language War is all about from one mother. This ironic “bitter crop” or and why we should read Professor’s Lakoff’s perpetrators were also the children of Eve too. book, is to look into history. In 1992, the author They murdered their own relatives. That is the of the article, Hirona Matayoshi, was in college sadness and the bitter fragrance that is left with at time. She remembers her dorm mates (dor- the reader after we read these surreally magnifi- mies) who were African American pointing to cently maleficent lyrics of history opened before the television, in the common room of her dorm. our eyes. It is the horror of the "The Heart of They were calmly watching the television while Darkness". The color of skin is not an issue for the rest of us from a variety of cultures and na- we are all human. We can see our own evil in tionalities began to gather, in the common, room the lyrics. If you have a chance to listen to Bil- with concern. The news program was a live lie Holiday's "Strange Fruit" you can actually coverage of Rodney King being lynched by hear her cry in every note. It is a master piece Caucasian police officers (Garner, 2012). We of pure Blues. If you do have racial amnesia, all sat in front of the television devastated to see hopefully it will wake you up so you will have violence live in front of our eyes. We sat there time to close the lid of Pandora’s Box. in diversity. On the television, we watched live footage of riots throughout the United States,

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mostly in Los Angeles. One of the dorm mates out of control and everybody was in danger. quietly said, “The City of Angels … ”. We Her “dormies” said to her, "You'll be singled out witnessed the Los Angeles Riot on TV. At the and believe us, you're safer on campus. Riots time of the riots, even the east coast of the United are very different from demonstrations. States was on curfew. The author’s old friend Demonstrations are peaceful. Riots are violent. at NYU had his head hit from behind because he Plus, we already ordered pizza and the kegs are was Asian (Japanese). The author didn’t know on us! The party is 'in and on' the house!" She about what happened to her high school friend at laughed at the joke because she knew they were NYU until a few days later. trying to provide her with an understanding and Just about a month ago before the riot, assurance that everything “was going to be al- the author’s dorm planned a party for her and we right”. However, that was a first time and mo- were supposed to go out that night. However, ment to have actually experienced real deep ra- on that day, her “dormies” were begging her not cial issues. Luckily, the author had good dorm to leave campus due to the Los Angeles Riots. mates that gave her assurance of a safe haven in She told them, "I'm Japanese, there's no prob- New Haven, Connecticut which was what she lem!" I didn’t know about what was happening really needed at the time to feel safe on campus at NYU. They told her, "Girl, you go out there with her friends and those who cared about me tonight, it don't matter what your color is, what with empathy. That was also the night when nationality you are, you are not us and you are our university gates closed to the public. In not them. Being not one of "anybody" is the neutrality, the university protected the students in problem!" silence and prayer. They reinforced the campus The author’s “dormies” pointed at the with guards during the night. news, the subtitles warned Asian students to keep Oddly enough, maybe it was the author’s in doors because somehow the anger of the Okinawan indigenous background that provided "Language War" was spreading out to innocent her with scheme or the background knowledge to bystanders. In other words, innocent bystand- understand that single moment of jeopardy. That ers are the scapegoats or the outcasts. For some was the day, she realized how deep the concept reason, Asians were targeted, including Japanese of "difference", "foreignness", and “outsider” students, with the Language War, as well. The was and is. The author’s dormies, at the time, reason why Japanese students were in danger was not just protected her from her ignorance of “not because of appearance which is very connected knowing” about the true meaning of the fruit of to the rest of Asia. The so called “look” was good and evil but we were protecting each other neither Caucasian nor African American. At under the solidarity of our campus “holy” the time, Japan and Korea’s economy was in a grounds of academics. It was that moment in full bloom “Bubble” which caused envy and an- time that she was introduced to Billie Holiday’s ger. That is why her friend at NYU was a vic- music and song, “The Strange Fruit”. The author tim of the Language War. received Effective Citizenship Education within As you can imagine, that was the first her own dorm. In a way, it may have been a time, the author realized that riots are like a fire reunion with the author’s own Grandma Eve in

