WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP IN TRADITIONAL VILLAGES IN SAMOA: THE CULTURAL, SOCIAL, AND RELIGIOUS CHALLENGES By SILIA PA’USISI FINAU A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF WELLINGTON 2017 ABSTRACT Samoan legends and myths document that matriarchal leadership existed prior to colonisation and Christianity. This was evident in the administration of Queen Salamasina, the first official tafa’ifā (holder of four paramount chiefly titles) in the history of the country. However, the era of matriarchs began to erode and was completely worn away with the introduction of male leadership, firstly, and most severely, by Christian missionaries in 1830, and later by colonial powers after World War 2. Leadership positions in families, churches, local government, national government, and most cultural, religious, and modern organisations have been predominantly held by males. Aspiring women leaders strive to gain leadership positions, but are faced with a variety of restrictions. Therefore, a search for gender equality in participation and representation in traditional village judiciaries (local government) warrants this study. This study focussed on exploring the challenges that impede Samoan women from leadership positions in local government (pulega o nu’u). This qualitative study employed multiple methods for data collection consisting of interviews, observations, and document analysis. Interviews and observations were facilitated by the talanoa research framework, an indigenous research method effective for indigenous people conversing in their own vernacular, in this case, in the Samoan language. The data collected from interviews and observations was analysed by thematic analysis where major themes were constructed from consistent patterns emerging from coding, recoding, and interpreting data. Participants were selected through a purposeful sampling technique to yield in-depth information for the study. The study found that barriers limiting women’s opportunities for leadership positions in traditional villages in Samoa are based on cultural values, religious beliefs, and social assumptions. Cultural values are most influential in people’s perception of a leader, as male leadership is entrenched as the true cultural norm. Religious beliefs that emphasise the importance of the father as the leader and the head of the family reinforce cultural restrictions on women accessing leadership positions. Social assumptions that associate women’s work with household tasks further curb women’s leadership aspirations. The participants in this study believed their rights to leadership were disrupted by the structure of the local government, as leadership for them has been restricted to the confinement of the women’s committees. Women cannot participate fully in village councils (fono a le nu’u) because they neither hold matai titles nor recognised by male leaders. In addition to not gaining i full participation in village councils, women without matai titles were excluded from standing for parliament. This study sets the platform to generate further dialogue about the exclusion of women from positions of authority in local government, as well as addressing general gender inequality issues. This study also makes a valuable contribution to feminist thinking, promotes the field of women’s leadership, and makes an important contribution to the Pacific cultural leadership, specifically. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, let all the glory be to God Almighty for He has guided and protected me safely throughout this challenging journey. Without His grace, I would not have been able to complete the writing of this thesis. I wholeheartedly acknowledge with sincere gratitude my primary supervisor, Dr Cherie Chu, for her guidance, generous support, patience, understanding, and providing constant constructive feedback from the initial to the final stage of my thesis. I am also thankful to my secondary supervisor, Dr Lex McDonald, for his assistance and support. I wish to express a heartfelt thank you to Laura van Peer for tirelessly proofreading my thesis and making thought- provoking suggestions. I am sincerely grateful to all the participants who contributed their energy, time, and thoughts to the field work. I am deeply appreciative of Victoria University of Wellington for providing funds as well as to the National University of Sāmoa. I am forever thankful to afioga Luamanuvao Winnie Laban and the Pasefika Staff for their support. I recognise the friendship and hospitality of Dr Sue Walbran, Director of the Academic Office. I acknowledge the blessings, prayers, and encouragement of my spiritual parents, Reverend I’aeva and Fa’aatuolo Amitai, as well as