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Variation in Environmental Impact at Rock Climb Areas in Red River Gorge Geological Area and Adjacent Clifty Wilderness, Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky

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Variation in Environmental Impact at Rock Climb Areas in Red River Gorge Geological Area and Adjacent Clifty Wilderness, Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky Variation in Environmental Impact at Rock Climb Areas in Red River Gorge Geological Area and Adjacent Clifty Wilderness, Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky A thesis submitted to the Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Geography of the College of Arts and Sciences By Christopher Carr B.S., Cornell University, 1974 M.Eng., Cornell University, 1975 Committee: Nicholas Dunning, University of Cincinnati, Chair Robert South, University of Cincinnati Joy Malone, US Forest Service February, 2007 Cincinnati, Ohio Key words: recreation ecology, impact assessment, multiple regression, climbsites, rock climbing, Red River Gorge, Daniel Boone National Forest (ABSTRACT) Rock climbing surged in popularity in the 80’s and 90’s, leading to ecological impacts. This study developed a procedure manual and measured the impact at 16 climb areas, totaling 241 climbs. Mapping showed the impact at the base of the cliff is composed of lines and nodes. The lines are the access trails; the nodes are areas of impact that form at the base of climbs. Because the process is similar to campsite formation, the cliff base nodes are called climbsites. A model to predict climb impact was developed using multiple regression. Sport climbs had nearly three times as much impact as traditional climbs, as well as a different set of predictive factors. Overall, climbing impacted 0.01% of the area and 0.4% of the cliffline of the study area. Climbing causes little avoidable damage; so impact reduction efforts should focus on site hardening and actions to spatially concentrate climbing activities. iii Key Figures Figure 5.1 . Areas of impact at a typical, popular, 14,000 12,000 2 ) 10,000 8,000 Measured area of impact at climb areas total area6,000 (ft 4,000 rock climb area- cl 2,000 0 Military Wall Figure 6.1. imbsites and trails areas. Left Flank Wall of Denial The area of impact, the climbs Sky Bridge Ridge- east Funk Rock City Tower Rock Lower Small Wall Sky Bridge Ridge- west Duncan Rock ites, at the baseEagle of thePoi ntcliff But attress the sixteen climb D. Boone Hut Crag Camp Store Crag Jewel Pinnacle iv Princess Arch Tunnel Wall Gray's Wall v Acknowledgments First I would like to thank my advisor and committee chair, Dr. Nick Dunning. His support and gentle reminders helped me keep moving forward with this thesis; and I have gained valuable skills in the numerous classes I have taken from him. A special thanks to Joy Malone, District Ranger, for suggesting this topic and opening so many doors, both for this thesis and for subsequent work in Daniel Boone National Forest. I also thank Dr. Robert South for his careful review of my thesis. Tim Eling and Bill Lund of DBNF have been a major help with developing data collection protocols and GIS analysis methods for subsequent work which has helped in the analysis of my thesis research. I also want to thank Dr. Yu-Fai Leung, North Carolina State University, for sharing the raw data from his dissertation and for organizing the SERR conference which gave me an opportunity to present this thesis. I thank my brother and sister-in-law Dave and Carol Carr, especially for their logistical support—a warm dry place to stay after long days in the field. I also want to thank my climb partners Orvil, Lydia, Bruce, Scott, Carey and Dave for sharing the woods and rock with me. I thank the University of Cincinnati Graduate Student Association for their research travel and conference presentation grants, the taxpayers of the state of Ohio for education scholarships and the Procter and Gamble Company for a training allowance to start this new career. Finally I want to thank my wife, Kathleen, whose her care and support (and proofreading) made this thesis possible, and Merlin and Mitzi who always show me a whole new way to sense the outdoors. vi Table of Contents List of Figures………………………………………………………………………... x List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………xii Chapter 1 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 1 Chapter 2 Literature Review…………………………………………………... 12 I. Introduction…………………………………………………………….... 12 a. Recreation Ecology……………………………………………….. 13 b. Land Managers……………………………………………………. 14 II. Outdoor Recreation Types and Impacts…………………………………. 14 a. Why people recreate………………………………………………. 14 b. Types of Wildland Recreation…………………………………….. 14 c. Impacted Components of the Ecosystem………………………….. 15 d. Types of Impacts to the Wildland Resource………………………. 16 e. Trampling………………………………………………………….. 