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her DNA. The author’s dormies made sure that from the amnesia, stop repeating history and she understood the Blues, Spirituals, and Jazz. learn from "her-story". They awakened her amnesia. That moment has been vividly engraved in her mind and vision for The Spiritual (10) it has lived somehow within her and revived within the author’s heart to encourage her to Billie Holiday also sang Jazz. One of write this report. That scene has been engraved her famous songs was "Summertime". It was in her mitochondria DNA to the point that she originally a Bahamian spiritual lullaby called feels the soul and the blues. In a way, for all of "All My Trials" (Webster, 2015). Many artists us at the time, we survived the Language War. have covered this song and the oldest one that the author heard was Harry Belafonte's "All My Tri- “Sticks and stones may break my bones but als" in 1959. words will never hurt me!” You can watch it on YouTube. -Nursery Rhyme http://youtu.be/6iLiwycXQoA. (Martin, 2015) We will begin analyzing the song This is great quote that you hear on the through the rhyme scheme first. Both of these play grounds in the United States. It is also songs best represent the racial boundaries be- mentioned in Professor Lakoff’s book. Howev- tween those who have experienced violence. er, words do cut like a knife. Just a few days ago, the of the author got a phone call from an “All My Trials” old friend talking about the news and referring to African American history about how things have Hush little baby, don't you cry (a) changed from the old Jim Crow Days to the Los You know your mama was born to die (a) Angeles Riots to today's 2015 Baltimore Protests. These protests have turned into riots over the All my trials, Lord, soon be over (b) murder of Freddie Gray. The riots took place against the police officers in the United States, The river of Jordan is muddy and cold (c) again in repetition. The author’s old dormies Well it chills the body but not to the soul (c) and her are getting older but we are not growing apart for we saw the same history take place, I've got a little book with pages three (d) again. History has a tendency to repeat itself. And every page spells liberty (d) The author’s old friends are far away in America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the author is here in If living were a thing that money could buy (a) Japan. However, in solidarity of “One for All, All Then the rich would live and the poor would die for One” again, we were “there” watching the (a) same live footage but this time on the internet. Maybe it was the awakening of our mitochondria There grows a tree in Paradise (e) Grandma Eve whispering in our ears to wake up And the pilgrims call it the Tree of Life (e)

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(Belafonte, 2015) The Jordan River is a symbol of freedom in Christianity. The mother is teaching the child The Rhyme scheme is aa b cc dd aa ee. Let's that she is now in the passage of being free from look at the lyrics again to analyze it. her pains. The water is cold and muddy but she has to accomplish her journey. She is going to escape. Hush little baby, don't you cry (a) Well it chills the body but not to the soul (c) The imagery that is used is a mother holding her baby in her hands as if cuddling it She assures the baby that the water is gently like a Michelangelo's "Pieta". The Pieta cold but it doesn't freeze her soul. The mother is is a sculpture of Mother Mary holding Jesus on hinting to wait until the water is not too cold to her lap. In the lyrics, the mother is trying to make the escape. It is a hidden code or map calm the crying baby. that she incognito hides within the song. She is also telling others not to lose hope. When the You know your mama was born to die (a) water warms, that is the time to escape.

The mother is trying to reason with the I've got a little book with pages three (d) baby who doesn't have the knowledge to reason. The baby is pure from good and evil. The The mother assures the baby that she has mother is in a difficult position for she must tell a guide book of three pages to guide her. She is the baby that she will die and that the baby too telling others that this song is a code. It is a was born to die as well. This represents the in- map used during the “Underground Railway” to equality of those who can survive but those who free the African Americans from slavery. were born to face prejudice and segregation. And every page spells liberty (d) All my trials, Lord, soon be over (b) The guide book is telling her there is The mother prays and assures the Lord freedom over the river. She is telling others that that all of her challenges and persecution will once they cross over to the Bahamas they will have a quick ending. She is not just telling her reach a river that will lead them to a freedom. child that she has a way out but she is also telling others through this song that freedom is in the If living were a thing that money could buy (a) hands of time. The sorrow of the mass will come to an end. The “trials” represents the She also tells her child that if life could hardship that people go through life. be bought which means that life, of course, cannot be bought. Humanity is free. The river of Jordan is muddy and cold (c)