the Congregational Christian Church in Safa’ato’a Tai. Mālō fa’afetai, o la outou pule lea. I am forever grateful to my dearest paternal aunty – Aunty Silia Tuimuai’ava Kuka, whom I am named after for her encouragement and tapua’iga. Faafetai fa’alototele ao feagai ma le taua o mafaufauga. I recognise the support of my cousin Reverend Elder Malaki Tuimuai’ava, his wife Rosalili, and their children. I am also thankful to my cousin, the lay preacher of the Uniting Church in Stokes Valley, Seleisa, her husband Faletolu, and their children for providing financial support, comfort, and necessities required for my study. I thank Reverend Hana Popea, her mother Mapu, and their family for their support, love, and care. I am greatly appreciative of the friendship and hospitality of Martyn and Sylvia Reynolds and their children David and Florence, who accommodated me for five months in 2015. Thank you guys for your kindness, love, and care. A big fa’amalo too to Martyn and Sylvia for spending time to proofread my thesis and suggesting ideas for improvement. I would like to thank Mike and Kaye Stannard for their friendship and for Kaye’s willingness to read part of my thesis and providing feedback. I am grateful to Niusila Fa’amanatu Eteuati, a colleague, and friend who shares with me the positives, frustrations, and challenges of the PhD journey. I also thank my friend Vaigafa Taefu for the good times we shared during my stay in Wellington, and for hosting me in the last two months of my study. iii Thanks very much to the Aualuma Safa’ato’a Tai for keeping the saofa’iga intact while I was away studying. Mālō le lotogatasi. Fa’afetai mo talosaga molia. I am indebted to my mother Tuta’itaga Āsōmaile Lepetiomālō for her prayers and blessings. I would like to thank my siblings, Tuimuai’ava Pusa Fai’upu, Finau Faitala, Sui Finau, Vaiaso Paulo and Fofoaivao’ese Viona Finau, their children, and grandchildren for taking care of our mother while I concentrated on my studies. Thanks to my sister Vaiaso, her husband, and their children, Aden, Charai, Silia, and Pa’usisiofetalaigaatuisavailu’u for looking after our home while I was away for three years. I am especially grateful to those few, unnamed, but noble souls who prayed for me over the period of writing, rewriting, and finalising this thesis. Lastly, I acknowledge the spirits of my ancestors, my late paternal grandparents Finau Siaunu’ua Fai’upu Fuāmatu and Vaiaso, who groomed me to be a brave leader. I would also like to recognise my late father, Finau Pa’usisiofetalaigaatuisavailu’u Finau who disciplined me to be successful in life. iv SAMOAN-ENGLISH GLOSSARY ’āīga family ’āīga potopoto extended family aualuma association of village daughters ’augafa’apae the most elite lady ’aumaga untitled man ’afa sennit aga fa’atamāli’i chiefly manner aga’ifanua unique protocol ali’i chief aloiafi fire embers alofa love alofaga fishing expedition ava more respectful term of respect ’ava niukini poisonous liquid ’ietoga finemat onomea appropriateness oso a gift or gifts presented by the visitor to the host ositaulaga ceremonial clergy-like post utu a basket that stores fishing lures fa’aaloalo respect fa’aSāmoa Samoan way fa’amatai in the way of matai fa’alavelave obligation fa’alelegāpepe showcasing newly woven finemats fa’alupega dignitary connotations fa’atōsaga midwife fai’oa wealth maker faleva’a shelter of a canoe faletua wife of a chief fanai’a dynamite fatafata chest feagaiga covenant v fetu’utu’una’i flexibility filigā ’afa plaiting sennit fono meeting fono a le nu’u village council meeting fuata harvesting season lou long pruning pole loto maualalo humbleness mauli inner person māliliega ’autasi consensus maluali’i salience magālafu small fire burnt in the middle of a Samoan house mana spirit matai cultural title/holder of the cultural title mata’igātila to examine sails of a fishing canoe mōlīpopo coconut lamp muniao trap for catching pigeons nu’u village Nu’u o ’aumaga sub-village of untitled men Nu’u o ali’i sub-village of chiefs and orators Nu’u o Tama’ita’i sub-village of females pae ma le ’āuli peace maker pāpā paramount chiefly title pule authority pūlea control pule na lua second ranking leaders pūlega o nu’u local government pūlega fa’amatai matai system pulenu’u village mayor seugālupe hunting pigeons siapo tapa soa pair soālaupule consultation sui o le mālō government representative ta’iga/ta’ita’iga leadership vi tafa’ifā holder of four paramount chiefly titles tausi wife of an orator taulāsea healer tausala liberator tama’ita’i female Tama’ita’i Sāmoa Samoan female tamasā sacred sibling taupou village maiden tautua service tila spirit of a sail tōfā perception tōfā fetu’utu’una’i flexible thinking tūlāfale orator tuliloa pursuit tulituliloa to