17 f. Social Impacts………………………………………………………18 III. Rock Climbing Impacts………………………………………………….. 18 IV. Strategies to Evaluate Recreation Induced Environmental Change……... 19 a. Limits of Acceptable Change……………………………………... 20 b. Monitoring Programs……………………………………………... 20 c. Impact Indices…………………………………………………….. 21 d. Spatial Pattern of Recreation Impact……………………………... 22 V. Strategies to Deal with and Prevent Unacceptable Impact……………… 23 a. Visitor Education…………………………………………………. 24 b. Strategies to Concentrate Visitor Use…………………………….. 25 c. Site Management Strategies to Reduce Impacts………………….. 25 d. The “Costs” of Impact Management……………………………… 26 Chapter 3 Site Description……………………………………………………… 27 I. Introduction……………………………………………………………… 27 II. Red River Gorge Geological Area………………………………………. 29 III. Clifty Wilderness………………………………………………………... 30 IV. Cliffline Community…………………………………………………….. 31 V. Geology………………………………………………………………….. 31 a. Physiography……………………………………………………… 31 b. Stratigraphy……………………………………………………….. 32 c. Rockshelters………………………………………………………. 34 VI. Vegetation………………………………………………………………... 36 VII. Federally Proposed, Endangered or Threatened Species (PETS)……….. 37 VIII. Human History in the Gorge…………………………………………….. 38 vii Chapter 4 Rock Climbing……………………………………………………….. 41 I. Introduction………………………………………………………………. 41 II. Top Rope Climbing……………………………………………………… 42 III. Traditional Climbing…………………………………………………….. 44 IV. Sport Climbing…………………………………………………………… 46 V. The Guidebook…………………………………………………………… 49 VI. Rating System for Climb Difficulty……………………………………… 55 VII. Spatial Components of Rock Climbing………………………………….. 56 VIII. Estimating Amount of Climbing Use……………………………………. 57 Chapter 5 Research Methods and Procedures……………………………... 59 I. Research Methodology—Introduction…………………………………… 59 a. Specific Data Collection Procedures…………………………….. 59 b. Spatial Organization of Rock Climb Area……………………….. 60 c. Data Collection Procedure……………………………………….. 63 d. Zone of Impact…………………………………………………… 66 e. Rock Climb Monitoring Form…………………………………… 72 II. Research Population—Climb Areas and Climbs………………………… 77 III. Data Analysis Procedures—Treatment of Data…………………………. 84 IV. Variables for Multiple Regression Model……………………………….. 87 a. Dependent Variable……………………………………………… 87 b. Independent Variables…………………………………………… 88 V. Base Data—Spread Sheet of Climb Data………………………………... 96 VI. Multiple Regression—Modeling Rock Climb Impact…………………… 98 a. Multiple Regression Equation…………………………………… 99 b. Data Transformation…………………………………………….. 100 c. Treatment of Ordinal Data………………………………………. 101 d. Residuals, Outliers and Excluded Climbs………………………. 101 e. New Independent Variable—Overhang…………………………. 102 f. Re-estimation of Area of Impact………………………………… 105 g. Re-estimation Example………………………………………….. 106 Chapter 6 Findings and Analysis……………………………………………… 109 I. Overview of Results……………………………………………………... 109 II. Correlation between climb locations and impact locations……………… 112 III. Intentional damage—trash, fire scars, tree damage……………………… 116 IV. Erosion and soil profile truncation………………………………………. 119 V. Comparison between campsites and climbsites…………………………. 120 VI. Statistical analysis—modeling the environmental impacts of rock climbing………. 127 VII. Sport model………………………………………………………………. 131 VIII. Trad model……………………………………………………………….. 137 IX. Summary of the regression models………………………………………. 140 X. “Zero” climbs—zero area of impact climbs……………………………... 141 XI. Area of impact of the climbs in the study………………………………... 145 XII. Sport climb areas—trad climb areas……………………………………... 149 viii XIII. Climbs not measured-- Estimated area of impact for …………………… 149 XIV. Overall climbing impact in RRGGA…………………………………….. 153 Chapter 7 Conclusions and Implications……………………………………. 158 I. Thesis Objectives………………………………………………………… 158 II. Key Accomplishments…………………………………………………… 158 a. Manual of Procedures to Measure Climb Impact………………... 158 b. Measurement of 241 Climbs……………………………………... 159 c. Map of a Typical Climb Area……………………………………. 159 d. Signature of a Climbsite…………………………………………..160 e. Model to Predict Climb Impact…………………………………...160 f. Quantification of Impact—by Type and Overall………………… 161 III. Implications……………………………………………………………….162 IV. Limitations of Findings…………………………………………………... 164 V. Research Follow-up……………………………………………………… 164 a. Validate the Model………………………………………………. 165 b. Impacts on the Cliff……………………………………………… 165 c. Test Strategies to Reduce Impact………………………………… 166 d. Additional Follow-up: Zero Climbs, Bouldering, Procedures…… 166 VI. Conclusion……………………………………………………………….. 167 Literature Cited………………………………………………………………………... 168 Appendix I. Rock Climb Monitoring Manual………………………………. 173 (Procedure manual, Data sheets, Impact photographs) Appendix II. Base Data for the Sixteen Climb Areas………………………. 187 (Climb area maps, Impact graphs, Data sheets) Appendix III. Climb Input Data for Regression Model…………………….. 241 (For each climb: value of dependent and independent variables) Appendix IV.
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