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Then the rich would live and the poor would die (Grannum, 2011). When the British abolished (a) slavery the Bahamas became a freedom island. The song may have been written as an African She says that if it were true that the rich American "Underground Railroad" coded lyric or would live long then that would mean that the song, with a map, to cross the ocean and escape poor would soon die. If life could be bought to the Bahamas, a free island (The Embassy of then life would have never begun in the first the United States Nassau Bahamas, 2011). place. She is telling others to hang on and live Thus, this mother was not just talking about to escape. freedom but connecting lost families in a Tree of Life (“Spirituals As Coded Communication”, There grows a tree in Paradise (e) 2014). She may have been the voice of Grand- ma Eve reaching out over the boundaries to save The mother tells the child. She can see others. the trees in paradise which means she was suc- cessful in her “Exodus” with the child. She is The Jazz (11) also telling others who are the pilgrims to come as well. Let's compare it with the lyrics of "Summer- time" written by George Gershwin. And the pilgrims call it the Tree of Life (e) Summertime, (a) She is not just telling her child this but And the livin' is easy (b) she is telling other people who were listening to Fish are jumpin' (c) the song that once they arrive they will see a big And the cotton is high (a) tree that is referred to as the “Tree of Life” that marks the spot of transaction toward freedom. Oh, Your daddy's rich (d) Again, the word “pilgrims” represent “settlers” And your mamma's good lookin (c) but not European but African settlers who had So hush little baby (b) escaped alive. Don't you cry (a)

When you understand that this song was One of these mornings (e) written before the research of Mitochondrial Eve You're going to rise up singing (f) was even discovered gives you goose bumps. A Then you'll spread your wings (e) mother is assuring her baby, that everything is And you'll take to the sky (a) going to be alright and that she will be waiting for the child's time on the other side of the river But until that morning (f) with the tree of life. It was originally a tradi- There's a'nothing can harm you (g) tional folk song written in the Bahamas. The With your daddy and mammy standing by (a) Bahamas was also a victim of slavery under Brit- ish rule until 1834 when they abolished slavery Summertime, (a)

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And the livin' is easy (b) with high protein. This stanza also represents Fish are jumpin' (c) that the hardship or winter is over and life be- And the cotton is high (a) comes easier to live.

Your daddy's rich (d) And the cotton is high (a) And your mamma's good lookin' (c) So hush little baby (b) Cotton is something you may not see that Don't you cry (a) often in Japan. The author had the chance of touching cotton, when she was in Washington (Holiday, Billie. “Billie Holiday” CD lyric D.C. a long time ago. A colleague who was card) African American was telling her about picking cotton when she was a little girl. The author The Rhyme scheme is abca dcba efea fga was surprised because she thought, at the time, abca dc ba. The music was written by George that picking cotton was only in the history books. Gershwin, DuBose Heyward wrote the lyrics The colleague laughed and told the author her based on the epic "All My Trials", and Billie age. She looked young and the author didn't Holliday sang it in 1936 (Holiday, Billie. “Bil- think that she was older than her parents, but she lie Holiday” CD lyric card). The genre was and explained to me that cotton picking continued is jazz. until the late 60s. A few days later, the colleague brought a branch of the cotton plant to the office since she thought that it was important for Summertime, (a) the author to learn. She brought gloves and showed the author how to pick cotton out of the The image is like a Haiku. The author is hard thinned shells. She told the author that, providing the reader with a season. Summer is both of us have the luxury of gloves but back in the season that everyone can survive. the old days, there were no gloves. Picking cotton is literally a dangerous hard labor. With- And the livin' is easy (b) out the gloves the thorny shells would tear your hands apart. In the song, it sings about the cot- Summer is the season of ease. No mat- ton plant being high which means that it is time ter where you are in the world, summer is well for it to be harvested to sell for money but it also spent near a window or in a shade just relaxing is a satire for pain in the labor or in child labor. and sweating. The baby may have been a new born.

Fish are jumpin' (c) Oh, Your daddy's rich (d)

In a river, stream, creek, pond, or ocean The song sings about being rich under there is always fish and no matter how old you the concept of hard working. get fish are fun to watch and they are delicious

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However, until that morning her parents And your mamma's good lookin (c) are going to protect her.

The mother is very cute for she refers to There's a'nothing can harm you (g) herself as beautiful. Therefore, maybe the baby is a little girl. The mother is telling her daugh- The baby’s mommy and daddy are going ter that when she grows up she will find a man to protect her. who is rich and hardworking because she will be beautiful like her mother. With your daddy and mammy standing by (a)

So hush little baby (b) And the baby’s mommy and daddy will be watching over her. Thus, the mother is calming the baby not to cry. Summertime, (a) And the livin' is easy (b) Don't you cry (a) Fish are jumpin' (c) And the cotton is high (a) The mother is emphasizing about no worries. Therefore the baby doesn't need to cry. Your daddy's rich (d) And your mamma's good lookin' (c) One of these mornings (e) So hush little baby (b) Don't you cry (a) The mother says that someday. The upper stanzas are emphasis of re- You're going to rise up singing (f) minding the baby to keep quiet and that there is nothing to cry about. In comparison, both "All The baby is going to wake up. The baby will My Trials" and "Summertime" contain contro- sing. versial issues. The original, "All My Trials", was an authentic lullaby of the Bahamas. Then you'll spread your wings (e) Whereas, "Summertime", although a very beautiful song, was an adaptation of the "All My Tri- Then the baby will be free. als" copied into "Summertime" and written by a Caucasian author and not an African American And you'll take to the sky (a) author. The song is also connected to the play "Porgy and Bess". Some African American To travel anywhere the baby wants to go. critics claim that the play was a derogatory racial portrayal of African Americans and their com- But until that morning (f) munity. Harry Belafonte who sang "All My

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Trials" was not happy at all with the new version much as the pain of the violence is not innate but “Summertime” (Duncan, 1935). taught and learned. However, when you peel away all the taboo and controversial issues away from the song, "Summertime", then we can get a different Conclusion (13) view. Many artists from a variety of ethnic “Wisdom must yield to superstition’s rules, backgrounds have sung this song. Each one of Who arms with bigot zeal the hand of fools.” them has their own style which should be ac- - Voltaire cepted as different flavor of a great cuisine and (Voltaire, Goodreads, July 2, 2015) no matter how the taste changes it is a great song. However the author admits, that she prefers Bil- After the death of Eric Garner on July lie Holiday and Ella Fitzgerald singing "Sum- 17, 2014 (Fessenden, 2015) and the 2015 mertime" the best. These two magnificent Charleston Church Massacre (“Dylann Roof…”, muses have the voice and the mood that moves 2015), we still see racial tensions in the United the soul. Both of them fought to get generations States. Eric Garner was detained and held down of Mother Eve’s “voices” out. by patrol officers (Fessenden, 2015). In the process, he choked to death and according to "Three hundred years of humiliation, abuse, and video footage, his last words were "I can't deprivation cannot be expected to find voice in a breathe" (“I can’t breathe…” video, 2014). The whisper". horror still continues in 2015. The death of - Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. (12) Freddie Gray (Karimi, 2015) and the Ferguson (Trustees of Dartmouth College, 2015) shooting (“Feds:..”, 2015) which is another racial controversy that led to riots or the “Language In other words, Reverend Martin Luther War” in the United States in 2015. The police King Jr.’s quote can be interpreted as "How dare choking of Eric Garner triggered the artist, Ri- you tell the people to hush! They experienced hanna, to recently release her new song "Ameri- way too much violence". We discussed the can Oxygen" on YouTube. In the song, Rihan- "foreignness" issue before but to make an even na sings about the hardships of African American clearer view of the concept of “foreignness”, it is History and violence. She also sings about how not just “foreign” but the concept of an “outcast”. the United States, as a melting pot, continues the Therefore, when we discussed about the contro- pursuit of the freedom of happiness under the versial "Summertime", we must also understand Constitution. However, she is not American but that racism and prejudice hurts everyone. she is from Barbados which brings out the free- Whether the play "Porgy and Bess" intended to dom of speech in her cynical words of choice. be controversial, the author would say no. The writers, at the time most likely didn't even think In one phrase of the song "American Oxygen", about hurting someone but they did. Prejudice Rihanna sings: is taught and learned. It is not innate. Just as

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"Young boy, hustling … Tryna get the wheels in history called Globalization. In globalization, we motion … are bombarded with the “Language War” while But he can be anything at all … Every breath I we are also expected to be universally designed breathe ... to overcome our differences, to live with our di- chasin' this American Dream ... American Oxy- versity, and to provide each other the dignity in gen". human rights. We are all equal yet we have not yet reached the dreams of Reverend Martin Lu- Like we can see in Rihanna’s song, ther King Jr. nor have we answered to our moth- “Young boy, hustling…Tryna get the wheels in er, Grandma Eve's expectations yet. When we motion…But he can be anything at all”, the reach that moment, then that will be the day of phrase can be interpreted as a double entendre. true achievement of global communication with All we can think is the sadness of Eric Garner Effective Global Citizenship Education. We taking his last breath of the "American Dream" would triumph over the Language War. We with the "American Oxygen" for he could be will finally be able to unite with a common un- “anything at all”. It would be very difficult to derstanding and our language wars will come to look into the eyes of the generations of Mito- an end in peace. chondrial Eve and to explain what happened to Just like Professor Lakoff, we are all po- her generation of offspring in history. There is tential Mitochondrial Eves waiting in the "pa- no such thing as the "American Oxygen". We tience of evolution" like any mother for us to all breathe oxygen that belongs to humanity. It answer to her dreams of hope. Our chromo- belongs to all of us equally as a "world dream" somes and DNA are still under experiment like for it is the “World Oxygen” of freedom and “All My Trials”. We just have to find a way equality. It is the same oxygen in Barbados and with trial, empathy, and not to apathetically ig- all over the world including Okinawa and Japan. nore our mistakes but to admit it, move on in an- Why is it important to study African ticipation, with better outcomes and results. American Spirituals, Jazz, and Blues? Well, it's simple. Through reading Professor Lakoff’s “At sixteen, you still think you can escape from book “The Language War” we not only learn your father. You aren’t listening to his voice about history but we can learn to reflect upon our speaking through your mouth, you don’t see how daily lives. We have all become victims within your gestures already mirror his; you don’t see life. We are victimized just watching the news him in the way you hold your body, in the way to see pain. However, it is a nice feeling to you sign your name. You don’t hear his whis- know we are not alone and like Professor Lakoff per in your blood.” points out to the reader that somethings are lin- - Salmon Rushdie guistically worth fighting for. To study it is (Salmon Rushdie, Goodreads, 2015) Civil Action and Effective Citizenship Education in itself. These are the codes and the language Notes of the soul that we all have within our hearts. (1) The author, Hirona Matayoshi （又吉弘那）, We are going through a transitional moment in has previously done research on testimonies of violence including African American Blues, Jazz,

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Spirituals, and violence that happened during the forensic mind to dispute issues with argumenta- Battle of Okinawa, Japan. The author has done tion. extensive research on historical voices, resources, databases of witnesses, and victims of the past not (7) Based upon an original interpretation of Professor just American minorities but also minorities in Lakoff’s book, Chapter “Identity Crisis” pp. Japan. The author also researched about Billie 32-41. Professor Lakoff discusses about how Holiday including old and recent civil rights words are painful and that these words have be- movements in the United States and Japan. The gun from the beginning of time such as the testi- author compiled and published all of the research monies from the Old Testament. However, above in the Osaka University Graduate School there will always be a time when a person can named “Kotoba to Hanpuku 4” in 2008. The ti- take just so much until they break and fight back. tle of the article is “Societal Bilingualism: The That is the civil rights movement. That is the Power of Language in Repetition” pp. 11-23.. epitome of the meaning of expressing the blues.

(2) Based upon an original overall summary of Pro- (8) Based upon an original interpretation of Professor fessor’s Lakoff’s book. Lakoff, Robin Tolmach Lakoff’s book, Chapter “The Neutrality Of The (2000) . “The Language War”. University of Status Quo” pp. 42-47, she talks about labeling California Press Ltd.: 2000. and marking and coined the term “markedness” to represent the markedness of a role. Billie Holi- (3) Based upon an original summary of Professor day was that role-model like mitochondria “Eve”, Lakoff’s book, Chapter “Language –The Power “Grandma”, and women all over the world such We Love To Hate” pp. 17-20. as Billie Holiday during the civil rights movement of the 60s. (4) Based upon an original interpretation of Professor Lakoff’s book, Chapters “Apologies As Language (9) The author, Hirona Matayoshi, has previously Politics” and “The Unapology”. pp. 23-41. Ba- done research on testimonies of violence includ- sically, the whole concept of what we would call ing African American Blues, Jazz, and Spirituals amnesia comes from the neglect from feeling and violence that happened during the Battle of guilty so instead of apologizing for that specific Okinawa, Japan. The author has done extensive guilt, people have a tendency to conveniently research on historical voices, resources, databases forget the guilt altogether instead. of witnesses, and victims of the past not just American minorities but also minorities in Japan. (5) Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza is one of the most fa- The author also researched about Billie Holiday mous validated geneticist who researches about including old and recent civil rights movements mitochondrial genomes. In Professor Lakoff’s in the United States and Japan. The author book, Chapter “Numerous Validated Scholarly compiled and published all of the research above Studies” pp. 232-235, she refers to DNA and in the Osaka University Graduate School Journal how society depends upon DNA behaviors label- named “Kotoba to Hanpuku 4” in 2008. The ti- ing individuals with sometimes bias views rather tle of the article is “Societal Bilingualism: The than understanding the inner beauty. Power of Language in Repetition” (pp. 11-23.)

(6) Based upon an original interpretation of Professor (10) Based upon an original interpretation of Professor Lakoff’s book, Chapter “Here She is …Myth Lakoff’s book, Chapter “The Uncommonness of America” pp. 186-187. In addition, this section Commonness” pp. 48-56. Professor Lakoff is an original interpretation of Chapter “Intro- discusses about those who are not recognized and duction – What I Am Doing Here, And How Am how it can bring forth outrage. I Doing It” pp. xi -9. Professor Lakoff discusses about the Civil Rights Movement in the 60s and (11) Based upon an original interpretation of Professor how analysis of language is not necessarily scien- Lakoff’s book, Chapter “Enough Blame To Go tific but discovering the controversy and using the Around” pp. 238-247. Professor Lakoff men-

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tions the labeling of blaming minorities and how http://www.lyricsmode.com/lyrics/h/harry_belafonte/a linguistically the African Americans fought back ll_my_trails.html through Ebonics with the power of sound with Spirituals, Gospel, blues, and Jazz. “Catechism of the Catholic Church” (2015). The Holy See (Vatican). Exodus 20 2-17. Retrieved : (12) Based upon an original interpretation of Professor July 23, 2015. Lakoff’s book, Chapter “ Apologies and Lan- http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechi guage Politics” pp. 23-29. Professor Lakoff sm/command.htm discusses about Reverend Martin Luther King and how he fought just like other “markedness” or Carson, Emmett D (2014). “Foundations and the role models who may have been chosen to lead Fallacy of a Post-Racial America: African American others toward a “Summertime”. Men and Civic Engagement” March 2014. Re- trieved: July 1, 2015. (13) Based upon an original interpretation of Professor http://www.abfe.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Fou Lakoff’s book, Chapter “We Are The World” pp. nda- 56-62. Matayoshi, the author of this article, tions-and-the-Fallacy-of-a-Post-Racial-America.pdf#s concluded with a famous new role model or earch='American+civic+education+racial+issues' “markedness”, Rihanna, to represent the whole picture of the new generation taking the role of Costa, Robert, David A. Fahrenthold and Sarah the “markedness” who are fighting against the Kaplan (2015). “For church, 200 years of tragedy and “Language War” to bring forth a “A New Ameri- revival”. The Washington Post. June 18, 2015. ca”. Retrieved: July 1, 2015. http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/the-emanuel- ame-story-is-a-200-year-cycle-of-tragedy-and-revival/ References 2015/06/18/6b83de44-15ec-11e5-9ddc-e3353542100c “Acquittal in Doorstep Killing of Japanese Student” _story.html?hpid=z2 (1993). The New York Times. May 24, 1993. Retrieved: July 1, 2015. Chang, Edward Taehan (2015). “Confronting http://www.nytimes.com/1993/05/24/us/acquittal-in-d Sa-i-gu: Twenty Years after the Los Angeles Riots”. oorstep-killing-of-japanese-student.html The Oak Kim Center for Korean American Studies. Retrieved: July 22, 2015. Alighieri, Dante (2012). “The Divine Comedy – The http://yokcenter.ucr.edu/docs/other/11-12_Confrontin Vision of Paradise, Purgatory, and Hell”. Project g_Sa-i-gu_Article.pdf#search='los+angeles+riots+kor Gutenberg’s The Divine Comedy. Complete. No- ean+and+japanese+were+targeted' vember 30, 2012. Retrieved: July 23, 2015. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/8800/8800-h/8800-h.h “’I can’t breathe’: Eric Garner put in chokehold by tm NYPD Officer - video” (2014). The Guardian. December 4, 2014. Retrieved: July 1, 2015. “African American Spirituals” (2001). Library of http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/video/2014/dec/ Congress. 2001. Retrieved: July 1, 2015. 04/i-cant-breathe-eric-garner-chokehold-death-video http://www.loc.gov/item/ihas.200197495 Duncan, Todd & Anne Wiggins Brown (1935). “American Experience TV’s Most-Watched History “ ‘Porgy And Bess’ Opens On Broadway To Mixed Series – The Kennedys” (2015). U.S. Corporation Reviews.” African American Registry – A for Public Broadcasting. Retrieved: July 1, 2015. Non-Profit Education Organization. October 10, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/feature 1935. Retrieved: July 2, 2015. s/general-article/kennedys-and-civil-rights/ http://www.aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/porgy- and-bess-opens-broadway-mixed-reviews Belafonte, Harry (2015). “All My Trials”. Lyrics- mode. 2015. Retrieved: July 1, 2015.

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